Current Evidence of Anti-Tumor Necrosis Factor α Treatment Efficacy in Childhood Chronic Uveitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Approach of Individual Drugs

Trends in New Use of Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs for Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis Among Commercially Insured Children in the United States from 2001 to 2022

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to describe recent trends in disease-modifying antirheumatic drug (DMARD) use for children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) in the United States.

METHODS

We used commercial claims data (2000-2022) to perform a serial cross-sectional utilization study of children aged 1 to 18 that were diagnosed with JIA. Initiations of conventional synthetic DMARDs (csDMARDs), biologic DMARDs (bDMARDs), or targeted synthetic DMARDs (tsDMARDs) were identified after a ≥12-month baseline and expressed as a percentage of all new DMARD initiations per year, by category, class, and individual agent. Trends were evaluated using linear regression. We also examined the first bDMARDs and tsDMARDs initiated after csDMARD monotherapy.

RESULTS

We identified 20,258 new DMARD use episodes among 13,696 individuals (median age 14 years, 67.5% female). csDMARDs, although most used overall, declined from 89.5% of new use episodes to 43.2% (2001-2022, P < 0.001 for trend). In contrast, bDMARD use increased (10.5-50.0%, P < 0.001). For tumor necrosis factor inhibitors (TNFi), etanercept peaked at 28.3% in 2006 and declined to 4.2% in 2022 (P = 0.002). Meanwhile, adalimumab use doubled (7.0-14.0%, 2007-2008) after JIA approval, increasing further following a less painful formulation release (20.5% in 2022, P < 0.001). However, overall TNFi use has declined with increasing use of other bDMARDs and tsDMARDs, particularly ustekinumab, secukinumab, and tofacitinib. By 2022, adalimumab was the most common b/tsDMARD initiated first after csDMARDs (77.8%).

CONCLUSION

Among commercially insured children with JIA in the United States, new b/tsDMARD use is rising and new csDMARD use is declining. For b/tsDMARDs, adalimumab is most used and is the predominant b/tsDMARD initiated first after csDMARDs. Patterns in DMARD use for JIA have evolved relative to multiple factors, including regulatory approvals and tolerability.

Adalimumab to treat noninfectious pediatric chronic anterior uveitis: a case series

PURPOSE

Evaluate the response to adalimumab (ADA) in pediatric chronic anterior uveitis (pCAU).

METHODS

Retrospective chart review of pCAU patients treated with ADA. Outcomes evaluated included the proportion of patients achieving zero ocular inflammation and discontinuation of topical corticosteroids, visual outcomes, and incidence of uveitis recurrences after ≥ 12 months of prescribing ADA. Incidence and risk factors for developing anti-adalimumab antibodies (AAAs) were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Of 27 children aged 11 years, 16 (59%) were Caucasian and 6 (22%) African Americans. Thirteen (48%) patients had idiopathic pCAU, 12 (44%) had juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) related pCAU, and 2 (7%) had tubulointerstitial nephritis and uveitis syndrome. At baseline, African American children had worse visual acuity (p = 0.026). At 1 year, 21 (78%) children achieved zero ocular inflammation (remission). Risk factors associated with non-remission were being African American (20% vs. 94%, p = 0.003) and experiencing ≥ 1 episode of uveitis recurrence (100% vs. 0%, p < 0.001). Six episodes of uveitis recurrence were documented in five children, four of whom were African American. Topical corticosteroids were discontinued in 83% of children, and visual acuity remained stable for 1 year. Twelve children were tested for AAAs due to arthritis or uveitis flare-ups, with five (42%) being positive. No significant factors were associated with the development of AAAs.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that ADA is effective in controlling inflammation, reducing the need for topical corticosteroids, and maintaining visual acuity in pCAU. There appears to be racial differences in African American children who had worse baseline disease and poorer outcomes. Studies are necessary to understand better and address these disparities.

Update on non-infectious uveitis treatment: anti-TNF-alpha and beyond

Non-infectious uveitis (NIU) encompasses a range of conditions marked by inflammation within various layers of the eye. NIU is a significant contributor to irreversible vision loss among the working-age population in developed countries. The aim of treating uveitis is to manage inflammation, prevent its recurrences and to restore or salvage vision. Presently, the standard treatment protocol for NIU involves initiating corticosteroids as the primary therapeutic agents, although more aggressive approaches and steroid sparing agent may be necessary in certain cases. These advanced treatments option include synthetic immunosuppressants like antimetabolites, calcineurin inhibitors and alkylating agents. For patients who exhibit an intolerance or resistance to corticosteroids and conventional immunosuppressive therapies, biologic agents have emerged as a promising alternative. Notably, among the biologic treatments evaluated, TNF-α inhibitors, anti-CD20 therapy and alkylating agents have shown considerable efficacy. In this review, we delve into the latest evidence surrounding the effectiveness of biologic therapy and introduce novel therapeutic strategies targeting immune components as potential avenues for advancing treatment of NIU.

Glaucoma in Uveitic Eyes: Long-Term Clinical Course and Management Measures

BACKGROUND

The management of glaucoma in uveitis is challenging. A meticulous combination of anti-glaucoma and anti-inflammatory agents is often needed to control the intraocular pressure (IOP) and preserve the visual status in an otherwise blinding disease.

AIM

To study the clinical course and management of glaucoma in uveitic eyes.

METHODS

A retrospective study analyzing the case records of patients over 12 years, referred for the management of uveitic glaucoma in the last two decades.

RESULTS

The analysis of 582 uveitic glaucoma eyes of 389 patients was done, and the mean IOP at baseline was 25.89 (±13.1) mmHg. Non-granulomatous uveitis (102 eyes) was the most common diagnosis. Granulomatous uveitis was the most common diagnosis among the treatment failure eyes and in eyes requiring more than one surgical intervention for glaucoma.

CONCLUSION

An appropriate and adequate combination of anti-inflammatory and IOP-lowering therapy will lead to better clinical outcomes.

Infliximab in chronic non-infectious paediatric uveitis refractory to previous biologic therapy

OBJECTIVES

To examine the outcome of infliximab treatment in patients with non-infectious paediatric uveitis who have previously failed biologic treatment.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was performed at Bristol Eye Hospital, UK. Paediatric patients with chronic non-infectious uveitis who had been switched to infliximab due to inadequate uveitis control were identified. Two separate groups were evaluated: group 1 consisted of 20 children (36 eyes) who had been switched to infliximab following treatment failure with adalimumab (=in-class switching), while group 2 (5 patients; 9 eyes) included those who had been switched to infliximab from a non-TNF antagonist after failing several biologics (=across-class switching). The change in anterior chamber (AC) activity between baseline and 6- and 24-months follow-up was the primary outcome measure.

RESULTS

A statistically significant reduction in AC activity was found between baseline and 6-months follow-up (RE: p = 0.002; LE: p < 0.001) and between baseline and 24-months follow-up (RE: p = 0.016; LE: p = 0.011) in group 1. No statistically significant difference was found for either eye in the number of steroid eye drops needed between time points or the difference in visual acuity in time. In group 2, analysis of change of AC activity, number of steroid eye drops and visual acuity failed to reach statistical significance. Treatment failure occurred in four patients (20% of group 1) and adverse events developed in six patients including three patients with acute infusion reactions.

CONCLUSIONS

This study supports the efficacy and safety of infliximab in adalimumab-refractory patients with paediatric non-infectious uveitis.

A clearer vision: insights into juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis

The aim of this narrative review is to synthesize existing evidence-based knowledge on juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis (JIA-U). We highlight epidemiology, pathophysiology, causes and genetics, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis and screening, laboratory biomarkers, treatment options, trials with recent advances, and research challenges pertaining to JIA-U. The prevalence of JIA-U varies with different JIA subtypes, most frequently associated with the oligoarticular subtype. The risk factors involved in the development of JIA-U include younger age, antinuclear antibody (ANA) positivity, and the oligoarticular subtype of JIA, along with some specific major histocompatibility complex genes. Certain laboratory biomarkers, such as ANA, rheumatoid factor, interferon-λ, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and transthyretin, have been used in JIA-U diagnosis, progress monitoring, and prognostication. Clinical features of JIA-U can range from asymptomatic to ophthalmic symptoms like redness, blurred vision, decreased visual acuity, hypopyon, and posterior uveitis, which can lead to retinal detachment and macular edema. The management protocol involves topical and systemic steroids, cycloplegics, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, biologic drugs, and surgical options. Early detection combined with prompt treatment is crucial to preventing irreversible vision loss in JIA-U.

Update on the systemic management of noninfectious uveitis in children and adolescents

Noninfectious uveitis (NIU) in children and adolescents is a rare but treatable cause of visual impairment in children. Treatments for pediatric NIU and their side effects, along with the risks of vision loss and the need for long-term disease monitoring, pose significant challenges for young patients and their families. Treatment includes local and systemic approaches and this review will focus on systemic therapies that encompass corticosteroids, conventional synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (csDMARD), and biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (bDMARD). Treatment is generally planned in a stepwise approach. Methotrexate is well-established as the preferential csDMARD in pediatric NIU. Adalimumab, an antitumor necrosis factor (TNF) agent, is the only bDMARD formally approved for pediatric NIU and has a good safety and efficacy profile. Biosimilars are gaining increasing visibility in the treatment of pediatric NIU. Other bDMARD with some evidence in literature for the treatment of pediatric NIU include infliximab, tocilizumab, abatacept, rituximab and, more recently, Janus kinase inhibitors. Important aspects of managing children on these systemic therapies include vaccination issues, risk of infection, and psychological distress. Also, strategies need to address regarding primary nonresponse/secondary loss of response to anti-TNF treatment, biological switching, and monitoring regimens for these drugs. Optimal management of pediatric uveitis involves a multidisciplinary team, including specialist pediatric uveitis and rheumatology nurses, pediatric rheumatologists, psychological support, orthoptic and optometry support, and play specialists.

Uveitis Associated with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the most common cause of uveitis in children. While symptoms are usually mild, persistent eye inflammation could lead to severe complications and impaired vision. It is essential that JIA patients at risk are diagnosed with uveitis early, receive adequate treatment, and avoid developing complications, such as cataract, glaucoma, and amblyopia. The purpose of this mini-review is to summarize the screening strategies and clinical management for JIA-associated uveitis (JIA-U) as well as the current state of molecular markers linked to this condition. Because glaucoma is one of the most common causes of visual loss in JIA-U, special focus will be put on this serious complication. We conclude by describing the current evidence regarding the long-standing question of whether chronic anterior uveitis without arthritis may be the same disease entity as JIA-U.

Effectiveness and Safety of Weekly Adalimumab for Non-Infectious Chronic Anterior Uveitis in Children

PURPOSE

Non-infectious chronic anterior uveitis (CAU) remains a therapeutic challenge. The purpose of this study was to analyze the effectiveness and safety of weekly dosing of adalimumab in children with non-infectious refractory CAU. Methods: Demographic and clinical data of children followed by non-infectious CAU treated with adalimumab were retrospectively reviewed.

RESULTS

Of the 42 children with CAU, 27/42 (64.3%) were treated with adalimumab. Escalation to weekly dosing of adalimumab was necessary for 11/27 children (40.7%). After 3 and 6 months, 7/11 children (63.6%) met the composite endpoint of inflammation control improvement. Children requiring weekly adalimumab had initially more severe uveitis: anterior chamber cells (p = 0.02), aqueous flare (p = 0.02), and presence of macular edema (p = 0.007). No children had serious systemic side effects.

CONCLUSION

Weekly adalimumab in children with refractory CAU appears to be an effective and safe treatment for inflammation control and corticosteroid sparing, and an alternative before biologic switching. Controlled studies are needed.

Factors Associated With Glaucoma Surgery in Pediatric Non-Infectious Uveitis

PURPOSE

To identify factors associated with glaucoma surgery in pediatric uveitis.

METHODS

Patients diagnosed with uveitis before their 18th birthday and with an observation period of at least one year were included in a retrospective case-control study.

RESULTS

A total of 185 patients were included, 84 of whom had undergone glaucoma surgery. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA)-related uveitis was associated with undergoing glaucoma surgery (p = .002). In the JIA-subgroup, the presence of anterior segment complications (OR 3.1 (95% CI 1.0 to 9.6); P = .045) and an IOP > 21 mmHg during the first uveitis remission (OR 4.5 (95% CI 1.3 to 15.2); P = .015) were associated with an increased risk of glaucoma surgery. Sixty-eight percent of the cases needed glaucoma surgery within one year after they started IOP-lowering triple therapy.

CONCLUSION

The risk profile for undergoing glaucoma surgery as outlined in this study is a valuable help to recognize and treat secondary glaucoma in a timely manner.

Pathogenesis and current therapies for non-infectious uveitis

Non-infectious uveitis (NIU) is a disorder with various etiologies and is characterized by eye inflammation, mainly affecting people of working age. An accurate diagnosis of NIU is crucial for appropriate therapy. The aim of therapy is to improve vision, relieve ocular inflammation, prevent relapse, and avoid treatment side effects. At present, corticosteroids are the mainstay of topical or systemic therapy. However, repeated injections are required for the treatment of chronic NIU. Recently, new drug delivery systems that may ensure intraocular delivery of therapeutic drug levels have been highlighted. Furthermore, with the development of immunosuppressants and biologics, specific therapies can be selected based on the needs of each patient. Immunosuppressants used in the treatment of NIU include calcineurin inhibitors and antimetabolites. However, systemic immunosuppressive therapy itself is associated with adverse effects due to the inhibition of immune function. In patients with refractory NIU or those who cannot tolerate corticosteroids and immunosuppressors, biologics have emerged as alternative treatments. Thus, to improve the prognosis of patients with NIU, NIU should be managed with different drugs according to the response to treatment and possible side effects.

Comparison of infliximab with adalimumab for the treatment of non-infectious uveitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

To compare the efficacy and safety of infliximab with that of adalimumab in the treatment of non-infectious uveitis (NIU).

METHODS

We searched for relevant studies in the PubMed, Embase, ClinicalTrials.gov, Cochrane Library databases, Grey Matters, Grey Literature Report, OpenGrey, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wan Fang databases up to September 2022. The incidences of complete remission of inflammation, response to therapy, adverse events and corticosteroid-sparing effect were evaluated.

RESULTS

Eleven clinical trials covering 1459 NIU patients were included. Complete remission of inflammation after therapy was achieved in 161 (37.5%) patients in the infliximab group and 151 (39.6%) patients in the adalimumab group. These two groups were not significantly different (P = 0.37). Four studies reported response to anti-TNF therapy involving 449 patients, of whom 241/272 (88.6%) treated with infliximab and 153/177 (86.4%) treated with adalimumab achieved partial or complete remission of inflammation. No significant difference was observed between the two cohorts in terms of response to therapy (P = 0.86). There was no significant difference between infliximab and adalimumab with regard to corticosteroid-sparing effect (P = 0.58). The pooled effect size (P = 0.001) showed a statistically significant difference, with the incidence of adverse events being 17.91% for infliximab and 12.12% for adalimumab.

CONCLUSION

Our systematic review and meta-analysis of 11 studies suggests that infliximab and adalimumab have similar therapeutic efficacy and corticosteroid-sparing effect in patients with NIU. However, adalimumab has a marginal advantage over infliximab in terms of adverse events. Large-scale RCTs with a longer follow-up are required to further evaluate these two anti-TNF-α agents in patients with NIU.

Alternative Biologic Therapy in Children Failing Conventional TNFα Inhibitors for Refractory, Noninfectious, Chronic Anterior Uveitis

PURPOSE

A significant number of children with noninfectious, chronic anterior uveitis (CAU) fail to respond to conventional therapy; however, successful alternative biologic treatments (ABT) have not been well described. This study aims to review the clinical and treatment characteristics of children with CAU who require ABT.

DESIGN

Retrospective, nonrandomized clinical study.

METHODS

Setting: Tertiary center.

STUDY POPULATION

Children with noninfectious CAU.

OBSERVATION PROCEDURES

Clinical characteristics, uveitis course, complications, and treatment were compared among patients treated with methotrexate (MTX) monotherapy, conventional TNFα inhibitors (cTNFi), and ABT for >3 months.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Success of ABT (abatacept, tocilizumab, and/or golimumab) in children failing conventional treatment.

RESULTS

Of the 52 children with CAU, 75% had juvenile idiopathic arthritis. CAU was controlled in 15 children receiving MTX monotherapy, 28 receiving cTNFi, and 9 receiving ABT (n = 1, abatacept; n = 3, tocilizumab; n = 5, golimumab). Patients in the ABT group had a greater number of total ocular complications per person before ABT than those in the control groups (3.4 vs 0.7 [MTX], P < .001, and 1.5 [cTNFi], P < .001, respectively). In all 9 children on ABT, treatment led to control of CAU and topical glucocorticoids tapered to ≤2 drops/d with no new ocular complications.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, alternative biologics (abatacept, golimumab, and tocilizumab) were useful for treating CAU in children who fail MTX and cTNFi therapy. Patients who were controlled on ABT had more disease activity, ocular complications, and anti-cTNFi neutralizing antibodies (before ABT) than those managed with conventional therapy. Larger studies are required to confirm these findings.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitors for juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis

BACKGROUND

Uveitis is the most common extra-articular manifestation of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) and a potentially sight-threatening condition characterized by intraocular inflammation. Current treatment for JIA-associated uveitis (JIA-U) is largely based on physician experience, observational evidence and consensus guidelines, resulting in considerable variations in practice.  OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effectiveness and safety of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) inhibitors used for treatment of JIA-U.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); Ovid MEDLINE; Embase.com; PubMed; Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature Database (LILACS); ClinicalTrials.gov, and the World Health Organization (WHO) International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP). We last searched the electronic databases on 3 February 2022.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing TNF inhibitors with placebo in participants with a diagnosis of JIA and uveitis who were aged 2 to 18 years old.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard Cochrane methodology and graded the certainty of the body of evidence for seven outcomes using the GRADE classification.

MAIN RESULTS

We included three RCTs with 134 participants. One study conducted in the USA randomized participants to etanercept or placebo (N = 12). Two studies, one conducted in the UK (N = 90) and one in France (N = 32), randomized participants to adalimumab or placebo. All studies were at low risk of bias. Initial pooled estimates suggested that TNF-inhibitors may result in little to no difference on treatment success defined as 0 to trace cells on Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature (SUN)-grading; or two-step decrease in activity based on SUN grading (estimated risk ratio (RR) 0.66; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.21 to 2.10; 2 studies; 43 participants; low-certainty evidence) or treatment failure defined as a two-step increase in activity based on SUN grading (RR 0.31; 95% CI 0.01 to 7.15; 1 study; 31 participants; low-certainty evidence). Further analysis using the individual trial definitions of treatment response and failure suggested a positive treatment effect of TNF inhibitors; a RR of treatment success of 2.60 (95% CI 1.30 to 5.20; 3 studies; 124 participants; low-certainty evidence), and RR of treatment failure of 0.23 (95% CI 0.11 to 0.50; 3 studies; 133 participants). Almost all the evidence was on adalimumab and the evidence on etanercept was very limited.  For secondary outcomes, one study suggests that adalimumab may have little to no effect on risk of recurrence after induction of remission at three months (RR 2.50, 95% CI 0.31 to 20.45; 90 participants; very low-certainty evidence) and visual acuity, but the evidence is very uncertain; mean difference in longitudinal logMAR score change over six months was -0.01 (95% CI -0.06 to 0.03) and -0.02 (95% CI -0.07 to 0.03) using the best and worst logMAR measurement, respectively (low-certainty evidence). Low-certainty evidence from one study suggested that adalimumab treatment results in reduction of topical steroid doses at six months (hazard ratio 3.58; 95% CI 1.24 to 10.32; 74 participants who took one or more topical steroid per day at baseline). Adverse events, including injection site reactions and infections, were more common in the TNF inhibitor group. Serious adverse events were uncommon.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Adalimumab appears to increase the likelihood of treatment success and decrease the likelihood of treatment failure when compared with placebo. The evidence was less conclusive about a positive treatment effect with etanercept. Adverse events from JIA-U trials are in keeping with the known side effect profile of TNF inhibitors. Standard validated JIA-U outcome measures are required to homogenize assessment and to allow for comparison and analysis of multiple datasets.

Temporal Trends in Childhood Uveitis: Using Administrative Health Data to Investigate the Impact of Health Policy and Clinical Practice

BACKGROUND

We describe an investigation of temporal trends in the incidence of childhood uveitis-related hospital admissions, hospitalization being a robust indicator of disease severity.

METHODS

A population-based retrospective study using a hospitalization database, the Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) dataset, capturing data on care between 2013 and 2020. Primary outcomes were rates of pediatric hospital admissions for uveitis-related disorders.

RESULTS

During the study period, there were 3,258 reported uveitis-related hospital admissions of children aged 0 to 14 years, comprising 19% of all-age uveitis-related admissions. Anterior uveitis was the most common diagnosis. The annual incidence of childhood uveitis-related hospitalizations declined year on year from a peak incidence of 5.4 per 100,000 children (95% confidence interval 5.0-5.9) in 2015-2016 to 3.3 per 100,000 (95% CI 3.0-3.6) in 2019-2020. Over the same period, the national incidence of juvenile arthropathy-related admissions stayed stable.

CONCLUSION

The decline in admissions nationally may reflect reduced incidence of uveitis complications with increasing use of immunosuppressive therapies.

The efficacy of Golimumab against non-infectious uveitis: a PRISMA-compliant systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

In this PRISMA-compliant systematic review and meta-analysis, we aimed to assess the efficacy of golimumab (GOL) against non-infectious uveitis (NIU).

METHODS

We included eight articles in the meta-analysis. The primary outcome was inflammation remission. Secondary outcomes were changes in the number of uveitis relapses/attacks, mean best-corrected visual acuity, central macular thickness, and systemic corticosteroid-sparing effects.

RESULTS

In total, eight case series with 172 patients (43.6% female) were collected. Patients had 75% (95% CI: 56-87%) of remission; 42% (0.12-0.80) of patients showed improved visual acuity. The average central macular thickness decline was 38 μm (-56.51-18.54). The pooled results showed a significant decrease in the use of systemic corticosteroids.

CONCLUSION

This study was limited by the use of non-RCT designs, limited sample sizes for outcomes, and heterogenetic underlying diseases. Our results suggest that GOL is effective against NIU. However, further evidence and analyses are required. (Funding: None; PROSPERO registration: CRD42021266214.).

Clinical benefits and potential risks of adalimumab in non-JIA chronic paediatric uveitis

Purpose

To describe the treatment results with adalimumab in chronic paediatric uveitis, not associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA).

Methods

Medical records of children with non‐JIA‐uveitis were reviewed retrospectively. Children without an underlying systemic disease were pre‐screened with brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to exclude white matter abnormalities/demyelination.

Results

Twenty‐six patients were pre‐screened with brain MRI, of whom adalimumab was contraindicated in six patients (23%) with non‐anterior uveitis. Forty‐three patients (81 eyes) were included. Disease inactivity was achieved in 91% of the patients after a median of three months (3–33). Best‐corrected visual acuity (BCVA) improved from 0.16 ± 0.55 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (logMAR) at baseline to 0.05 ± 0.19 logMAR at 24 months (p = 0.015). The median dosage of systemic corticosteroids was reduced to 0 mg/day at 24 months of follow‐up (versus 10 mg/day at baseline; p < 0.001). Adalimumab was discontinued in thirteen children due to ineffectiveness (n = 8), side effects (n = 1), long‐term inactivity of uveitis (n = 3) or own initiative (n = 1). Relapse of uveitis occurred in 19 (49%) patients, 5 (26%) of them without an identifiable cause.

Conclusion

Adalimumab is effective in the treatment of non‐JIA‐uveitis in paediatric patients by achieving disease inactivity in the majority of the patients, improving BCVA and decreasing the dose of corticosteroids. Adverse events and side effects are limited. Pre‐screening with MRI of the brain is recommended in paediatric patients with intermediate and panuveitis.

Management Strategies of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis-Associated Chronic Anterior Uveitis: Current Perspectives

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the most common extraocular disease associated with pediatric uveitis. Despite the growing knowledge about the pathogenetic and clinical characteristics of the disease, it still remains a challenge for both the pediatric rheumatologist and ophthalmologist. Since uveitis is asymptomatic in most cases, it is generally detected by parents in a late phase of the disease when complications have occurred with consequent severe vision loss. Improvement in attentive screening and early treatment initiation to suppress inflammation has considerably reduced the sight-threatening outcomes of JIA-associated chronic anterior uveitis (JIA-CAU). Initial treatment with topical steroids is effective in most cases. However, more severe cases require the use of periocular or systemic corticosteroids, possibly leading to long-term complications. These include growth retardation, cataract and glaucoma. Systemic immunosuppressive agents are then employed in patients resistant to first-line therapy or to reduce steroid-associated complications. In this review, we will discuss the immunosuppressant agents currently employed for the treatment of the disease, including anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α biologics approved or not by the regulatory agencies. We will also highlight how new therapeutic options like biologic targeting cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) co-stimulatory molecule, interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R) or B lymphocytes might represent exciting new options for patients resistant to conventional therapy. Finally, the potential use of janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors recently approved for the treatment of several inflammatory rheumatic diseases in adults will be also discussed.

Persistence of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis-Associated Uveitis in Adulthood: A Retrospective Study

Background: Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is a rheumatic condition of childhood that is frequently associated with anterior chronic uveitis. Evidence suggests that uveitis may persist up to adulthood in some cases, possibly causing severe visual impairment. Methods: We conducted a retrospective study on a series of patients aged 16 years or older with JIA-related active uveitis who were referred to the Uveitis Service of Sapienza University of Rome from 1990 to 2019 to evaluate the characteristics of ocular disease in patients with JIA-associated uveitis (JIA-U) who still exhibit uveitis in adulthood. Data on clinical features, treatment, complications and visual outcomes were collected. Results: Twenty adults (85% female; median age 23.4 ± 6.6 years, range 16−38 years) with ongoing uveitis (35 eyes) were identified. The median age at JIA onset was 6.15 ± 2.9 years (range 2−10), and uveitis onset was 8.7 ± 4.7 years (range 3−20). The patients were observed in a median follow-up of 16 ± 7.7 years (range 4−35). Fifty-seven percent of affected eyes (20 eyes) had good visual acuity (>0.4 logMAR), while eleven percent of affected eyes (4 eyes) were blind (≤20/200). Uveitis required topical steroids and mydriatic/cycloplegic in all cases. Orbital steroid injection was performed in 13 eyes. Systemic corticosteroids and biologic drugs were used in 14 patients. Conclusions: Although the visual prognosis of JIA-U has improved in recent years, persistent uveitis up to adulthood is still observed. Therefore, protracted follow-up of JIA-U patients is warranted because of the high burden of delayed visual complications.

Uveitis in Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis - Case Reports on Guideline-based Diagnostic Work-up and Treatment

OBJECTIVES

Case report based presentation of the current German interdisciplinary guideline on the diagnosis and management of juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated (JIA) uveitis.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Guideline of the German Society of Ophthalmology, the Society of Paediatric and Adolescent Rheumatology, the German Society of Rheumatology, the Professional Association of German Ophthalmologists, with the participation of patient representatives. Recent primary publications were critically graduated for evidence and recommendations; the methodology included consensus building through Delphi rounds and external peer review. The outcomes are presented with typical case studies.

OUTCOMES

Once JIA is first diagnosed, periodic ophthalmological check-ups should promptly be instituted ensuring that uveitis is diagnosed before irreversible sequelae become manifest. High-quality patient care can be provided depending on the severity of each uveitis case. At present, anti-inflammatory treatment relies on corticosteroids, conventional synthetic (cs), biological (b) and other disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs).

CONCLUSIONS

Timely diagnosis and state-of-the-art guideline-based management can significantly improve the long-term outcome of JIA-associated uveitis.

Risk Factors Leading to Anti-TNF Alpha Therapies in Pediatric Severe Uveitis

PURPOSE

Pediatric uveitis is the leading cause of acquired child blindness, due to unremitting inflammation and long-term steroid exposition. Biotherapies with anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha (anti-TNFα) are effective in controlling inflammation for severe pediatric uveitis in recent studies. Major concern of anti-TNFα prescription is the balance between the severity of the disease and side effects of the drug. The aim of the present study is to describe a cohort of children with severe uveitis and to highlight the risk factors for a pejorative development that led to the prescription of anti-TNFα drugs.

METHOD

A retrospective case-control study was carried out on children with uveitis associated with systemic inflammatory disease or idiopathic uveitis, with a minimum follow-up of 5 years. Anti-TNFα-treated patients (case) were studied and compared with patients who were not requiring anti-TNFα (control). Univariate logistic regression analyses were performed to compare both groups and determine the risk factors for anti-TNFα therapy.

RESULTS

Seventy-three cases of pediatric uveitis were included, 13 cases and 60 controls. The risk factors associated with increased odds of anti-TNFα therapy were initial systemic disorder associated with uveitis [OR = 11.22 (1.37-91.85), p = 0.0241), family history of autoimmune diseases [OR = 9.43 (2.27-39.15), p = 0.0020], uveitis diagnosis before the age of 6 [OR = 4.05 (1.16-14.13), p = 0.0284], eye surgery [OR = 26.22 (2.63-261.77), p = 0.0054], ocular complications at the first slit lamp exam [OR = 67.11 (3.78-1191.69), p = 0.0042], low visual acuity at diagnosis (≥0.3 logMAR) [OR = 11.76 (2.91-47.62), p = 0.0005] and especially low binocular acuity at diagnosis (≥0.3 logMAR) [OR = 8.75 (1.93-39.57), p = 0.0048], panuveitis [OR = 9.17 (2.23-37.60), p = 0.0021], having positive ANA [OR = 3.89 (1.07-14.11), p = 0.0391], and positive HLA B27 [OR = 9.43 (2.27-39.16), p = 0.0020].

CONCLUSION

Those risk factors could be used to establish a new follow-up and treatment schedule for severe uncontrolled uveitis. This could help to better predict the best time to start anti-TNF therapy.

Immunomodulation and TNF-α inhibition for tubulointerstitial nephritis and uveitis syndrome: a case series

BACKGROUND

Tubulointerstitial nephritis and uveitis (TINU) syndrome combines acute inflammatory nephritis (AIN) and uveitis. Uveitis in TINU often requires systemic immunomodulatory therapy (IMT), including steroid-sparing agents. Although common for other noninfectious uveitides, the use of tumor necrosis factor-α inhibitors (TNFi) in TINU has seldom been described.

METHODS

This retrospective case series included patients <18 years of age with TINU followed at our tertiary care pediatric hospital. Disease characteristics at time of diagnosis and subsequent ophthalmological and rheumatologic evaluations were extracted from the record. AIN was defined as the presence of abnormal renal function and urinalysis or renal biopsy findings consistent with TINU. Uveitis grading, site of inflammation, inactivity, and flare were defined according to Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature.

RESULTS

A total of 10 patients (median age, 12.3 years; 6 females) were included. AIN preceded uveitis onset in 6 patients. Uveitis was bilateral at onset in 7 patients. Uveitis inactivity was achieved with systemic corticosteroids (CS) in 2 and with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) in 3 patients. Because of persistent ocular inflammation, despite CS and IMT, 4 patients were treated with TNFi. All rapidly achieved uveitis quiescence and maintained prolonged inactivity under combined treatment with TNFi and MMF.

CONCLUSIONS

Most patients in our study cohort required a steroid-sparing immunomodulator to achieve and maintain uveitis control. In the 50% of the cohort in whom conventional IMTs were inadequate, TNFi were able to maintain quiescence. TNF inhibition might be a useful treatment in IMT-refractory uveitis in TINU patients.

Biological Therapy in Noninfectious Pediatric Uveitis: A Systematic Review

PURPOSE

Noninfectious pediatric uveitis is a potentially blinding disease often associated with systemic conditions. In cases of chronic anterior uveitis without adequate response to steroids and immunosuppressants, biological response modifiers would be viable therapeutic options. Still, evidence is lacking on the safety of the long-term use of these drugs in children. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of biological therapy to treat noninfectious pediatric uveitis.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed to identify original studies involving biological therapy for children diagnosed with noninfectious uveitis. Quality of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) classification system.

RESULTS

Nine studies involving 526 children were eligible. Adalimumab was superior to placebo in reducing inflammatory activity (risk ratio (RR) 3.21 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.65-6.27]; P = 0.0006; I2 = 0%) and steroid use (RR 2.27 [95% CI 1.03-4.99]; P = 0.04; I2 = 0%, low-certainty evidence). There was no difference between adalimumab and placebo in the occurrence of systemic adverse events (RR 2.51 [95% CI 0.74-8.54]; P = 0.14; I2 = 48%) and local events (RR 1.15 [95% CI 0.46-2.88]; P= 0.76; I2 = 1%). There was no difference between adalimumab and infliximab in response to treatment (RR 1.18 [95% CI 0.69-2.03]; P= 0.55; I2 = 91%, very low-certainty evidence) and in the occurrence of adverse effects (RR 0.84 [95% CI 0.41-1.73]; P= 0.64; I2 = 18%, low-certainty evidence).

CONCLUSION

There is low to very-low evidence that biological therapy is effective and safe in managing noninfectious pediatric uveitis. Future large randomized trials may provide more substantial evidence to confirm these results.

Update on biologic therapies for juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the most common rheumatic disease of childhood, and juvenile idiopathic associated uveitis (JIA-U) is the most frequently noted extra-articular manifestation. JIA-U can present asymptomatically and lead to ocular complications, so regular screening and monitoring are needed to prevent potentially sight-threatening sequelae. Topical glucocorticoids such as prednisolone acetate are usually the first line of treatment for anterior uveitis associated with JIA-U, but long-term use may be associated with cataract, ocular hypertension and glaucoma. Disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) such as methotrexate allow tapering of the corticosteroids to prevent long-term complications. Biologic therapies have been increasingly used as targeted therapies for JIA-U, particularly monoclonal antibodies targeting the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α such as adalimumab and infliximab. One recent, multicenter, prospective, randomized clinical trial provided evidence of the efficacy of adalimumab with methotrexate for JIA-U compared to methotrexate alone. Another clinical trial studying the interleukin-6 inhibitor tocilizumab for JIA-U showed promise in tapering topical corticosteroids. Additionally, JAK inhibitors are emerging biologic therapies for JIA-U in patients refractory to TNF-α inhibitors, with a clinical trial assessing the efficacy of baricitinib for JIA-U underway. While clinical trials on these novel biologics are limited, further investigation of these agents may provide additional therapeutic options for JIA-U.

Monitoring and Treatment of Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis-associated Uveitis: Brazilian Evidence-based Practice Guidelines

Purpose: To present a national guideline for ophthalmologic care and surveillance of juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis (JIA-uveitis).Methods: Review article based on medical literature and the experience of an Expert Committee composed of members of the Brazilian Society of Pediatric Ophthalmology/Brazilian Council of Ophthalmology and the Brazilian Society of Pediatrics/Brazilian Society of Rheumatology. Studies with a high level of evidence were selected by searching the PubMed/Medline database. The final document was approved by the experts.Results: The main recommendations are that children/adolescents with JIA should undergo screening according to their risk factors. Ophthalmological checkups should also consider ocular inflammation and therapy. Topical glucocorticoids should be the first line of therapy, with systemic glucocorticoids acting as bridge treatments in severe uveitis. Methotrexate should be the first-line systemic therapy and anti-tumor necrosis factor (anti-TNF alpha) the second for uncontrolled uveitis.Conclusions: This evidence-based guideline for JIA-uveitis will be useful for both ophthalmology and rheumatology practice.

Efficacy and Safety of Anti-TNFα Therapy for Uveitis Associated with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Introduction

To investigate the efficacy and safety of anti-TNFα therapy in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis associated uveitis (JIA-U).

Methods

Embase, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science were systematically searched for studies reporting anti-TNFα treatment in patients with JIA-U. The primary outcome was the control of intraocular inflammation (CII). The pooled proportion of CII was assessed by the random-effects method when I² > 50%, otherwise, by the fixed-effect method. This study was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020161749).

Results

Three randomized clinical trials (RCTs), twelve case series, three retrospective cohort studies, and three case reports were identified. A total of 399 patients were receiving anti-TNFα therapy, of which 201 patients were treated with adalimumab (ADA), 139 with infliximab (IFX), 36 with etanercept (ETA), 20 with golimumab (GLM), and 3 with certolizumab pegol (CZP). The pooled proportions of CII on observational studies were 82% (95% CI 63–96%) in patients receiving ADA, 56% (95% CI 30–80%) in IFX, 38% (95% CI 8–73%) in ETA and 65% (95% CI 42–86%) in GLM, respectively. All three patients treated with CZP reached improved activity. ADA therapy led to a significantly higher proportion of CII compared to IFX therapy (χ² = 26.24, P < 0.001), or to ETA therapy (χ² = 13.43, P < 0.001); but no statistical difference was observed between IFX and ETA (χ² = 0.13, P = 0.71). As to safety, most reported adverse events were tolerable and two cohort studies consistently showed that ADA was safer than IFX.

Conclusions

The existing evidence suggests that ADA is better than IFX regarding efficacy and safety. The effectiveness of IFX is higher than ETA with no statistical difference. GLM and CZP may be proxies for ADA but the evidence is limited.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40744-021-00296-x.

Recent advances in the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis has an estimated prevalence of 10-20% in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis, making it the most common cause of chronic anterior uveitis in children. Prompt treatment is important to prevent development of ocular complications and permanent vision loss. In this review, we will discuss the use of immunosuppression in treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis. This will include the use of conventional immunosuppressants, such as methotrexate, biologic anti-tumor necrosis factor agents, such as adalimumab, as well as other anti-tumor necrosis factor agents, including infliximab and golimumab. In addition, we will discuss medications currently in clinical trials or under consideration for juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis, including interleukin-6 inhibitors (tocilizumab) and Janus kinase inhibitors (tofacitinib, baricitinib).

[Immunosuppressive therapy in severe or chronic pediatric uveitis: Review of the literature]

Immunosuppressants are prescribed for pediatric uveitis in cases of severe involvement affecting the prognosis for vision or life, in cases of recurrent or chronic uveitis to achieve corticosteroid sparing, or in cases of corticosteroid resistance. Immunosuppressants used in children include antimetabolites (methotrexate, mycophenolate mofetil, azathioprine), cyclosporine, tacrolimus, and biologics, including infliximab, adalimumab, anakinra, canakinumab, and tocilizumab. The mechanisms of action and indications of the various immunosuppressants are described in this review.

Changing evidence over time: updated meta-analysis regarding anti-TNF efficacy in childhood chronic uveitis

Objective

To summarize evidence regarding efficacy of anti-TNFα in childhood chronic uveitis, refractory to common DMARDs.

Methods

An updated systematic search was conducted between November 2012 and January 2020. Studies investigating the efficacy of anti-TNFα therapy, in children of ages &lt;16 years, as the first biologic treatment for childhood chronic uveitis, refractory to topical and/or systemic steroid and at least one DMARD were eligible for inclusion. The primary outcome measure was the improvement of intraocular inflammation according to Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature Working Group criteria. A combined estimate of the proportion of children responding to etanercept (ETA), infliximab (INF), and adalimumab (ADA) was determined.

Results

We identified 1677 articles of which 37 articles were eligible. Three were randomized controlled trials, one on ETA and two on ADA, and were excluded from pooled analysis. From the observational studies, a total of 487 children were identified: 226 received ADA, 213 INF and 48 ETA. The proportion of responding children was 86% (95% CI: 76%, 95%) for ADA, 68% (95% CI: 50%, 85%) for INF and 36% (95% CI: 9%, 67%) for ETA. Pooled analysis showed clear differences (χ2 = 32.2, P &lt; 0.0001): ADA and INF were both significantly superior to ETA (χ2 = 26.8, P &lt; 0.0001, and χ2 = 7.41, P &lt; 0.006, respectively), ADA significantly superior to INF (χ2 = 13.4, P &lt; 0.0002).

Conclusion

This meta-analysis, consistent with recent randomized controlled trial data, suggests the efficacy of ADA and INF in childhood chronic uveitis treatment. However, ADA results were superior to those of INF in this clinical setting.

Biologic Therapies in Sarcoidosis and Uveitis: A Review

Sarcoidosis and uveitis are chronic inflammatory conditions with potentially debilitating effects on quality of life. Steroids form the mainstay standard therapy in both conditions. Biologic agents are considered to be appropriate alternatives for treatment in steroid-refractory sarcoidosis and uveitis due to the role of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in mediating the inflammatory cascade seen in both conditions. We performed a thorough literature search using PubMed to compare the extent of use, efficacy, and safety profile of individual anti-TNF agents in the management of these conditions. Our review consists of two systematic reviews with meta-analysis, thirteen observational studies, and fifteen case series/reports. Infliximab had the widest range of organ-system usage in extra-pulmonary sarcoidosis but is equivalent to adalimumab in terms of efficacy. In uveitis, adalimumab was found to be the most efficacious agent for maintaining disease remission in adults and children with chronic non-infectious uveitis. Etanercept was neither used widely, nor was it efficacious in the management of either condition. In terms of safety profile, biologic agents were found to be well tolerated and have a similar safety profile. More randomized clinical trials are needed to inform evidence-based use of biologic agents in these conditions.

Effectiveness and Safety of Anti-Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha Agents Treatment in Behcets' Disease-Associated Uveitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Purpose

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine the effectiveness and safety of anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) agents in the treatment of Behcets’ disease (BD)-associated uveitis.

Method

Three electronic databases, Embase, MEDLINE, and the Cochrane Library, were searched for eligible papers focusing on the anti-TNF-α agents treatment in BD-associated uveitis with at least 6 months follow-up time. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted on selected papers with appropriate clinical and methodological homogeneity. The effectiveness outcomes included inflammation remission, visual acuity (VA) improvement, central macular thickness (CMT) decrease, corticosteroid (CS)-sparing effects, and the safety outcomes included minor and severe drug-related adverse events (AEs).

Result

From Jan 2010 to Dec 2019, there were 504 records produced in total, in which 18 clinical trials were selected for meta-analysis (15 trials were retrospective studies, and 3 were prospective studies). The number of patients in each study ranged from 11 to 163 and the mean follow-up time from 0.9 to 6.44 years. During the follow-up, the pooled inflammation remission rate was 68% with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 0.59–0.79, VA improvement rate was 60% (95% CI 0.47–0.77), CMT decrease was 112.70 μm (95% CI 72.8–153.0 μm). The proportions of patients who had CS-suspended and CS-tapered reached 38% (95% CI 0.23–0.65) and 34% (95% CI 0.16–0.70), respectively. The severe AEs were reported but not common, which included severe infusion reactions, pneumonia, bacteremia, tuberculosis, melanoma, and lymphoma.

Conclusion

Anti-TNF-α agents treatment has high effectiveness including efficient inflammation remission, satisfactory VA improvement, obvious CMT reduction, and significant CS-sparing effects. Although some drug-related AEs were reported, the incidence of severe AEs was acceptable. Anti-TNF-α agents treatment is a promising option for controlling BD-associated uveitis.

New Pharmacological Strategies for the Treatment of Non-Infectious Uveitis. A Minireview

Non-infectious uveitis (NIU) is a group of disorders characterized by intraocular inflammation at different levels of the eye. NIU is a leading cause of irreversible blindness in working-age population in the developed world. The goal of uveitis treatment is to control inflammation, prevent recurrences, and preserve vision, as well as minimize the adverse effects of medications. Currently, the standard of care for NIU includes the administration of corticosteroids (CS) as first-line agents, but in some cases a more aggressive therapy is required. This includes synthetic immunosuppressants, such as antimetabolites (methotrexate, mycophenolate mofetil, and azathioprine), calcineurinic inhibitors (cyclosporine, tacrolimus), and alkylating agents (cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil). In those patients who become intolerant or refractory to CS and conventional immunosuppressive treatment, biologic agents have arisen as an effective therapy. Among the most evaluated treatments, TNF-α inhibitors, IL blockers, and anti-CD20 therapy have emerged. In this regard, anti-TNF agents (infliximab and adalimumab) have shown the strongest results in terms of favorable outcomes. In this review, we discuss latest evidence concerning to the effectiveness of biologic therapy, and present new therapeutic approaches directed against immune components as potential novel therapies for NIU.

Importance of pediatric rheumatologists and transitional care for juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis: a retrospective series of 9 cases

BACKGROUND

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis (JIA-U) is a serious condition associated with the risk of blindness. However, pediatric rheumatologists rarely encounter cases of blindness, because most patients reach adulthood during the course of follow-up before blindness occurs. Here, we report the progress of 9 patients with JIA-U, including 2 patients who became blind after the transition period. We aimed to highlight the importance of the role of pediatric rheumatologists and transitional care in preventing blindness associated with JIA-U.

CASE PRESENTATION

We conducted a retrospective analysis of the case records of 9 JIA-U patients (1 male, 8 female; median age 16.8 years, range 5.5-19.8 years). All patients presented with oligo-juvenile idiopathic arthritis (oligo-JIA) (one presented with extended oligo-JIA); the median age of uveitis onset was 5.0 years (range 3.0-13.0 years), and the onset of uveitis preceded the onset of arthritis in 2 patients. The median disease duration was 12.5 years (range 3.5-24.7 years); 4 patients had anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) positivity (≧1:160) (all with a homogeneous and speckled-pattern subtype). All patients were negative for rheumatoid factor. Eight patients received methotrexate, 7 patients received one or more biologic drugs (etanercept, infliximab, adalimumab, and golimumab), and 6 patients required ophthalmic surgery at an early age (≦ 18 years). Two patients developed blindness after the transition period. Medical examination by pediatric rheumatologists and use of biologics had been delayed in both patients. One patient developed depression after transition and interrupted her own treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The reason for blindness in the 2 patients was thought to be the delay in the commencement of treatment and failure to provide transitional care. Inflammation is difficult to control in JIA-U even with appropriate treatment. Pediatric rheumatologists must be informed about the risk of JIA-U blindness, especially after transition. To ensure a good prognosis, the specialized treatment with the involvement of pediatric rheumatologists is necessary early on, and consideration for transitional medicine is essential. Therefore, this report reaffirms the importance of planned transitional care that has been advocated for globally.

Current and emerging biologics for the treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis

INTRODUCTION

The management of a child with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) requires a combination of pharmacological, physical, and psychosocial therapies in order to induce disease remission, by controlling articular and systemic inflammation. This review aims to provide a comprehensive discussion on the biological therapies currently in use in the treatment of JIA referring to existing recommendations and clinical evidence. We also discuss on the emerging biological drugs actually under consideration.

AREAS COVERED

Recent findings on immunological mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of the disease allowed us to identify several specific targets for biologic therapies. A systematic literature review was conducted between January 1997 and January 2020 on PubMed including national and international guidelines and recommendations, trials and case-control studies.

EXPERT OPINION

There is now a plethora of therapies that are directed against variable targets, and the physician has to choose the most appropriate available medication in order to achieve early and sustained remission with as few side effects as possible. Research is advancing very fast in order to be more and more specific in suppressing inflammatory pathways without harming natural defenses. Finally, pharmacoeconomic considerations will also be very important to deal with, considering the high cost of most of these molecules.

The Management of Uveitic Glaucoma in Children

Children comprise a unique population of patients in regard to the diagnostic and therapeutic approach of uveitic glaucoma. The management of glaucoma secondary to uveitis in children is extremely challenging and presents various difficulties, which are associated both with the underlying uveitis and the young age of the patients. The treatment of uveitic glaucoma calls for a thorough and individualized approach, involving both pharmacotherapeutic and surgical modalities. It appears that the efficient control of inflammatory activity plays a significant role in the final visual outcome of these patients. This study aims to review the current literature about the management of uveitic glaucoma in pediatric patients.

Treating juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA)-related uveitis beyond TNF-α inhibition: a narrative review

Chronic anterior uveitis is the most frequent among extra-articular manifestations of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) and a relevant cause of ocular morbidity in children. Asymmetric arthritis, early onset disease, female sex, and anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) positivity are counted among risk factors for developing this complication. It usually has insidious onset and asymptomatic chronic-relapsing course, but the persistence of low-grade chronic inflammation can lead to irreversible structural ocular damage and to vision-threatening complications. For such reasons, achieving a complete absence of inflammation through early targeted and aggressive treatments is a primary therapeutic goal in these patients. This review is aimed at summarizing scientific evidence about biologic rescue therapy of JIA-related uveitis in patients who fail to achieve clinical remission, in spite of being treated with conventional disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (cDMARDs) and at least one biologic tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α inhibitor. Interleukin (IL)-6 inhibition appears a promising and safe option for refractory JIA-related uveitis. Abatacept and rituximab proved to be beneficial as well, but their efficacy together with some safety concerns needs to be more extensively evaluated.

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the commonest rheumatic disease in children and JIA-associated uveitis its most frequent extra-articular manifestation. The uveitis is potentially sight-threatening and so carries a considerable risk of morbidity. The commonest form of uveitis seen in JIA is chronic anterior uveitis which is almost always asymptomatic in the initial stages. Therefore, screening for JIA-associated uveitis in at-risk patients is essential. The aim of early detection and treatment is to minimise intra-ocular inflammation and avoid complications leading to visual loss, resulting from both disease activity and medications. There is increasing evidence for the early introduction of systemic immunosuppressive therapies in order to reduce topical and systemic glucocorticoid use. Two randomised controlled trials of adalimumab in JIA-associated uveitis provide convincing evidence for the use of this biologic in patients who fail to respond adequately to methotrexate. Tocilizumab and baricitinib are being investigated as alternatives to anti-tumour necrosis factor drugs.

Effectiveness of long-term infliximab use and impact of treatment adherence on disease control in refractory, non-infectious pediatric uveitis

BACKGROUND

Refractory non-infectious uveitis is a serious condition that leads to ocular complications and vision loss and requires effective systemic treatment to control disease. The effectiveness of long-term infliximab [IFX] in refractory non-infectious childhood uveitis and the impact of treatment adherence on disease control were evaluated.

METHODS

Retrospective, single-center study between December 2002 and April 2016 of 27 children with refractory non-infectious uveitis [17 with juvenile idiopathic arthritis, JIA] treated with long-term IFX [9+ months]. Disease activity was assessed prior to and while on IFX using the Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature [SUN]. Number of visits per year with active uveitis was analyzed by repeated measures logistic regression analysis from 2 years prior to IFX initiation or from onset of uveitis until most recent visit on IFX. Incomplete treatment adherence was assessed for each visit and defined as any deviance in corticosteroid use, prescribed infusion frequency, and/or follow-up examination frequency.

RESULTS

Primary outcomes were sustained uveitic and systemic disease control prior to and during IFX treatment and the impact of incomplete adherence on uveitic disease control while on IFX. Secondary outcomes included corticosteroid and glaucoma medication requirement, ocular complications and need for surgical intervention. Mean age at IFX initiation was 10.4 ± 4.5 years; initial mean dose was 6.6 ± 2.2 mg/kg [and given at weeks 0, 2, 4 and q4 weeks thereafter for 93%]. Median duration on IFX was 35 [range 9-128] months. Prior to IFX, 14/27 patients had failed adalimumab ± methotrexate [MTX]; 21/27 failed MTX. IFX led to uveitis control in 89% and arthritis control in 76% (13/17). The odds ratio of having controlled disease after IFX was 4.1 (2.6, 6.4) compared to pre-treatment visits. Topical corticosteroids and glaucoma medications were statistically decreased (p = 0.007 right eye [OD], 0.003 left eye [OS] and p = 0.001 OD, p = 0.028 OS respectively). Incomplete adherence to treatment showed 10.3 times greater odds (7.1, 15.0) of having disease activity than full adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

This study adds significantly to the IFX literature by documenting outstanding uveitis control with long-term IFX treatment in non-infectious pediatric uveitis patients. Higher dosage and shorter interval were utilized without adverse effects. Importantly, this is the first study, to our knowledge, to document the significant impact of treatment adherence on uveitis control.

[Uveitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis]

BACKGROUND

Uveitis is the most common extra-articular manifestation of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). It occurs, according to German registry data, in around 12% of JIA patients and can lead to a loss of vision, especially in cases of delayed diagnosis and/or inadequate therapy.

OBJECTIVE

A review of current aspects of diagnosis and therapy was carried out.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This is a review article of the current literature.

RESULTS

The risk of uveitis is significantly elevated in patients with an oligoarticular course of JIA, ANA positivity and young age at onset of JIA. During the mostly asymptomatic course of uveitis severe complications, such as cataracts, glaucoma or macular edema can occur, limiting visual acuity. Early detection of uveitis and interdisciplinary cooperation of uveitis specialists and pediatric rheumatologists is of major importance to ensure a favorable long-term prognosis. The initial therapy consists of topical steroids; however, in cases of insufficient response or complicated course of uveitis, conventional synthetic (mainly methotrexate) or biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (bDMARDs) are required. In respect to bDMARDs, the highest evidence exists for treatment with adalimumab; however, depending on the clinical course of disease, other bDMARDs, such as infliximab, golimumab, tocilizumab, abatacept or rituximab may also have a beneficial effect. Despite these treatment options, uveitis or arthritis may frequently persist into adult age. Adequate and early recognition and treatment of uveitis-related complications is of major importance to ensure a good long-term visual prognosis.

CONCLUSION

Early diagnosis of JIA-associated uveitis and early implementation of effective treatment, especially steroid-sparing DMARD therapy, aims at achieving uveitis inactivity and prevention of ocular damage.

Update of the evidence based, interdisciplinary guideline for anti-inflammatory treatment of uveitis associated with juvenile idiopathic arthritis

BACKGROUND

Uveitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIAU) is frequently associated with the development of complications and visual loss. Topical corticosteroids are the first line therapy, and disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) are commonly used. However, treatment has not been standardized.

METHODS

Interdisciplinary guideline were developed with representatives from the German Ophthalmological Society, Society for Paediatric Rheumatology, Professional Association of Ophthalmologists, German Society for Rheumatology, parents' group, moderated by the Association of the Scientific Medical Societies in Germany. A systematic literature analysis in MEDLINE was performed, evidence and recommendations were graded, an algorithm for anti-inflammatory treatment and final statements were discussed in a consensus meeting (Nominal Group Technique), a preliminary draft was fine-tuned and discussed thereafter by all participants (Delphi procedure).

RESULTS

Consensus was reached on recommendations, including a standardized treatment strategy according to uveitis severity in the individual patient. Thus, methotrexate shall be introduced for uveitis not responding to low-dose (≤ 2 applications/day) topical corticosteroids, and a TNFalpha antibody (preferably adalimumab) used, if uveitis inactivity is not achieved. In very severe active uveitis with uveitis-related deterioration of vision, systemic corticosteroids should be considered for bridging until DMARDs take effect. If TNFalpha antibodies fail to take effect or lose effect, another biological should be selected (tocilizumab, abatacept or rituximab). De-escalation of DMARDs should be preceded by a period of  ≥ 2 years of uveitis inactivity.

CONCLUSIONS

An interdisciplinary, evidence-based treatment guideline for JIAU is presented.

Timing of infliximab and adalimumab initiation despite methotrexate in children with chronic non-infectious anterior uveitis

AIMS

Methotrexate (MTX) is standard treatment in pediatric chronic anterior uveitis (CAU). Addition of tumor necrosis factor-α inhibitors (TNFi) is often needed. We describe the timing and risk factors for TNFi use in children with CAU on MTX.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, we reviewed 51 records, and 46 met inclusion criteria. Primary outcome was the addition of TNFi due to active CAU per Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature criteria. Time to TNFi and factors associated with their addition were assessed using survival analysis models.

RESULTS

Of 46 children treated with MTX for uveitis (36 juvenile idiopathic arthritis-associated uveitis, 10 idiopathic CAU), 72% had ocular complications. MTX was started a median of 5.0 months, and TNFi 43 months from uveitis diagnosis. Kaplan-Meier estimates suggest that cumulatively, 12% (95% CI: 4-23%) start TNFi within 6 months of MTX, 21% (12-37%) within 1 year, and 39% (24-54%) within 2 years. On Cox Proportional Hazard regression analysis, children with idiopathic CAU required TNFi earlier in their uveitis course (at 3 months (Hazard Ratio 6.06; 95% confidence interval (1.25-29.41))). Females appeared less likely to require TNFi early. Children treated in 2012 and later were more likely to receive TNFi earlier than those treated before 2012.

CONCLUSION

Little is known about optimal time to initiate treatment or factors associated with the need to add TNFi in children on MTX. Children with idiopathic CAU and males required TNFi earlier in their course. Factors associated with these potential risk factors for TNFi warrant further investigation.

Efficacy and safety of adalimumab in the treatment of non-infectious uveitis: a meta-analysis and systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To summarize updated evidences on the efficacy and safety of adalimumab (ADA) in the treatment of patients with non-infectious uveitis.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A systematic search between January 2000 and September 2017 was conducted using PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane libraries. We investigated control of inflammation, improvement of visual acuity (VA), corticosteroid-sparing effect, and adverse events (AEs) or serious adverse events.

RESULTS

Three randomized clinical trials (RCTs) and 20 non-RCTs were included and analyzed. The pooled proportions of inflammation control were 74% (95% CI 64%-82%) and 79% (95% CI 69%-87%) in groups of ≤6- and ≥12-months follow-up durations. No significant difference was found between the two groups (χ2 = 0.920, p = 0.337). Analysis of subgroups classified by degree of being treatment-naïve for anti-TNFα agents showed the inflammation control reached a high of 87% (95% CI 80%-92%) when subjects were "almost naïve" to anti-TNFα before ADA treatment. VA was improved by three or more lines in 41.3% (52/126) eyes, and was equal to or better than the baseline in 88.8% (142/160) eyes. Corticosteroid sparing was observed in 82.0% (91/111) of the patients; among them, 48.8% (40/82) discontinued use of corticosteroid completely. Minor drug-related adverse events were reported. The treatment effects of ADA were generally consistent in the three RCTs, and ADA reduced the risk of treatment failure by 43%-75%.

CONCLUSION

The current review provided evidences that ADA might be a promising choice in reducing inflammatory activity, gaining VA, and sparing corticosteroid use with minor AEs when applied in treating non-infectious uveitis.

Optimising drug therapy for non-infectious uveitis

INTRODUCTION

Uveitis encompasses a wide variety of sight-threatening diseases characterized by intraocular inflammation. It is often classified as infectious and non-infectious uveitis. Unlike infectious uveitis, a distinct infectious agent cannot be identified in non-infectious uveitis and disease origin is usually autoimmune, drug related, or idiopathic.

THE ISSUE AT HAND

Non-infectious uveitis can often have a relapsing-remitting course, making it difficult to treat, and poses a significant challenge to ophthalmologists. The autoimmune nature of non-infectious uveitis warrants the use of anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory agents for disease control. However, a subset of patients has persistent or recurrent ocular inflammation despite appropriate treatment, stressing the need for newer therapies aimed at more specific inflammatory targets such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF) alpha agents, anti-interleukin agents, and anti-interleukin receptor agents.

OBJECTIVES

This article discusses the various medical options available for the treatment of non-infectious uveitis in the light of the most recent evidence.

CONCLUSION

Successful management of non-infectious uveitis requires the clinician carefully balance advantages and disadvantages of each new and old therapy while considering individual circumstances. Counselling regarding the benefits and complications of each therapy can help patients make an informed choice.

[Clinical and epidemiological profile of pediatric uveitis, course of inflammatory uveitis treated with anti-TNF alpha]

INTRODUCTION

Uveitis is the leading cause of acquired childhood blindness with a prevalence of 30 cases per 100,000 inhabitants. There are multiple causes ; nevertheless, there is no standardized etiological assessment. The goal of our study is to define an epidemiological and clinical profile of uveitis diagnosed in a university hospital and their course when treated with anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) α.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

All cases of uveitis under 18 years old, from 1994 to 2016, were included. Post-traumatic, post-surgical, pseudo-uveitis and retinopathy of prematurity were excluded. Demographic data, patient history, initial ophthalmological status, etiologic assessment data and treatments already underway were collected.

RESULTS

Ninety cases of pediatric uveitis were included, among which were 16.7 % infectious uveitis, 38.9 % inflammatory uveitis and 44.4 % idiopathic uveitis. Etiologic investigations were considered incomplete in 45 % of idiopathic uveitis cases. Treatment with anti-TNFα was selected for 15.5 % of patients. In total, 33 % of patients treated with etanercept required other anti-TNFα drugs due to a lack of control of inflammation. Infliximab and adalimumab successfully managed to control inflammation in 28.6 % of cases each.

DISCUSSION

Diagnostic criteria based adult systemic disease are sometimes inappropriate for children. The advent of anti-TNFα appears to improve the visual prognosis of inflammatory uveitis resistant to conventional immunosuppressant therapy, but we still need to perfect protocols for their use.

CONCLUSION

There are neither standardized etiological assessment nor clear diagnostic and therapeutic protocols for children. TNFα inhibitors are more effective in controlling inflammation in severe pediatric uveitis.

Pediatric Uveitis

Pediatric uveitis differs from adult-onset uveitis and is a topic of special interest because of its diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. Children with uveitis are often asymptomatic and the uveitis is often chronic, persistent, recurrent, and resistant to conventional treatment. Anterior uveitis is the most common type of uveitis in children; the prevalence of intermediate, posterior, and panuveitis varies geographically and among ethnic groups. Regarding etiology, most cases of pediatric uveitis are idiopathic but can be due to systemic inflammatory disorders, infections, or a manifestation of masquerade syndrome. Ocular complications include cataracts, hypotony or glaucoma, band keratopathy, synechiae formation, macular edema, optic disc edema, choroidal neovascular membranes, and retinal detachment. These complications are often severe, leading to irreversible structural damage and significant visual disability due to delayed presentation and diagnosis, persistent chronic inflammation from suboptimal treatment, topical and systemic corticosteroid dependence, and delayed initiation of systemic disease‒modifying agents. Treatment for noninfectious uveitis is a stepwise approach starting with corticosteroids. Immunomodulatory therapy should be initiated in cases where quiescence cannot be achieved without steroid dependence. Patients should be monitored regularly for complications of uveitis along with systemic and ocular adverse effects from treatments. The goals are to achieve steroid-free durable remission, to reduce the risk of sight-threatening complications from the uncontrolled ocular inflammation, and to avoid the impact of lifelong burden of visual loss on the child and their family. Multidisciplinary management will ensure holistic care of affected children and improve the support for their families.

Longterm Safety and Efficacy of Adalimumab and Infliximab for Uveitis Associated with Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis

OBJECTIVE

Anti-TNF-α agents have significantly changed the management of juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). We evaluated the safety and efficacy of adalimumab (ADA) and infliximab (IFX) for the treatment of JIA-associated uveitis in patients treated for ≥ 2 years.

METHODS

Patients with JIA-associated uveitis treated with IFX and ADA were managed by a standardized protocol and data were entered in the ORCHIDEA registry. At baseline, all patients were refractory to standard immunosuppressive treatment or were corticosteroid-dependent. Data recorded every 3 months were uveitis course, number/type of ocular flares and complications, drug-related adverse events (AE), and treatment switch or withdrawal. Data of patients treated for ≥ 2 years were analyzed by descriptive statistics.

RESULTS

Up to December 2014, 154 patients with ≥ 24 months followup were included in the study. Fifty-nine patients were treated with IFX and 95 with ADA. Clinical remission, defined as the absence of flares for > 6 months on treatment, was achieved in 69 patients (44.8%), with a better remission rate for ADA (60.0%) as compared to IFX (20.3%; p < 0.001). A significant reduction of flares was observed in all patients without difference between the 2 treatment modalities. The number of new ocular complications decreased in both groups but was lower for ADA (p = 0.015). No serious AE were recorded; 16.4% of patients experienced 35 minor AE and the incidence rate was lower with ADA than with IFX.

CONCLUSION

At the 2-year followup, ADA showed a better efficacy and safety profile than IFX for the treatment of refractory JIA-associated uveitis.