25th anniversary article: recent advances in n-type and ambipolar organic field-effect transistors

Ternary Logic Circuit and Neural Network Integration via Small Molecule-Based Antiambipolar Vertical Electrochemical Transistor

Circuits based on organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) have great potential in the fields of biosensors and artificial neural computation due to their biocompatibility and neural similarity. However, the integration of OECT-based circuits lags far behind other emerging electronics. Here, ternary inverters based on antiambipolar vertical OECTs (vOECTs) and their integration with the establishment of neural networks are demonstrated. Specifically, by adopting a small molecule (t-gdiPDI) as the channel of vOECT, high antiambipolar performance, with current density of 33.9 ± 2.1 A cm-2 under drain voltage of 0.1 V, peak voltage ≈0 V, low driving voltage < ± 0.6 V, and current on/off ratio > 106, are realized. Consequently, vertically stacked ternary circuits based solely on OECTs are constructed for the first time, showing three distinct logical states and high integration density. By further developing inverter array as the internal fundamental units of ternary weight network hardware circuits for ternary processing and computation, it demonstrates excellent data classification and recognition capabilities. This work demonstrates the possibility of constructing multi-valued logic circuits by OECTs and promotes a new strategy for high-density integration and multivalued computing systems based on organic circuits.

Exploring the Charge-Transport and Optical Characteristics of Organic Doublet Radicals: A Theoretical and Experimental Study with Photovoltaic Applications

Herein, we present a series of stable radicals containing a trityl carbon-centered radical moiety exhibiting interesting properties. The radicals demonstrate the most blue-shifted anti-Kasha doublet emission reported so far with high color purity (full width at half-maximum of 46 nm) and relatively high photoluminescence quantum yields of deoxygenated toluene solutions reaching 31%. The stable radicals demonstrate equilibrated bipolar charge transport with charge mobility values reaching 10-4 cm2/V·s at high electric fields. The experimental results in combination with the results of TD-DFT calculations confirm that the blue emission of radicals violates the Kasha rule and originates from higher excited states, whereas the bipolar charge transport properties are found to stem from the particularity of radicals to involve the same molecular orbital(s) in electron and hole transport. The radicals act as the efficient materials for interlayers, passivating interfacial defects and enhancing charge extraction in PSCs. Consequently, this leads to outstanding performance of PSC, with power conversion efficiency surpassing 21%, accompanied by a remarkable increase in open-circuit voltage and exceptional stability.

A Fluorescent Conjugated Polar Polymer for Probing Charge Injection in Multilayer Organic Light-Emitting Transistors

Ambipolar organic light-emitting transistors (OLETs) are extremely appealing devices for applications from sensing to communication and display realization due to their inherent capability of coupling switching and light-emitting features. However, their limited external quantum efficiency (EQE) and brightness under ambipolar bias conditions hamper the progress of OLET technology. In this context, it was recently demonstrated in multi-stacked devices that the engineering of the interface between the topmost electron-transporting organic semiconductor (e-OS) and the emission layer (EML) is crucial in optimizing the recombination of the minority charges (i.e., electrons) and to enhance EQE and brightness. Here, we introduce a new light-emitting conjugated polar polymer (CPP) in a multi-stacked OLET to improve the electron injection from e-OS to EML and to study, simultaneously, electroluminescence-related processes such as exciton formation and quenching processes. Interestingly, we observed that the highly polar groups present in the conjugate polymer induced polarization-related relevant charge-trapping phenomena with consequent modulation of the entire electrostatic field distribution and unexpected optoelectronic features. In view of the extensive use of CPPs in OLETs, the use of multifunctional CPPs for probing photophysical processes at the functional interfaces in stacked devices may speed up the improvement of the light-emission properties in OLETs.

Wavily Curved Perylene Diimides: Synthesis, Characterization, and Photovoltaic Properties

Solubility enhancement is a key issue for developing the perylene diimide-based functional materials. Introduction of curved structure proved an effective solubilizing method without employing steric repulsion. In this work, wavily curved perylene diimides were developed as a new family of highly soluble curved perylene diimides. Moreover, their conformational dynamics, aggregating properties, electronic properties, and photovoltaic performances were thoroughly examined in comparison to the previously reported isomer exhibiting an arched curvature. The waved isomer demonstrated heightened rigidity and a greater propensity for aggregation compared to the arched isomer, likely attributed to its more planar structure. Each benzoxepin unit played a role in cancelling out the curvature on the opposite side. While the difference in the molecular curvature did not cause significant alterations in the photophysical and electron-accepting properties, we identified that the modulation of the curved structure is effective in controlling the morphology of the photoelectric conversion layer.

Statistical analysis of interatomic transfer integrals for exploring high-mobility organic semiconductors

Charge transport in organic semiconductors occurs via overlapping molecular orbitals quantified by transfer integrals. However, no statistical study of transfer integrals for a wide variety of molecules has been reported. Here we present a statistical analysis of transfer integrals for more than 27,000 organic compounds in the Cambridge Structural Database. Interatomic transfer integrals were used to identify substructures with high transfer integrals. As a result, thione and amine groups as in thiourea were found to exhibit high transfer integrals. Such compounds are considered as potential non-aromatic, water-soluble organic semiconductors.

Tosylazide as N1-Synthon: Iron-Catalyzed Nitrogenative Dimerization of Indoles to p-Bisindolopyrazine Derivatives

We present a straightforward one-step process to access a range of novel p-diindolepyrazines via an unprecedented [n-Bu4N][Fe(CO)3(NO)] (TBA[Fe])-catalyzed intermolecular nitrogenative dimerization of various indole derivatives. Remarkably, tosylazide functions as a N1-synthon forming the central pyrazine unit that joins the two indole subunits. The catalytic transformation shows a good substrate scope, and the obtained products show interesting electronic properties.

Design of Novel Functional Conductive Structures and Preparation of High-Hole-Mobility Polymer Transistors by Green Synthesis Using Acceptor-Donor-Acceptor Strategies

The design of novel acceptor molecular structures based on classical building blocks is regarded as one of the efficient ways to explore the application of organic conjugated materials in conductivity and electronics. Here, a novel acceptor moiety, thiophene-vinyl-diketopyrrolopyrrole (TVDPP), was envisioned and prepared with a longer conjugation length and a more rigid structure than thiophene-diketopyrrolopyrrole (TDPP). The brominated TVDPP can be sequentially bonded to trimethyltin-containing benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazole units via Suzuki polycondensation to efficiently prepare the polymer PTVDPP-BSz, which features high molecular weight and excellent thermal stability. The polymerization process takes only 24 h and eliminates the need for chlorinated organic solvents or toxic tin-based reagents. Density functional theory (DFT) simulations and film morphology analyses verify the planarity and high crystallinity of the material, respectively, which facilitates the achievement of high carrier mobility. Conductivity measurements of the polymeric material in the organic transistor device show a hole mobility of 0.34 cm2 V-1 s-1, which illustrates its potential for functionalized semiconductor applications.

Tuning of Interfacial Charge Transport in Organic Heterostructures via Aryl Electrografting for Efficient Gas Sensors

Modulation of interfacial conductivity in organic heterostructures is a highly promising strategy to improve the performance of electronic devices. In this endeavor, the present work reports the fabrication of a bilayer heterojunction device, combining octafluoro copper phthalocyanine (CuF8Pc) and lutetium bis-phthalocyanine (LuPc2) and tunes the charge transport at the Cu(F8Pc)-(LuPc2) interface by aryl electrografting on the device electrode to improve the device NH3-sensing properties. Dimethoxybenzene (DMB) and tetrafluoro benzene (TFB) electrografted by an aryldiazonium electroreduction method form a few-nanometer-thick organic film on ITO. The conductivity of the heterojunction devices formed by coating a Cu(F8Pc)/LuPc2 bilayer over the aryl-grafted electrode strongly varies according to the electronic effects of the substituents in the aryl. Accordingly, DMB increases while TFB decreases the mobile charges accumulation at the Cu(F8Pc)-(LuPc2) interface. This is explained by the perfect alignment of the frontier molecular orbitals of DMB and Cu(F8Pc), facilitating charge injection into the Cu(F8Pc) layer. On the contrary, TFB behaves like a strong acceptor and reduces the mobile charges accumulation at the Cu(F8Pc)-(LuPc2) interface. Such interfacial conductivity variation influences the device NH3-sensing properties, which increase because of DMB grafting and decrease in the presence of TFB. DMB-based heterojunction devices contain four times higher active sites for NH3 adsorption and could detect NH3 down to 1 ppm with limited interference from humidity, making them suitable for real environment NH3 detection.

Controllable Modulation of the Electronic Properties of a Two-Dimensional Ambipolar Semiconductor by Interface Ferroelectric Polarization

Precise control of charge carrier type and density of two-dimensional (2D) ambipolar semiconductors is the prerequisite for their applications in next-generation integrated circuits and electronic devices. Here, by fabricating a heterointerface between a 2D ambipolar semiconductor (hydrogenated germanene, GeH) and a ferroelectric substrate (PbMg1/3Nb2/3O3-PbTiO3, PMN-PT), fine-tuning of charge carrier type and density of GeH is achieved. Due to ambipolar properties, proper band gap, and high carrier mobility of GeH, by applying the opposite local bias (±8 V), a lateral polarization in GeH is constructed with a change of work function by 0.6 eV. Besides, the built-in polarization in GeH nanoflake could promote the separation of photoexcited electron-hole pairs, which lead to 4 times enhancement of the photoconductivity after poling by 200 V. In addition, a gradient regulation of the work function of GeH from 4.94 to 5.21 eV by adjusting the local substrate polarization is demonstrated, which could be used for data storage at the micrometer size by forming p-n homojunctions. This work of constructing such heterointerfaces provides a pathway for applying 2D ambipolar semiconductors in nonvolatile memory devices, photoelectronic devices, and next-generation integrated circuit.

Organic Transistors Based on Highly Crystalline Donor-Acceptor π-Conjugated Polymer of Pentathiophene and Diketopyrrolopyrrole

Oligomers and polymers consisting of multiple thiophenes are widely used in organic electronics such as organic transistors and sensors because of their strong electron-donating ability. In this study, a solution to the problem of the poor solubility of polythiophene systems was developed. A novel π-conjugated polymer material, PDPP-5Th, was synthesized by adding the electron acceptor unit, DPP, to the polythiophene system with a long alkyl side chain, which facilitated the solution processing of the material for the preparation of devices. Meanwhile, the presence of the multicarbonyl groups within the DPP molecule facilitated donor-acceptor interactions in the internal chain, which further improved the hole-transport properties of the polythiophene-based material. The weak forces present within the molecules that promoted structural coplanarity were analyzed using theoretical simulations. Furthermore, the grazing incidence wide-angle X-ray scanning (GIWAXS) results indicated that PDPP-5Th features high crystallinity, which is favorable for efficient carrier migration within and between polymer chains. The material showed hole transport properties as high as 0.44 cm2 V-1 s-1 in conductivity testing. Our investigations demonstrate the great potential of this polymer material in the field of optoelectronics.

Theoretical and Experimental Study of Different Side Chains on 3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene and Diketopyrrolopyrrole-Derived Polymers: Towards Organic Transistors

In this research, two polymers of P1 and P2 based on monomers consisting of thiophene, 3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT) and diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) are designed and obtained via Stille coupling polycondensation. The material shows excellent coplanarity and structural regularity due to the fine planarity of DPP itself and the weak non-covalent bonding interactions existing between the three units. Two different lengths of non-conjugated side chains are introduced and this has an effect on the intermolecular chain stacking, causing the film absorption to display different characteristic properties. On the other hand, the difference in the side chains does not have a significant effect on the thermal stability and the energy levels of the frontier orbitals of the materials, which is related to the fact that the materials both feature extremely high conjugation lengths and specific molecular compositions. Microscopic investigations targeting the side chains provide a contribution to the further design of organic semiconductor materials that meet device requirements. Tests based on organic transistors show a slight difference in conductivity between the two polymers, with P2 having better hole mobility than P1. This study highlights the importance of the impact of side chains on device performance, especially in the field of organic electronics.

Preparation of Dye Semiconductors via Coupling Polymerization Catalyzed by Two Catalysts and Application to Transistor

Organic dye semiconductors have received increasing attention as the next generation of semiconductors, and one of their potential applications is as a core component of organic transistors. In this study, two novel diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP) dye core-based materials were designed and separately prepared using Stille coupling reactions under different palladium catalyst conditions. The molecular weights and elemental compositions were tested to demonstrate that both catalysts could be used to successfully prepare materials of this structure, with the main differences being the weight-average molecular weight and the dispersion index. PDPP-2Py-2Tz I with a longer conjugation length exhibited better thermodynamic stability than the counterpart polymer PDPP-2Py-2Tz II. The intrinsic optical properties of the polymers were relatively similar, while the electrochemical tests showed small differences in their energy levels. The polymers obtained with different catalysts displayed similar and moderate electron mobility in transistor devices, while PDPP-2Py-2Tz I possessed a higher switching ratio. Our study provides a comparison of such dye materials under different catalytic conditions and also demonstrates the great potential of dye materials for optoelectronic applications.

Dipyridyl-Fused Quinoxalineimide (DPQI): A Strong Electron-Withdrawing Building Block for n-Type Polymer Semiconductors

Exploration of new electron-withdrawing building blocks plays a key role in the development of n-type organic semiconductors. Herein, a strong electron-withdrawing building block, dipyridyl-fused quinoxalineimide (DPQI), was successfully designed and synthesized. Single-crystal structure reveals that DPQI molecule possesses a completely planar backbone, which is beneficial for charge transport. For comparison, dibenzo-fused quinoxalineimide (DBQI) was also synthesized. The frontier molecular orbital (FMO) energy levels downshift with the incorporation of nitrogen atoms onto the π-conjugated backbone of quinoxalineimide. Two acceptor-acceptor (or all-acceptor) polymers P(BTI-DBQI) and P(BTI-DPQI) based on DBQI and DPQI were synthesized, respectively. Two polymers exhibit deep lowest-unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) levels (~-3.5 eV). Additionally, P(BTI-DPQI) exhibits unipolar n-type charge transport with μe of 1.4×10-4  cm2  V-1  s-1 in the organic field-effect transistors (OFET), which render them highly attractive for developing n-type semiconductors device. This work demonstrates that DPQI is a promising building block for constructing n-type polymer semiconductors.

Dihydroindenofluorenes as building units in organic semiconductors for organic electronics

This review aims to discuss organic semiconductors constructed on dihydroindenofluorene positional isomers, which are key molecular scaffolds in organic electronics. Bridged oligophenylenes are key organic semiconductors that have allowed the development of organic electronic technologies. Dihydroindenofluorenes (DHIFs) belong to the family of bridged oligophenylenes constructed on a terphenyl backbone. They have proven to be very promising building blocks for the construction of highly efficient organic semiconductors for all OE devices, namely organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs), phosphorescent OLEDs, organic field-effect transistors (OFETs), solar cells, etc.

Rational Design of Novel Conjugated Terpolymers Based on Diketopyrrolopyrrole and Their Applications to Organic Thin-Film Transistors

Organic polymer semiconductor materials, due to their good chemical modifiability, can be easily tuned by rational molecular structure design to modulate their material properties, which, in turn, affects the device performance. Here, we designed and synthesized a series of materials based on terpolymer structures and applied them to organic thin-film transistor (OTFT) device applications. The four polymers, obtained by polymerization of three monomers relying on the Stille coupling reaction, shared comparable molecular weights, with the main structural difference being the ratio of the thiazole component to the fluorinated thiophene (Tz/FS). The conjugated polymers exhibited similar energy levels and thermal stability; however, their photochemical and crystalline properties were distinctly different, leading to significantly varied mobility behavior. Materials with a Tz/FS ratio of 50:50 showed the highest electron mobility, up to 0.69 cm2 V-1 s-1. Our investigation reveals the fundamental relationship between the structure and properties of materials and provides a basis for the design of semiconductor materials with higher carrier mobility.

Four Slip-Stacked Arrangements, Three Types of Photophysics: Crystal Structure and Solid-State Fluorescence of 3,6-Diaryl Substituted Furo[3,4-c]furanone Polymorphs and Regioisomers

Six symmetrical 3,6-diaryl (aryl=phenyl, 2-, 3- and 4-tolyl, 2,4- and 3,5-xylyl) substituted furo[3,4-c]furanones (DFF) were synthesized. The computational analysis, based on density functional theory, found eight possible centrosymmetrical slipped π-stack arrangements, formed according to electron repulsion minimization principle, as for previously reported for π-isoelectronic diketopyrrolopyrroles (DPP). One of these slipped stack arrangements was found to form infinite columns in the crystals of a new polymorph of parent phenyl derivative (with centre-to-centre distance CC=6.975 Å), other three types of stacks were found for 3-tolyl (CC=6.153 Å), 4-tolyl (CC=3.849 Å) and 2,4-xylyl (CC=4.856 Å) derivatives by single crystal X-ray diffractometry. All six derivatives show intense solution fluorescence in blue/green region, with a maximum driven entirely by a number and position of methyl substituents on phenyl rings. On the other hand, the solid-state fluorescence from yellow over orange to red is observed only for four derivatives and its presence/absence, spectral position and vibronic structure is driven exclusively by the slips in π-stacks (with interplanar distance always less than 3.5 Å) of almost planar DFF molecules, resulting in J-type emission, H-type excimer-like emission and H-type quenching.

Cascaded Logic Gates Based on High-Performance Ambipolar Dual-Gate WSe2 Thin Film Transistors

Ambipolar dual-gate transistors based on low-dimensional materials, such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, black phosphorus, and certain transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), enable reconfigurable logic circuits with a suppressed off-state current. These circuits achieve the same logical output as complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) with fewer transistors and offer greater flexibility in design. The primary challenge lies in the cascadability and power consumption of these logic gates with static CMOS-like connections. In this article, high-performance ambipolar dual-gate transistors based on tungsten diselenide (WSe₂) are fabricated. A high on-off ratio of 10⁸ and 10⁶, a low off-state current of 100 to 300 fA, a negligible hysteresis, and an ideal subthreshold swing of 62 and 63 mV/dec are measured in the p- and n-type transport, respectively. We demonstrate cascadable and cascaded logic gates using ambipolar TMD transistors with minimal static power consumption, including inverters, XOR, NAND, NOR, and buffers made by cascaded inverters. A thorough study of both the control gate and the polarity gate behavior is conducted. The noise margin of the logic gates is measured and analyzed. The large noise margin enables the implementation of V_T-drop circuits, a type of logic with reduced transistor number and simplified circuit design. Finally, the speed performance of the V_T-drop and other circuits built by dual-gate devices is qualitatively analyzed. This work makes advancements in the field of ambipolar dual-gate TMD transistors, showing their potential for low-power, high-speed, and more flexible logic circuits.

Efficient and air-stable n-type doping in organic semiconductors

Chemical doping of organic semiconductors (OSCs) enables feasible tuning of carrier concentration, charge mobility, and energy levels, which is critical for the applications of OSCs in organic electronic devices. However, in comparison with p-type doping, n-type doping has lagged far behind. The achievement of efficient and air-stable n-type doping in OSCs would help to significantly improve electron transport and device performance, and endow new functionalities, which are, therefore, gaining increasing attention currently. In this review, the issue of doping efficiency and doping air stability in n-type doped OSCs was carefully addressed. We first clarified the main factors that influenced chemical doping efficiency in n-type OSCs and then explain the origin of instability in n-type doped films under ambient conditions. Doping microstructure, charge transfer, and dissociation efficiency were found to determine the overall doping efficiency, which could be precisely tuned by molecular design and post treatments. To further enhance the air stability of n-doped OSCs, design strategies such as tuning the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy level, charge delocalization, intermolecular stacking, in situ n-doping, and self-encapsulations are discussed. Moreover, the applications of n-type doping in advanced organic electronics, such as solar cells, light-emitting diodes, field-effect transistors, and thermoelectrics are being introduced. Finally, an outlook is provided on novel doping ways and material systems that are aimed at stable and efficient n-type doped OSCs.

Self-Doping Naphthalene Diimide Conjugated Polymers for Flexible Unipolar n-Type OTFTs

The development of high-performance organic thin-film transistor (OTFT) materials is vital for flexible electronics. Numerous OTFTs are so far reported but obtaining high-performance and reliable OTFTs simultaneously for flexible electronics is still challenging. Herein, it is reported that self-doping in conjugated polymer enables high unipolar n-type charge mobility in flexible OTFTs, as well as good operational/ambient stability and bending resistance. New naphthalene diimide (NDI)-conjugated polymers PNDI2T-NM17 and PNDI2T-NM50 with different contents of self-doping groups on their side chains are designed and synthesized. The effects of self-doping on the electronic properties of resulting flexible OTFTs are investigated. The results reveal that the flexible OTFTs based on self-doped PNDI2T-NM17 exhibit unipolar n-type charge-carrier properties and good operational/ambient stability thanks to the appropriate doping level and intermolecular interactions. The charge mobility and on/off ratio are fourfold and four orders of magnitude higher than those of undoped model polymer, respectively. Overall, the proposed self-doping strategy is useful for rationally designing OTFT materials with high semiconducting performance and reliability.

A new dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]thiophene derivative for high performance single crystal organic field-effect transistors and UV-sensitive phototransistors

Organic phototransistors (OPTs), as the basic unit for organic image sensors, are emerging as one of the most promising light signal detectors. High performance UV-sensitive phototransistors are highly desired for the detection of UV light. Herein, by introducing the anthracene group to the 2,6-positions of dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]thiophene, we designed and synthesized a new dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]thiophene derivative, 2,6-di(anthracen-2-yl)dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]thiophene (2,6-DADTT). The single crystal structure of 2,6-DADTT presents classical herringbone packing with multiple intermolecular interactions, including S⋯S (3.470 Å), S⋯C (3.304 Å, 3.391 Å, 3.394 Å) and C-H⋯π (2.763 Å, 2.822 Å, 2.846 Å, 2.865 Å, 2.885 Å, 2.890 Å) contacts. Single crystal organic field-effect transistors (SC-OFETs) based on 2,6-DADTT reach a highest mobility of 1.26 cm2 V-1 s-1 and an average mobility of 0.706 cm2 V-1 s-1. 2,6-DADTT-based single crystal organic phototransistors (OPTs) demonstrate photosensitivity (P) of 2.49 × 106, photoresponsivity (R) of 6.84 × 103 A W-1 and ultrahigh detectivity (D*) of 4.70 × 1016 Jones to UV light, which are among the best figures of merit for UV-sensitive OPTs. These excellent comprehensive performances indicate its good application prospects in integrated optoelectronics.

Synthesis, Solution, and Solid State Properties of Homological Dialkylated Naphthalene Diimides—A Systematic Review of Molecules for Next-Generation Organic Electronics

This systematic study aimed at finding a correlation between molecular structure, solubility, self-assembly, and electronic properties of a homological series of N-alkylated naphthalene diimides (NDIs). NDIs are known for their n-type carrier mobility and, therefore, have potential in the field of organic electronics, photovoltaics, and sensors. For the purpose of this study, nine symmetrical N,N′-dialkylated naphthalene diimides (NDIC3-NDIC11) were synthesized in the reaction of 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic dianhydride with alkylamines ranging from propyl- to undecyl-. The NDIs were characterized by spectroscopic (NMR, UV-Vis, FTIR), microscopic, and thermal methods (TGA and DSC), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Our experimental study, extensively referring to findings reported in the literature, indicated that the NDIs revealed specific trends in spectroscopic and thermal properties as well as solubility and crystal morphology. The solubility in good solvents (chloroform, toluene, dichlorobenzene) was found to be the highest for the NDIs substituted with the medium-length alkyl chains (NDIC5–NDIC8). Systematic FTIR and XRD studies unraveled a distinct parity effect related to the packing of NDI molecules with odd or even numbers of methylene groups in the alkyl substituents. The NDIs with an even number of methylene groups in the alkyl substituents revealed low-symmetry (P1−) triclinic packing, whereas those with an odd number of carbon atoms were generally monoclinic with P21/c symmetry. The odd–even parity effect also manifested itself in the overlapping of the NDIs’ aromatic cores and, hence, the π-π stacking distance (dπ-π). The odd-numbered NDIs generally revealed slightly smaller dπ-π values then the even-numbered ones. Testing the NDIs using standardized field-effect transistors and unified procedures revealed that the n-type mobility in NDIC6, NDIC7, and NDIC8 was 10- to 30-fold higher than for the NDIs with shorter or longer alkyl substituents. Our experimental results indicate that N,N′-alkylated NDIs reveal an optimum range of alkyl chain length in terms of solution processability and charge transport properties.

Unraveling two distinct polymorph transition mechanisms in one n-type single crystal for dynamic electronics

Cooperativity is used by living systems to circumvent energetic and entropic barriers to yield highly efficient molecular processes. Cooperative structural transitions involve the concerted displacement of molecules in a crystalline material, as opposed to typical molecule-by-molecule nucleation and growth mechanisms which often break single crystallinity. Cooperative transitions have acquired much attention for low transition barriers, ultrafast kinetics, and structural reversibility. However, cooperative transitions are rare in molecular crystals and their origin is poorly understood. Crystals of 2-dimensional quinoidal terthiophene (2DQTT-o-B), a high-performance n-type organic semiconductor, demonstrate two distinct thermally activated phase transitions following these mechanisms. Here we show reorientation of the alkyl side chains triggers cooperative behavior, tilting the molecules like dominos. Whereas, nucleation and growth transition is coincident with increasing alkyl chain disorder and driven by forming a biradical state. We establish alkyl chain engineering as integral to rationally controlling these polymorphic behaviors for novel electronic applications.

On-surface synthesis of non-benzenoid conjugated polymers by selective atomic rearrangement of ethynylarenes

Here, we report a new on-surface synthetic strategy to precisely introduce five-membered units into conjugated polymers from specifically designed precursor molecules that give rise to low-bandgap fulvalene-bridged bisanthene polymers. The selective formation of non-benzenoid units is finely controlled by the annealing parameters, which govern the initiation of atomic rearrangements that efficiently transform previously formed diethynyl bridges into fulvalene moieties. The atomically precise structures and electronic properties have been unmistakably characterized by STM, nc-AFM, and STS and the results are supported by DFT theoretical calculations. Interestingly, the fulvalene-bridged bisanthene polymers exhibit experimental narrow frontier electronic gaps of 1.2 eV on Au(111) with fully conjugated units. This on-surface synthetic strategy can potentially be extended to other conjugated polymers to tune their optoelectronic properties by integrating five-membered rings at precise sites.

3 a,6 a-Diaza-1,4-Diphosphapentalenes: Synthesis and Complexation with the Organic π-Acceptor 1,2,4,5-Tetracyanobenzene

The reaction of PCl₃ with diethyl ketazine and 4-phenylcyclohexanone azine results in the formation of 1,4-dichloro-3a,6a-diaza-1,4-diphosphapentalenes which were reduced by magnesium in THF to give corresponding diazadiphosphapentalenes EtMeDDP and PhcHexDDP, containing two-coordinate phosphorus atoms. According to the CVA data, the new diazadiphosphapentalenes are strong electron donors showing oxidation peak potentials at 0.34 and 0.10 V, respectively, (vs. Ag/AgCl). Interaction of 1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene (TCNB) with the obtained diazadiphosphapentalenes in any stoichiometry produces sandwich complexes of the composition DDP-TCNB-DDP. Black-purple crystals of π-complexes contain infinite molecular chains with short P⋅⋅⋅P contacts between DDP molecules and short (Csp² -H⋅⋅⋅N) contacts between TCNB molecules. Calculations showed that each TCNB molecule is an acceptor of ∼0.3e from two DDP molecules. Estimation of the HOMO-LUMO gap from the onset of optical absorption give values of 1.25 eV and 1.31 eV for [(EtMeDDP)₂ (TCNB)] and [(PhcHexDDP)₂ (TCNB)] respectively.

Electron-Deficient Benzo[de]isoquinolino[1,8-gh]quinoline Diamide π-Electron Systems

Synthetically versatile electron-deficient π-electron systems are urgently needed for organic electronics, yet their design and synthesis are challenging due to the low reactivity from large electron affinities. In this work, we report a benzo[de]isoquinolino[1,8-gh]quinoline diamide (BQQDA) π-electron system. The electron-rich condensed amide as opposed to the generally-employed imide provides a suitable electronic feature for chemical versatility to tailor the BQQDA π-electron system for various electronic applications. We demonstrate an effective synthetic method to furnish the target BQQDA parent structure, and highly selective functionalization can be performed on bay positions of the π-skeleton. In addition, thionation of BQQDA can be accomplished under mild conditions. Fine-tuning of fundamental properties and supramolecular packing motifs are achieved via chemical modifications, and the cyanated BQQDA organic semiconductor demonstrates a high air-stable electron-carrier mobility.

An N-oxide containing conjugated semiconducting polymer with enhanced electron mobility via direct (hetero)arylation polymerization

The N-oxide containing conjugated semiconducting polymer is synthesized by direct (hetero)arylation polymerization and exhibit enhanced electron mobility compared to its non-oxide analogous polymer.

Donor-Acceptor Dyads and Triads Employing Core-Substituted Naphthalene Diimides: A Synthetic and Spectro (Electrochemical) Study

Donor-acceptor dyads and triads comprising core-substituted naphthalene diimide (NDI) chromophores and either phenothiazine or phenoxazine donors are described. Synthesis combined with electrochemical and spectroelectrochemical investigations facilitates characterisation of the various redox states of these molecules, confirming the ability to combine arrays of electron donating and accepting moieties into single species that retain the redox properties of these individual moieties.

Efficient Synthesis of 4,8-Dibromo Derivative of Strong Electron-Deficient Benzo[1,2-d:4,5-d']bis([1,2,3]thiadiazole) and Its SNAr and Cross-Coupling Reactions

An efficient synthesis of hydrolytically and thermally stable 4,8-dibromobenzo[1,2-d:4,5-d']bis([1,2,3]thiadiazole) by the bromination of its parent heterocycle is reported. The structure of 4,8-dibromobenzo[1,2-d:4,5-d']bis([1,2,3]thiadiazole) was confirmed by X-ray analysis. The conditions for the selective aromatic nucleophilic substitution of one bromine atom in this heterocyclic system by nitrogen nucleophiles are found, whereas thiols formed the bis-derivatives only. Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions were found to be an effective method for the selective formation of various mono- and di(het)arylated derivatives of strong electron-deficient benzo[1,2-d:4,5-d']bis([1,2,3]thiadiazole), and Stille coupling can be employed for the preparation of bis-arylated heterocycles, which can be considered as useful building blocks for the synthesis of DSSCs and OLEDs components.

Acceptor Modulation Strategies for Improving the Electron Transport in High-Performance Organic Field-Effect Transistors

High-performance ambipolar and electronic type semiconducting polymers are essential for fabricating various organic optoelectronic devices and complementary circuits. This review summarizes the strategies of improving the electron transport of semiconducting polymers via acceptor modulation strategies, which include the use of single, dual, triple, multiple, and all acceptors as well as the fusion of multiple identical acceptors to obtain new heterocyclic acceptors. To further improve the electron transport of semiconducting polymers, the introduction of strong electron-withdrawing groups can enhance the electron-withdrawing ability of donors and acceptors, thereby facilitating electron injection and suppressing hole accumulation. In addition, the relationships between the molecular structure, frontier molecular orbital energy levels, thin film morphology, microstructure, processing conditions, and device performances are also comprehensively discussed. Finally, the challenges encountered in this research area are proposed and the future outlook is presented.

Field-Effect Transistor-Based Biosensors for Environmental and Agricultural Monitoring

The precise monitoring of environmental contaminants and agricultural plant stress factors, respectively responsible for damages to our ecosystems and crop losses, has nowadays become a topic of uttermost importance. This is also highlighted by the recent introduction of the so-called "Sustainable Development Goals" of the United Nations, which aim at reducing pollutants while implementing more sustainable food production practices, leading to a reduced impact on all ecosystems. In this context, the standard methods currently used in these fields represent a sub-optimal solution, being expensive, laboratory-based techniques, and typically requiring trained personnel with high expertise. Recent advances in both biotechnology and material science have led to the emergence of new sensing (and biosensing) technologies, enabling low-cost, precise, and real-time detection. An especially interesting category of biosensors is represented by field-effect transistor-based biosensors (bio-FETs), which enable the possibility of performing in situ, continuous, selective, and sensitive measurements of a wide palette of different parameters of interest. Furthermore, bio-FETs offer the possibility of being fabricated using innovative and sustainable materials, employing various device configurations, each customized for a specific application. In the specific field of environmental and agricultural monitoring, the exploitation of these devices is particularly attractive as it paves the way to early detection and intervention strategies useful to limit, or even completely avoid negative outcomes (such as diseases to animals or ecosystems losses). This review focuses exactly on bio-FETs for environmental and agricultural monitoring, highlighting the recent and most relevant studies. First, bio-FET technology is introduced, followed by a detailed description of the the most commonly employed configurations, the available device fabrication techniques, as well as the specific materials and recognition elements. Then, examples of studies employing bio-FETs for environmental and agricultural monitoring are presented, highlighting in detail advantages and disadvantages of available examples. Finally, in the discussion, the major challenges to be overcome (e.g., short device lifetime, small sensitivity and selectivity in complex media) are critically presented. Despite the current limitations and challenges, this review clearly shows that bio-FETs are extremely promising for new and disruptive innovations in these areas and others.

Small-molecule ambipolar transistors

Ambipolar transistor properties have been observed in various small-molecule materials. Since a small energy gap is necessary, many types of molecular designs including extended π-skeletons as well as the incorporation of donor and acceptor units have been attempted. In addition to the energy levels, an inert passivation layer is important to observe ambipolar transistor properties. Ambipolar transport has been observed in extraordinary π-electron systems such as antiaromatic compounds, biradicals, radicals, metal complexes, and hydrogen-bonded materials. Several donor/acceptor cocrystals show ambipolar transport as well.

Side-Chain Engineering of Conjugated Polymers for High-Performance Organic Field-Effect Transistors

Past decades have witnessed the rapid development of conjugated polymers because of their promising semiconducting properties and applications in organic field-effect transistors (OFETs). Recent studies have shown that side-chain engineering of conjugated polymers is an efficient strategy to increase semiconducting performance. This Perspective focuses on the side-chain modulation of conjugated polymers and evaluating their effects on the performance of OFETs. The challenges and potential applications of functional high-performance OFETs through side-chain engineering are also discussed.

An asymmetric 2,3-fluoranthene imide building block for regioregular semiconductors with aggregation-induced emission properties

For organic semiconductors, the development of electron-deficient building blocks has lagged far behind that of the electron-rich ones. Moreover, it remains a significant challenge to design organic molecules with efficient charge transport and strong solid-state emission simultaneously. Herein, we describe a facile synthetic route toward a new π-acceptor imide building block, namely 2,3-fluoranthene imide, based on which four regioregular small molecules (F1–F4) are synthesized by tuning the imide orientations and the central linkage bridges. All molecules exhibit attractive aggregation-induced emission (AIE) characteristics with strong far-red emission in the powder state, and F3 shows the highest photoluminescence quantum yield of 5.9%. F1 and F3 with a thiophene bridge present an obvious p-type characteristic, while for F3 with an outward imide orientation, the maximum hole mobility from a solution-processed field-effect transistor (FET) device reaches 0.026 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹, being ∼10⁴ times higher than the value of F1 with an inward imide orientation. By using a fluorinated thiophene bridge, the resulting F2 and F4 can be turned into n-type semiconductors, showing an electron mobility of ∼1.43 × 10⁻⁴ and ∼3.34 × 10⁻⁵ cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹, respectively. Our work not only demonstrates that asymmetric 2,3-fluoranthene imide is a promising building block for constructing organic materials with high carrier mobility and strong solid-state emission, but also highlights the importance of regioregular structures in the materials' properties.

A new electron-deficient 2,3-fluoranthene imide unit was easily synthesized through a one-pot reaction for constructing small molecule regioregular semiconductors with good carrier transport ability and strong solid-state emission.

Design strategies for improving the crystallinity of covalent organic frameworks and conjugated polymers: a review

Highly crystalline covalent organic frameworks (COFs) or conjugated polymers (CPs) are very important and highly desirable because these materials would display better performance in diverse devices and provide more structure-property related information. However, how to achieve highly crystalline or single-crystal COFs and CPs is very challenging. Recently, many research studies have demonstrated the possibility of enhancing the crystallinity of COFs and CPs. Thus, it is timely to offer an overview of the important progress in improving the crystallinity of COFs and CPs from the viewpoint of design strategies. These strategies include polycondensation reaction optimization, improving the planarity, fluorine substitution, side chain engineering, and so on. Furthermore, the challenges and perspectives are also discussed to promote the realization of highly crystalline or single-crystal COFs and CPs.

Facile Azabenz-Annulations through UV-induced Photocyclization: A Promising Method for Perylenediimide-Based Organic Semiconductors

The derivatization of perylenediimides (PDIs) by bay decoration is essential for the development of PDI-based semiconductors owing to their excellent photoelectric properties. Herein, four bis-azabenz-annulated PDIs (bis-AzaBPDIs) are concisely synthesized in high yields through ultraviolet-induced photocyclization, where the reaction processes including aldimine condensation, cyclization, and oxidative re-aromatization are investigated. The optical characterizations and theoretical simulation reveal that the unique properties of the four bis-AzaBPDIs are comparable to their parent PDI. Organic field effect transistors with compounds 2, 3, or 4 as active layers indicated that all compounds showed unipolar electron transport properties with the mobilities of 1.1×10^-3 , 5.8×10^-4 , and 8.5×10^-6  cm²  V^-1  s^-1 , respectively. These results suggest the great potential of bis-AzaBPDIs as organic semiconductors. The easy preparation approach reported in this work would renew research interest in developing bis-AzaBPDI-based optoelectronic molecules.

Morphological design strategies to tailor out-of-plane charge transport in conjugated polymer systems for device applications

The transport of charge carriers throughout an active conjugated polymer (CP) host, characterized by a heterogeneous morphology of locally varying degrees of order and disorder, profoundly influences the performance of CP-based electronic devices, including diodes, photovoltaics, sensors, and supercapacitors. Out-of-plane charge carrier mobilities (μ_out-of-plane) across the bulk of the active material host and in-plane mobilities (μ_in-plane) parallel to a substrate are highly sensitive to local morphological features along their migration pathways. In general, the magnitudes of μ_out-of-plane and μ_in-plane are very different, in part because these carriers experience different morphological environments along their migration pathways. Suppressing the impact of variations in the morphological order/disorder on carrier migration remains an important challenge. While much is known about μ_in-plane and its optimization for devices, the current challenges are associated with μ_out-of-plane and its optimization for device performance. Therefore, this review is devoted to strategies for improving μ_out-of-plane in neat CP films and the implications for more complex systems, such as D:A blends which are relevant to OPV devices. The specific strategies discussed for improving μ_out-of-plane include solvent/field processing methods, chemical modification, thickness confinement, chemical additives, and different post-annealing strategies, including annealing with supercritical fluids. This review leverages the most recent fundamental understanding of mechanisms of charge transport and connections to morphology, identifying robust design strategies for targeted improvements of μ_out-of-plane.

Charge injected proton transfer in indigo derivatives

In analogy with excited-state proton transfer, proton transfer is significantly facilitated in cationic and anionic molecules of indigo derivatives generated in field-effect transistors. We have prepared extended and truncated indigo derivatives and investigated their ambipolar transistor properties. Since the proton transfer reduces the energy gap from 2.2 to 0.4 eV, the proton transferred states are stabilized in the charge injected cationic and anionic states; the energy increase is as small as 0.5 eV, which is half of that in the neutral state. The intermolecular proton transfer enlarges the equilibrium N-H distance typically by 0.03 Å, and improves the donor and acceptor abilities by 0.2-0.4 eV, though the reorganization energy is practically unchanged. In addition, the transfer integrals along the hydrogen bonds are as large as one third of the columnar transfers, to facilitate the two-dimensional carrier conduction. The influence of proton transfer is most significant in indigo and truncated indigo derivatives, though isoindigo and quinacridone exhibit similar properties. Accordingly, indigo derivatives show much better donor and acceptor abilities than those expected from isolated molecules.

Recent Advances of Nanospheres Lithography in Organic Electronics

Nanospheres lithography (NSL) is an economical technique, which makes use of highly monodispersed nanospheres such as deposition or etch masks for generating patterns with nanoscale features. Embedding nanostructures into organic electronic devices can endow them with unique capabilities and enhanced performance, which have greatly advanced the development of organic electronics. In this review, a brief summary of the methods for the preparation of monodispersed nanospheres is presented. Afterward, the authors highlight the recent advances of a wide variety of applications of nanospheres lithography in organic electronic devices. Finally, the challenges in this field are pointed out, and the future development of this field is discussed.

Geometry dependence of excitonic couplings and the consequences for configuration-space sampling

Excitonic coupling plays a key role for the understanding of excitonic energy transport (EET) in, for example, organic photovoltaics. However, the calculation of realistic systems is often beyond the applicability range of accurate wavefunction methods so that lower-scaling semi-empirical methods are used to model EET events. In the present work, the distance and angle dependence of excitonic couplings of dimers of selected organic molecules are evaluated for the semi-empirical long-range corrected density functional based tight binding (LC-DFTB) method and spin opposite scaled second order approximate coupled cluster singles and doubles (SOS-CC2). While semi-empirically scaled methods can lead to slightly increased deviations for excitation energies, the excitonic couplings and their dependence on the dimer geometry are reproduced. LC-DFTB yields a similar accuracy range as density-functional theory (DFT) employing the ωB97X functional while the computation time is reduced by several orders of magnitude. The dependence of the exchange contributions to the excitonic couplings on the dimer geometry is analyzed assessing the calculation of Coulombic excitonic couplings from monomer local excited states only, which reduces the computational effort significantly. The present work is a necessary first step toward the simulation of excitonic energy transport using semi-empirical methods.