Structure-Based Varieties of Polymeric Nanocarriers and Influences of Their Physicochemical Properties on Drug Delivery Profiles

Ionic co-aggregates based intravenous drug delivery: Evaluation on kinetics and distribution of the drug payloads and nanocarriers

Surfactants are crucial in formulating poorly soluble drugs but lead to serious side effects due to PEG chains. Novel supra-amphiphiles consisting of fatty acids and choline are developed, which spontaneously form ionic co-aggregates (ICAs) in water and exhibit strong solubilizing capacity. Paclitaxel (PTX) is adopted as a model drug here to evaluate the feasibility of choline oleate-based ICAs in the intravenous delivery of poorly soluble drugs by comparing the kinetics and distribution of payloads and nanocarriers. Choline oleate presents a maximum 10-fold enhancement in solubilizing capacity to PTX than Cremophor EL (CreEL), enabling a one-tenth use level in the formulation. Aggregation-caused quenching probes are utilized to evaluate the kinetics and biodistribution of ICAs or CreEL-based micelles (MCs). A huge gap is found between the pharmacokinetic and particokinetic curves of either nanocarrier, indicating fast leakage. ICAs lead to faster PTX leakage in blood circulation but higher PTX distribution to organs than MCs. MCs present a longer circulation in blood but a slower distribution to organs than ICAs. ICAs do not arise adverse reactions in rats following repeated injections, while MCs cause pathological changes in varying degrees. In conclusion, choline oleate-based ICAs provide an alternative to surfactants in formulating poorly soluble drugs.

Bioengineered carbohydrate polymers for colon-specific drug release: Current trends and future prospects

The worldwide health burden of colorectal cancer is still substantial, and traditional chemotherapeutic drugs sometimes have poor selectivity, which can result in systemic toxicity and unfavorable side effects. For colon-specific medication delivery, bioengineered carbohydrate polymers have shown promise as carriers. They may enhance treatment effectiveness while minimizing systemic exposure and associated side effects. The unique properties of these manufactured or naturally occurring biopolymers, such as hyaluronic acid, chitosan, alginate, and pectin, enable targeted medicine release. These qualities can be changed to meet the physiological needs of the colon. In the context of colorectal cancer therapy, this article provides a comprehensive overview of current developments and prospective future directions in the field of bioengineered carbohydrate polymer synthesis for colon-specific drug delivery. We discuss numerous techniques for achieving colon-targeted drug release, including enzyme-sensitive polymers, pH-responsive devices, and microbiota-activated processes. To increase tumor selectivity and cellular uptake, we also examine the inclusion of active targeting approaches, such as conjugating specific ligands. Furthermore, we discuss the potential of combination treatment strategies, which use the coadministration of numerous therapeutic medications to target multiple pathways implicated in cancer growth and address drug resistance mechanisms. We address recent biomimetic advances that potentially improve the biocompatibility, cellular uptake, and tumor penetration of carbohydrate polymer-based nanocarriers. These methods involve protein corona engineering and cell membrane coating. Furthermore, we look at the possibility of intelligent and sensitive systems that may adjust their behaviors in response to certain inputs or feedback loops, allowing for precise and regulated drug distribution.

Insights into the Biological Activity and Bio-Interaction Properties of Nanoscale Imine-Based 2D and 3D Covalent Organic Frameworks

Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) emerged as versatile materials with promising potential in  biomedicine. Their customizable functionalities and tunable pore structures make them valuable for various biomedical applications such as biosensing, bioimaging, antimicrobial activity, and targeted drug delivery. Despite efforts made to create nanoscale COFs (nCOFs) to enhance their interaction with biological systems, a comprehensive understanding of their inherent biological activities remains a significant challenge. In this study, a thorough investigation is conducted into the biocompatibility and anti-neoplastic properties of two distinct imine-based nCOFs. The approach involved an in-depth analysis of these nCOFs through in vitro experiments with various cell types and in vivo assessments using murine models. These findings revealed significant cytotoxic effects on tumor cells. Moreover, the activation of multiple cellular death pathways, including apoptosis, necroptosis, and ferroptosis is determined, supported by evidence at the molecular level. In vivo evaluations exhibited marked inhibition of tumor growth, associated with the elevated spontaneous accumulation of nCOFs in tumor tissues and the modulation of cell death-related protein expression. The research contributes to developing a roadmap for the characterization of the intricate interactions between nCOFs and biological systems and opens new avenues for exploiting their therapeutic potential in advanced biomedical applications.

"Enhancing Oral Drug Absorption: Overcoming Physiological and Pharmaceutical Barriers for Improved Bioavailability"

The oral route stands out as the most commonly used method for drug administration, prized for its non-invasive nature, patient compliance, and easy administration. Several elements influence the absorption of oral medications, including their solubility, permeability across mucosal membranes, and stability within the gastrointestinal (GI) environment. Research has delved into comprehending physicochemical, biochemical, metabolic, and biological obstacles that impact the bioavailability of a drug. To improve oral drug absorption, several pharmaceutical technologies and delivery methods have been studied, including cyclodextrins, micelles, nanocarriers, and lipid-based carriers. This review examines both traditional and innovative drug delivery methods, as well as the physiological and pharmacological barriers influencing medication bioavailability when taken orally. Additionally, it describes the challenges and advancements in developing formulations suitable for oral use.

Nanoparticles constructed from natural polyphenols are used in acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a severe clinical syndrome characterized by rapid deterioration of renal function caused by a variety of pathogeneses. Natural polyphenols have been considered to have potential in the treatment of AKI due to their powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, but their low bioavailability in vivo limits their efficacy. Polyphenol nanoparticles based on a nano-delivery system show good effects in reducing kidney injury, improving renal function and promoting renal tissue repair, and brings new hope and possibility for the treatment of AKI. This review provides an overview of the common characteristics, treatments, and associated adverse effects of AKI. The classification and bioavailability of polyphenols as well as their therapeutic role in AKI and potential possible effects are outlined. The potential therapeutic effects of polyphenol-based nanoparticles on AKI and the underlying mechanisms are discussed.

Recent Applications of PLGA in Drug Delivery Systems

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a widely used biodegradable and biocompatible copolymer in drug delivery systems (DDSs). In this article, we highlight the critical physicochemical properties of PLGA, including its molecular weight, intrinsic viscosity, monomer ratio, blockiness, and end caps, that significantly influence drug release profiles and degradation times. This review also covers the extensive literature on the application of PLGA in delivering small-molecule drugs, proteins, peptides, antibiotics, and antiviral drugs. Furthermore, we discuss the role of PLGA-based DDSs in the treating various diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, pain, and inflammation. The incorporation of drugs into PLGA nanoparticles and microspheres has been shown to enhance their therapeutic efficacy, reduce toxicity, and improve patient compliance. Overall, PLGA-based DDSs holds great promise for the advancement of the treatment and management of multiple chronic conditions.

Antivirulence activities of Rutin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles against pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus

BACKGROUND

Staphylococcus aureus is an infectious bacterium that is frequently found in healthcare settings and the community. This study aimed to prepare rutin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (Rut-CS NPs) and assess their antibacterial activity against pathogenic strains of S. aureus.

RESULTS

The synthesized Rut-CS NPs exhibited an amorphous morphology with a size ranging from 160 to 240 nm and a zeta potential of 37.3 mV. Rut-CS NPs demonstrated significant antibacterial activity against S. aureus strains. Following exposure to Rut-CS NPs, the production of staphyloxanthin pigment decreased by 43.31-89.63%, leading to increased susceptibility of S. aureus to hydrogen peroxide. Additionally, visual inspection of cell morphology indicated changes in membrane integrity and permeability upon Rut-CS NPs exposure, leading to a substantial increase (107.07-191.08%) in cytoplasmic DNA leakage in the strains. Furthermore, ½ MIC of Rut-CS NPs effectively inhibited the biofilm formation (22.5-37.5%) and hemolytic activity (69-82.59%) in the S. aureus strains.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study showcases that Rut-CS NPs can serve as a novel treatment agent to combat S. aureus infections by altering cell morphology and inhibiting virulence factors of S. aureus.

The Tiny Big Difference: Nanotechnology in Photoprotective Innovations - A Systematic Review

UV radiation causes long- and short-term skin damage, such as erythema and skin cancer. Therefore, the use of sunscreens is extremely important. However, concerns about UV filter safety have prompted exploration into alternative solutions, with nanotechnology emerging as a promising avenue. This systematic review identified 23 experimental studies utilizing nanocarriers to encapsulate sunscreens with the aim of enhancing their efficacy and safety. Polymeric and lipid nanoparticles are frequently employed to encapsulate both organic and inorganic UV filters along with natural antioxidants. Nanocarriers have demonstrated benefits including reduced active ingredient usage, increased sun protection factor, and mitigated photoinstability. Notably, they also decreased the skin absorption of UV filters. In summary, nanocarriers represent a viable strategy for improving sunscreen formulations, offering enhanced physicochemical properties and bolstered photoprotective effects, thereby addressing concerns regarding UV filter safety and efficacy in cosmetic applications.

Tissue Ablation: Applications and Perspectives

Tissue ablation techniques have emerged as a critical component of modern medical practice and biomedical research, offering versatile solutions for treating various diseases and disorders. Percutaneous ablation is minimally invasive and offers numerous advantages over traditional surgery, such as shorter recovery times, reduced hospital stays, and decreased healthcare costs. Intra-procedural imaging during ablation also allows precise visualization of the treated tissue while minimizing injury to the surrounding normal tissues, reducing the risk of complications. Here, the mechanisms of tissue ablation and innovative energy delivery systems are explored, highlighting recent advancements that have reshaped the landscape of clinical practice. Current clinical challenges related to tissue ablation are also discussed, underlining unmet clinical needs for more advanced material-based approaches to improve the delivery of energy and pharmacology-based therapeutics.

Nanosized Complexes of the Proteolytic Enzyme Serratiopeptidase with Cationic Block Copolymer Micelles Enhance the Proliferation and Migration of Human Cells

In this study, we describe the preparation of the cationic block copolymer nanocarriers of the proteolytic enzyme serratiopeptidase (SER). Firstly, an amphiphilic poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-b-poly(ε-caprolactone)-b-poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA9-b-PCL35-b-PDMAEMA9) triblock copolymer was synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Then, cationic micellar nanocarriers consisting of a PCL hydrophobic core and a PDMAEMA hydrophilic shell were formed by the solvent evaporation method. SER was loaded into the polymeric micelles by electrostatic interaction between the positively charged micellar shell and the negatively charged enzyme molecules. The particle size, zeta potential, and colloid stability of complexes as a function of SER concentration were investigated by dynamic and electrophoretic light scattering. It was found that SER retained its proteolytic activity after immobilization in polymeric carriers. Moreover, the complexes have a concentration-dependent enhancing effect on the proliferation and migration of human keratinocyte HaCaT and gingival fibroblast HGF cells.

Stimuli-responsive polymer-based nanosystems for cardiovascular disease theranostics

Stimulus-responsive polymers have found widespread use in biomedicine due to their ability to alter their own structure in response to various stimuli, including internal factors such as pH, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and enzymes, as well as external factors like light. In the context of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), stimulus-response polymers have been extensively employed for the preparation of smart nanocarriers that can deliver therapeutic and diagnostic drugs specifically to inflammatory lesions. Compared with traditional drug delivery systems, stimulus-responsive nanosystems offer higher sensitivity, greater versatility, wider applicability, and enhanced biosafety. Recent research has made significant contributions towards designing stimulus-responsive polymer nanosystems for CVDs diagnosis and treatment. This review summarizes recent advances in this field by classifying stimulus-responsive polymer nanocarriers according to different responsiveness types and describing numerous stimuli relevant to these materials. Additionally, we discuss various applications of stimulus-responsive polymer nanomaterials in CVDs theranostics. We hope that this review will provide valuable insights into optimizing the design of stimulus-response polymers for accelerating their clinical application in diagnosing and treating CVDs.

Recent Update on Nanocarrier(s) as the Targeted Therapy for Breast Cancer

Despite ongoing advances in cancer therapy, the results for the treatment of breast cancer are not satisfactory. The advent of nanotechnology promises to be an essential tool to improve drug delivery effectiveness in cancer therapy. Nanotechnology provides an opportunity to enhance the treatment modality by preventing degradation, improving tumour targeting, and controlling drug release. Recent advances have revealed several strategies to prevent cancer metastasis using nano-drug delivery systems (NDDS). These strategies include the design of appropriate nanocarriers loaded with anti-cancer drugs that target the optimization of physicochemical properties, modulate the tumour microenvironment, and target biomimetic techniques. Nanocarriers have emerged as a preferential approach in the chemotropic treatment for breast cancer due to their pivotal role in safeguarding the therapeutic agents against degradation. They facilitate efficient drug concentration in targeted cells, surmount the resistance of drugs, and possess a small size. Nevertheless, these nanocarrier(s) have some limitations, such as less permeability across the barrier and low bioavailability of loaded drugs. To overcome these challenges, integrating external stimuli has been employed, encompassing infrared light, thermal stimulation, microwaves, and X-rays. Among these stimuli, ultrasound-triggered nanocarriers have gained significant attention due to their cost-effectiveness, non-invasive nature, specificity, ability to penetrate tissues, and capacity to deliver elevated drug concentrations to intended targets. This article comprehensively reviews recent advancements in different nanocarriers for breast cancer chemotherapy. It also delves into the associated hurdles and offers valuable insights into the prospective directions for this innovative field.

Assessing the efficacy of mesotherapy products: Ultra Exo Booster, and Ultra S Line Plus in hair growth: An ex vivo study

In this study, scalp tissues from Korean adults between 20 and 80 without skin disease were used. Scalp tissues were processed, and hair follicles were isolated and cultured with different treatments (including Bioscalp, Ultra Exo Booster, and Ultra S Line Plus) from Ultra V company. Over 12 days, observations and measurements of hair follicle characteristics were recorded at intervals (Days 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12). The study assessed the impact of these substances on hair follicle growth and morphology. Bioscalp, combined with Ultra Exo Booster and Ultra S Line Plus, showed significant hair elongation in ex vivo. Preservation of hair bulb diameter was observed, indicating potential for sustained hair growth by exosome-based products. The hair growth cycle analysis suggested a lower transition to the catagen stage in test products from Ultra V compared to non-treated groups. The research findings indicated that the tested formulations, especially the combination of Bioscalp, Ultra Exo Booster, and Ultra S Line Plus, demonstrated significant effectiveness in promoting hair growth, maintaining the integrity of the hair bulb, and reducing the transition to the catagen stage. The study suggests promising alternative treatments for hair loss, illustrating results that were as good as those of the conventional testing product groups.

Recent Advances in Nanomedicine for Ocular Fundus Neovascularization Disease Management

As an indispensable part of the human sensory system, visual acuity may be impaired and even develop into irreversible blindness due to various ocular pathologies. Among ocular diseases, fundus neovascularization diseases (FNDs) are prominent etiologies of visual impairment worldwide. Intravitreal injection of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor drugs remains the primary therapy but is hurdled by common complications and incomplete potency. To renovate the current therapeutic modalities, nanomedicine emerged as the times required, which is endowed with advanced capabilities, able to fulfill the effective ocular fundus drug delivery and achieve precise drug release control, thus further improving the therapeutic effect. This review provides a comprehensive summary of advances in nanomedicine for FND management from state-of-the-art studies. First, the current therapeutic modalities for FNDs are thoroughly introduced, focusing on the key challenges of ocular fundus drug delivery. Second, nanocarriers are comprehensively reviewed for ocular posterior drug delivery based on the nanostructures: polymer-based nanocarriers, lipid-based nanocarriers, and inorganic nanoparticles. Thirdly, the characteristics of the fundus microenvironment, their pathological changes during FNDs, and corresponding strategies for constructing smart nanocarriers are elaborated. Furthermore, the challenges and prospects of nanomedicine for FND management are thoroughly discussed.

Self-Assembled Nanocarrier Delivery Systems for Bioactive Compounds

Although bioactive compounds (BCs) have many important functions, their applications are greatly limited due to their own defects. The development of nanocarriers (NCs) technology has gradually overcome the defects of BCs. NCs are equally important as BCs to some extent. Self-assembly (SA) methods to build NCs have many advantages than chemical methods, and SA has significant impact on the structure and function of NCs. However, the relationship among SA mechanism, structure, and function has not been given enough attention. Therefore, from the perspective of bottom-up building mechanism, the concept of SA-structure-function of NCs is emphasized to promote the development of SA-based NCs. First, the conditions and forces for occurring SA are introduced, and then the SA basis and molecular mechanism of protein, polysaccharide, and lipid are summarized. Then, varieties of the structures formed based on SA are introduced in detail. Finally, facing the defects of BCs and how to be well solved by NCs are also elaborated. This review attempts to describe the great significance of constructing artificial NCs to deliver BCs from the aspects of SA-structure-function, so as to promote the development of SA-based NCs and the wide application of BCs.

Advances in local drug delivery technologies for improved rheumatoid arthritis therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease characterized by an inflammatory microenvironment and cartilage erosion within the joint cavity. Currently, antirheumatic agents yield significant outcomes in RA treatment. However, their systemic administration is limited by inadequate drug retention in lesion areas and non-specific tissue distribution, reducing efficacy and increasing risks such as infection due to systemic immunosuppression. Development in local drug delivery technologies, such as nanostructure-based and scaffold-assisted delivery platforms, facilitate enhanced drug accumulation at the target site, controlled drug release, extended duration of the drug action, reduced both dosage and administration frequency, and ultimately improve therapeutic outcomes with minimized damage to healthy tissues. In this review, we introduced pathogenesis and clinically used therapeutic agents for RA, comprehensively summarized locally administered nanostructure-based and scaffold-assisted drug delivery systems, aiming at improving the therapeutic efficiency of RA by alleviating the inflammatory response, preventing bone erosion and promoting cartilage regeneration. In addition, the challenges and future prospects of local delivery for clinical translation in RA are discussed.

A new strategy for the treatment of middle ear infection using ciprofloxacin/amoxicillin-loaded ethyl cellulose/polyhydroxybutyrate nanofibers

A middle ear infection occurs due to the presence of several microorganisms behind the eardrum (tympanic membrane) and is very challenging to treat due to its unique location and requires a well-designed treatment. If not treated properly, the infection can result in severe symptoms and unavoidable side effects. In this study, excellent biocompatible ethyl cellulose (EC) and biodegradable polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) biopolymer were used to fabricate drug-loaded nanofiber scaffolds using an electrospinning technique to overcome antibiotic overdose and insufficient efficacy of drug release during treatment. PHB polymer was produced from Halomonas sp., and the purity of PHB was found to around be 90 %. Additionally, ciprofloxacin (CIP) and amoxicillin (AMX) are highly preferable since both drugs are highly effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria to treat several infections. Obtained smooth nanofibers were between 116.24 and 171.82 nm in diameter and the addition of PHB polymer and antibiotics improved the morphology of the nanofiber scaffolds. Thermal properties of the nanofiber scaffolds were tested and the highest Tg temperature resulted at 229 °C. The mechanical properties of the scaffolds were tested, and the highest tensile strength resulted in 4.65 ± 6.33 MPa. Also, drug-loaded scaffolds were treated against the most common microorganisms that cause the infection, such as S.aureus, E.coli, and P.aeruginosa, and resulted in inhibition zones between 10 and 21 mm. MTT assay was performed by culturing human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hAD MSCs) on the scaffolds. The morphology of the hAD MSCs' attachment was tested with SEM analysis and hAD MSCs were able to attach, spread, and live on each scaffold even on the day of 7. The cumulative drug release kinetics of CIP and AMX from drug-loaded scaffolds were analysed in phosphate-buffered saline (pH: 7.4) within different time intervals of up to 14 days using a UV spectrophotometer. Furthermore, the drug release showed that the First-Order and Korsmeyer-Peppas models were the most suitable kinetic models. Animal testing was performed on SD rats, matrix and collagen deposition occurred on days 5 and 10, which were observed using Hematoxylin-eosin and Masson's trichrome staining. At the highest drug concentration, a better repair effect was observed. Results were promising and showed potential for novel treatment.

Develop Targeted Protein Drug Carriers through a High-Throughput Screening Platform and Rational Design

Protein-based drugs offer advantages, such as high specificity, low toxicity, and minimal side effects compared to small molecule drugs. However, delivery of proteins to target tissues or cells remains challenging due to the instability, diverse structures, charges, and molecular weights of proteins. Polymers have emerged as a leading choice for designing effective protein delivery systems, but identifying a suitable polymer for a given protein is complicated by the complexity of both proteins and polymers. To address this challenge, a fluorescence-based high-throughput screening platform called ProMatch to efficiently collect data on protein-polymer interactions, followed by in vivo and in vitro experiments with rational design is developed. Using this approach to streamline polymer selection for targeted protein delivery, candidate polymers from commercially available options are identified and a polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB)-based system for delivering proteins to white adipose tissue as a treatment for obesity is developed. A branched polyethylenimine (bPEI)-based system for neuron-specific protein delivery to stimulate optic nerve regeneration is also developed. The high-throughput screening methodology expedites identification of promising polymer candidates for tissue-specific protein delivery systems, thereby providing a platform to develop innovative protein-based therapeutics.

Coumarin-Modified Starch Fluorescent Nanoparticles as Sensor of Fe3+ and Zn2+ ions Utilizing Dynamic Quenching and Chelation Mechanisms

Zinc and iron are two essential trace minerals that play a pivotal role in maintaining optimal health and well-being in the human body. Despite being required in relatively small quantities, their significance can be understated as they participate in a wide array of critical physiological processes such as oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, controlling nutrient availability, etc. Understanding the distribution and behavior of these ions in natural water bodies is essential for assessing water quality, studying ecological processes, and managing environmental impacts. In this study, we have developed a dual fluorescence probe using starch which was functionalized with coumarin derivatives, for efficient detection of Fe3+ and Zn2+ ions. This structure led a self-assembled starch/coumarin (SC) fluorescent nanoparticles with strong fluorescence intensity under ultraviolet light (365 nm). The quenching effect of Fe3+ on the SC fluorescent probe enabled efficient specific detection of Fe3+. Furthermore, Zn2+ ions increased fluorescence intensity of coumarin compounds (λemission = 459). This phenomenon occurs when the coumarin compound forms a complex or interacts with the zinc ion, resulting in enhanced fluorescence emission. In summary, the developed fluorescent probe offered a promising approach for sensitive and specific detection of iron and zinc ions in aqueous solutions.

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

The recent emergence of nanomedicine has revolutionized the therapeutic landscape and necessitated the creation of more sophisticated drug delivery systems. Polymeric nanoparticles sit at the forefront of numerous promising drug delivery designs, due to their unmatched control over physiochemical properties such as size, shape, architecture, charge, and surface functionality. Furthermore, polymeric nanoparticles have the ability to navigate various biological barriers to precisely target specific sites within the body, encapsulate a diverse range of therapeutic cargo and efficiently release this cargo in response to internal and external stimuli. However, despite these remarkable advantages, the presence of polymeric nanoparticles in wider clinical application is minimal. This review will provide a comprehensive understanding of polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. The biological barriers affecting drug delivery will be outlined first, followed by a comprehensive description of the various nanoparticle designs and preparation methods, beginning with the polymers on which they are based. The review will meticulously explore the current performance of polymeric nanoparticles against a myriad of diseases including cancer, viral and bacterial infections, before finally evaluating the advantages and crucial challenges that will determine their wider clinical potential in the decades to come.

Morphological Transformation and Surface Engineering of Glycovesicles Driven by Bioinspired Hydrogen Bonds of Nucleobases

Glycopolymer-based supramolecular glycoassemblies with signal-driven cascade morphological deformation and accessible surface engineering toward bioinspired functional glycomaterials have attracted much attention due to their diverse applications in fundamental and practical scenarios. Herein, we achieved the cascade morphological transformation and surface engineering of a nucleobase-containing polymeric glycovesicle through exploiting the bioinspired complementary multiple hydrogen bonds of complementary nucleobases. First, the synthesized thymine-containing glycopolymers (PGal30-b-PTAm249) are capable of self-assembling into well-defined glycovesicles. Several kinds of amphiphilic adenine-containing block copolymers with neutral, positive, and negative charges were synthesized to engineer the glycovesicles through the multiple hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine. A cascade of morphological transformations from vesicles to ruptured vesicles with tails, to worm-like micelles, and finally to spherical micelles were observed via continuously adding the adenine-containing polymer into the thymine-containing glycovesicles. Furthermore, the surface charge properties of these glyconano-objects can be facilely regulated through incorporating various adenine-containing polymers. This work demonstrates the potential application of a unique bioinspired approach to precisely engineer the morphology and surface properties of glycovesicles for boosting their biological applications.

Smart Nanocarriers for the Treatment of Retinal Diseases

Retinal diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and retinoblastoma, stand as the leading causes of irreversible vision impairment and blindness worldwide. Effectively administering drugs for retinal diseases poses a formidable challenge due to the presence of complex ocular barriers and elimination mechanisms. Over time, various approaches have been developed to fabricate drug delivery systems for improving retinal therapy including virus vectors, lipid nanoparticles, and polymers. However, conventional nanocarriers encounter issues related to the controllability, efficiency, and safety in the retina. Therefore, the development of smart nanocarriers for effective or more invasive long-term treatment remains a desirable goal. Recently, approaches have surfaced for the intelligent design of nanocarriers, leveraging specific responses to external or internal triggers and enabling multiple functions for retinal therapy such as topical administration, prolonged drug release, and site-specific drug delivery. This Review provides an overview of prevalent retinal pathologies and related pharmacotherapies to enhance the understanding of retinal diseases. It also surveys recent developments and strategies employed in the intelligent design of nanocarriers for retinal disease. Finally, the challenges of smart nanocarriers in potential clinical retinal therapeutic applications are discussed to inspire the next generation of smart nanocarriers.

Nanocarriers for the Delivery of Quercetin to Inhibit the UV-Induced Aggregation of γD-Crystallin

Due to gradual environmental changes like ozone layer depletion and global warming, human eyes are exposed to UV light. Exposure to UV light can be a cause of cataracts, one of the ocular diseases that may cause vision impairment. To date, lens replacement has been the only treatment available for cataracts. In our present study, we carried out an extensive examination of polyphenols as inhibitors for UV-induced aggregation of γD-crystallin. On exposure to UV-C light, γD-crystallin forms fibrils instead of amorphous aggregates. Various polyphenols were tested as inhibitors; out of them, quercetin, baicalein, and caffeic acid were found to be effective. As polyphenols are insoluble in water, nanoencapsulation was used to enhance their bioavailability. CS-TPP and CS-PLGA encapsulating systems were considered, as they form biodegradable nanocapsules. Out of three polyphenols (quercetin, baicalein, and caffeic acid), quercetin forms nanocarriers of smaller sizes, a must for crossing the retinal barrier. Quercetin nanocarriers were considered an effective system that could be used for therapeutic applications. For these nanocarriers, encapsulation efficiency and polyphenol release kinetics were studied. CS-PLGA NPs were found to have a better loading efficiency for quercetin than CS-TPP NPs.

Light-responsive polymeric nanoparticles for retinal drug delivery: design cues, challenges and future perspectives

A multitude of sight-threatening retinal diseases, affecting hundreds of millions around the globe, lack effective pharmacological treatments due to ocular barriers and common drug delivery limitations. Polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) are versatile drug carriers with sustained drug release profiles and tunable physicochemical properties which have been explored for ocular drug delivery to both anterior and posterior ocular tissues. PNPs can incorporate a wide range of drugs and overcome the challenges of conventional retinal drug delivery. Moreover, PNPs can be engineered to respond to specific stimuli such as ultraviolet, visible, or near-infrared light, and allow precise spatiotemporal control of the drug release, enabling tailored treatment regimens and reducing the number of required administrations. The objective of this study is to emphasize the therapeutic potential of light-triggered drug-loaded polymeric nanoparticles to treat retinal diseases through an exploration of ocular pathologies, challenges in drug delivery, current production methodologies and recent applications. Despite challenges, light-responsive PNPs hold the promise of substantially enhancing the treatment landscape for ocular diseases, aiming for an improved quality of life for patients.

pNIPAm-Based pH and Thermoresponsive Copolymer Hydrogel for Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Drug Delivery

The regulated and targeted administration of hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs is both promising and challenging in the field of drug delivery. Developing a hydrogel which is responsive to dual stimuli is considered a promising and exciting research area of study. In this work, melamine functionalized poly-N-isopropyl acrylamide-co-glycidyl methacrylate copolymer has been developed by copolymerizing glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) monomer with N-isopropyl acrylamide (NIPAm) and further functionalized with melamine units (pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela). The prepared pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela copolymer hydrogel was characterized using various characterization techniques, including 1H NMR, FTIR, SEM, zeta potential, and particle size analysis. A hydrophobic drug (ibuprofen, Ibu) and hydrophilic drug (5-fluorouracil, 5-Fu) were selected as model drugs. Dual pH and temperature stimuli-responsive drug release behavior of the pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela hydrogel was evaluated under different pH (pH 7.4 and 4.0) and temperature (25 °C, 37 °C, and 45 °C) conditions. Furthermore, the in vitro biocompatibility of the developed pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela copolymer hydrogel was determined on MDA-MB-231 cells. The pH and temperature-responsive drug delivery study results reveal that the pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela hydrogel system is responsive to both pH and temperature stimuli and exhibits about ~100% of Ibu and 5-Fu, respectively, released at pH 4.0/45 °C. Moreover, the MTT assay and hemocompatibility analysis results proved that the pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela hydrogel system is biocompatible and hemocompatible, suggesting that that it could be used for drug delivery applications. The experimental results suggest that the proposed pNIPAm-co-pGMA-Mela hydrogel system is responsive to dual pH and temperature stimuli, and could be a promising drug carrier system for both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drug delivery applications.

Engineered smart materials for RNA based molecular therapy to treat Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is an aggressive malignancy of the central nervous system (CNS) that remains incurable despite the multitude of improvements in cancer therapeutics. The conventional chemo and radiotherapy post-surgery have only been able to improve the prognosis slightly; however, the development of resistance and/or tumor recurrence is almost inevitable. There is a pressing need for adjuvant molecular therapies that can successfully and efficiently block tumor progression. During the last few decades, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have emerged as key players in regulating various hallmarks of cancer including that of GBM. The levels of many ncRNAs are dysregulated in cancer, and ectopic modulation of their levels by delivering antagonists or overexpression constructs could serve as an attractive option for cancer therapy. The therapeutic potential of several types of ncRNAs, including miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs, has been validated in both in vitro and in vivo models of GBM. However, the delivery of these RNA-based therapeutics is highly challenging, especially to the tumors of the brain as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses as a major obstacle, among others. Also, since RNA is extremely fragile in nature, careful considerations must be met while designing a delivery agent. In this review we have shed light on how ncRNA therapy can overcome the limitations of its predecessor conventional therapy with an emphasis on smart nanomaterials that can aide in the safe and targeted delivery of nucleic acids to treat GBM. Additionally, critical gaps that currently exist for successful transition from viral to non-viral vector delivery systems have been identified. Finally, we have provided a perspective on the future directions, potential pathways, and target areas for achieving rapid clinical translation of, RNA-based macromolecular therapy to advance the effective treatment of GBM and other related diseases.

The Necessity to Investigate In Vivo Fate of Nanoparticle-Loaded Dissolving Microneedles

Transdermal drug delivery systems are rapidly gaining prominence and have found widespread application in the treatment of numerous diseases. However, they encounter the challenge of a low transdermal absorption rate. Microneedles can overcome the stratum corneum barrier to enhance the transdermal absorption rate. Among various types of microneedles, nanoparticle-loaded dissolving microneedles (DMNs) present a unique combination of advantages, leveraging the strengths of DMNs (high payload, good mechanical properties, and easy fabrication) and nanocarriers (satisfactory solubilization capacity and a controlled release profile). Consequently, they hold considerable clinical application potential in the precision medicine era. Despite this promise, no nanoparticle-loaded DMN products have been approved thus far. The lack of understanding regarding their in vivo fate represents a critical bottleneck impeding the clinical translation of relevant products. This review aims to elucidate the current research status of the in vivo fate of nanoparticle-loaded DMNs and elaborate the necessity to investigate the in vivo fate of nanoparticle-loaded DMNs from diverse aspects. Furthermore, it offers insights into potential entry points for research into the in vivo fate of nanoparticle-loaded DMNs, aiming to foster further advancements in this field.

4-(Phenylselanyl)-2H-chromen-2-one-Loaded Nanocapsule Suspension-A Promising Breakthrough in Pain Management: Comprehensive Molecular Docking, Formulation Design, and Toxicological and Pharmacological Assessments in Mice

Therapies for the treatment of pain and inflammation continue to pose a global challenge, emphasizing the significant impact of pain on patients' quality of life. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of 4-(Phenylselanyl)-2H-chromen-2-one (4-PSCO) on pain-associated proteins through computational molecular docking tests. A new pharmaceutical formulation based on polymeric nanocapsules was developed and characterized. The potential toxicity of 4-PSCO was assessed using Caenorhabditis elegans and Swiss mice, and its pharmacological actions through acute nociception and inflammation tests were also assessed. Our results demonstrated that 4-PSCO, in its free form, exhibited high affinity for the selected receptors, including p38 MAP kinase, peptidyl arginine deiminase type 4, phosphoinositide 3-kinase, Janus kinase 2, toll-like receptor 4, and nuclear factor-kappa β. Both free and nanoencapsulated 4-PSCO showed no toxicity in nematodes and mice. Parameters related to oxidative stress and plasma markers showed no significant change. Both treatments demonstrated antinociceptive and anti-edematogenic effects in the glutamate and hot plate tests. The nanoencapsulated form exhibited a more prolonged effect, reducing mechanical hypersensitivity in an inflammatory pain model. These findings underscore the promising potential of 4-PSCO as an alternative for the development of more effective and safer drugs for the treatment of pain and inflammation.

Ionic Liquid-Based Polymer Matrices for Single and Dual Drug Delivery: Impact of Structural Topology on Characteristics and In Vitro Delivery Efficiency

Previously reported amphiphilic linear and graft copolymers, derived from the ionic liquid [2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]trimethylammonium chloride (TMAMA_Cl‾), along with their conjugates obtained through modification either before or after polymerization with p-aminosalicylate anions (TMAMA_PAS‾), were employed as matrices in drug delivery systems (DDSs). Based on the counterion type in TMAMA units, they were categorized into single drug systems, manifesting as ionic polymers with chloride counterions and loaded isoniazid (ISO), and dual drug systems, featuring ISO loaded in self-assembled PAS conjugates. The amphiphilic nature of these copolymers was substantiated through the determination of the critical micelle concentration (CMC), revealing an increase in values post-ion exchange (from 0.011-0.063 mg/mL to 0.027-0.181 mg/mL). The self-assembling properties were favorable for ISO encapsulation, with drug loading content (DLC) ranging between 15 and 85% in both single and dual systems. In vitro studies indicated ISO release percentages between 16 and 61% and PAS release percentages between 20 and 98%. Basic cytotoxicity assessments using the 2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) test affirmed the non-toxicity of the studied systems toward human non-tumorigenic lung epithelial cell line (BEAS-2B) cell lines, particularly in the case of dual systems bearing both ISO and PAS simultaneously. These results confirmed the effectiveness of polymeric carriers in drug delivery, demonstrating their potential for co-delivery in combination therapy.

3D-printed microfluidic device for high-throughput production of lipid nanoparticles incorporating SARS-CoV-2 spike protein mRNA

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are drug carriers for protecting nucleic acids for cellular delivery. The first mRNA vaccines authorized by the United States Food and Drug Administration are the mRNA-1273 (Moderna) and BNT162b (BioNTech/Pfizer) vaccines against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We designed a 3D printed Omnidirectional Sheath-flow Enabled Microfluidics (OSEM) device for producing mRNA-loaded LNPs that closely resemble the Moderna vaccine: we used the same lipid formulations to encapsulate mRNA encoding SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. The OSEM device is made of durable methacrylate-based materials that can support flow rates in the mL min-1 range and was fabricated by stereolithography (SLA), incorporating readily adaptable interfaces using commercial fluidic connectors. Two key features of the OSEM device are: 1) a 4-way hydrodynamic flow focusing region and 2) a staggered herringbone mixer (SHM). Superior to conventional planar fluid junctions, the 4-way sheath flow channel generates an evenly focused, circular center flow that facilitates the formation of LNPs with low polydispersity. Downstream, fluid mixing in the SHM is intensified by incorporating a zig-zag fluidic pathway to deliver high mRNA encapsulation efficiency. We characterized the mRNA-loaded LNPs produced in the OSEM device and showed that the enhanced 3D microfluidic structures enable a 5-fold higher throughput production rate (60 mL min-1) of LNPs compared to commercial multi-thousand-dollar micromixers. The device produced LNPs of diameter less than 90 nm, with low polydispersity (2-8%) and high mRNA encapsulation efficiency (>90%). The 3D-printed device provides a cost-effective and easily prepared solution for high-throughput LNP production.

Design and synthesis of bioinspired nanomaterials for biomedical application

Natural materials and bioprocesses provide abundant inspirations for the design and synthesis of high-performance nanomaterials. In the past several decades, bioinspired nanomaterials have shown great potential in the application of biomedical fields, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, and cancer therapy, and so on. In this review, three types of bioinspired strategies for biomedical nanomaterials, that is, inspired by the natural structures, biomolecules, and bioprocesses, are mainly introduced. We summarize and discuss the design concepts and synthesis approaches of various bioinspired nanomaterials along with their specific roles in biomedical applications. Additionally, we discuss the challenges for the development of bioinspired biomedical nanomaterials, such as mechanical failure in wet environment, limitation in scale-up fabrication, and lack of deep understanding of biological properties. It is expected that the development and clinical translation of bioinspired biomedical nanomaterials will be further promoted under the cooperation of interdisciplinary subjects in future. This article is categorized under: Implantable Materials and Surgical Technologies > Nanomaterials and Implants Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Recent advances in biopolymer-based hydrogels and their potential biomedical applications

Hydrogels are three-dimensional networks of polymer chains containing large amounts of water in their structure. Hydrogels have received significant attention in biomedical applications owing to their attractive physicochemical properties, including flexibility, softness, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Different natural and synthetic polymers have been intensely explored in developing hydrogels for the desired applications. Biopolymers-based hydrogels have advantages over synthetic polymers regarding improved cellular activity and weak immune response. These properties can be further improved by grafting with other polymers or adding nanomaterials, and they structurally mimic the living tissue environments, which opens their broad applicability. The hydrogels can be physically or chemically cross-linked depending on the structure. The use of different biopolymers-based hydrogels in biomedical applications has been reviewed and discussed earlier. However, no report is still available to comprehensively introduce the synthesis, advantages, disadvantages, and biomedical applications of biopolymers-based hydrogels from the material point of view. Herein, we systematically overview different synthesis methods of hydrogels and provide a holistic approach to biopolymers-based hydrogels for biomedical applications, especially in bone regeneration, wound healing, drug delivery, bioimaging, and therapy. The current challenges and prospects of biopolymers-based hydrogels are highlighted rationally, giving an insight into the progress of these hydrogels and their practical applications.

Development of "Smart Foods" for health by nanoencapsulation: Novel technologies and challenges

Importance of nanotechnology may be seen by penetration of its application in diverse areas including the food sector. With investigations and advancements in nanotechnology, based on feedback from these diverse areas, ease, and efficacy are also increasing. The food sector may use nanotechnology to encapsulate smart foods for increased health, wellness, illness prevention, and effective targeted delivery. Such nanoencapsulated targeted delivery systems may further add to the economic and nutritional properties of smart foods like stability, solubility, effectiveness, safeguard against disintegration, permeability, and bioavailability of smart/bioactive substances. But in the way of application, the fabrication of nanomaterials/nanostructures has several challenges which range from figuring out the optimal technique for obtaining them to determining the most suitable form of nanostructure for a bioactive molecule of interest. This review precisely addresses concepts, recent advances in fabrication techniques as well as current challenges/glitches of nanoencapsulation with special reference to smart foods/bioactive components. Since dealing with food materials also raises the quest for safety and regulatory norms a brief overview of the safety and regulatory aspects of nanomaterials/nanoencapsulation is also presented.

Sniping Cancer Stem Cells with Nanomaterials

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) drive tumor initiation, progression, and therapeutic resistance due to their self-renewal and differentiation capabilities. Despite encouraging progress in cancer treatment, conventional approaches often fail to eliminate CSCs, necessitating the development of precise targeted strategies. Recent advances in materials science and nanotechnology have enabled promising CSC-targeted approaches, harnessing the power of tailoring nanomaterials in diverse therapeutic applications. This review provides an update on the current landscape of nanobased precision targeting approaches against CSCs. We elucidate the nuanced application of organic, inorganic, and bioinspired nanomaterials across a spectrum of therapeutic paradigms, encompassing targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and multimodal synergistic therapies. By examining the accomplishments and challenges in this potential field, we aim to inform future efforts to advance nanomaterial-based therapies toward more effective "sniping" of CSCs and tumor clearance.

Stimuli-Responsive Polymer-Based Nanosystems for Cancer Theranostics

Stimuli-responsive polymers can respond to internal stimuli, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), glutathione (GSH), and pH, biological stimuli, such as enzymes, and external stimuli, such as lasers and ultrasound, etc., by changing their hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity, degradability, ionizability, etc., and thus have been widely used in biomedical applications. Due to the characteristics of the tumor microenvironment (TME), stimuli-responsive polymers that cater specifically to the TME have been extensively used to prepare smart nanovehicles for the targeted delivery of therapeutic and diagnostic agents to tumor tissues. Compared to conventional drug delivery nanosystems, TME-responsive nanosystems have many advantages, such as high sensitivity, broad applicability among different tumors, functional versatility, and improved biosafety. In recent years, a great deal of research has been devoted to engineering efficient stimuli-responsive polymeric nanosystems, and significant improvement has been made to both cancer diagnosis and therapy. In this review, we summarize some recent research advances involving the use of stimuli-responsive polymer nanocarriers in drug delivery, tumor imaging, therapy, and theranostics. Various chemical stimuli will be described in the context of stimuli-responsive nanosystems. Accordingly, the functional chemical groups responsible for the responsiveness and the strategies to incorporate these groups into the polymer will be discussed in detail. With the research on this topic expending at a fast pace, some innovative concepts, such as sequential and cascade drug release, NIR-II imaging, and multifunctional formulations, have emerged as popular strategies for enhanced performance, which will also be included here with up-to-date illustrations. We hope that this review will offer valuable insights for the selection and optimization of stimuli-responsive polymers to help accelerate their future applications in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Rationally designed block copolymer-based nanoarchitectures: An emerging paradigm for effective drug delivery

Various polymeric materials have been investigated to produce unique modes of delivery for drug modules to achieve either temporal or spatial control of bioactives delivery. However, after intravenous administration, phagocytic cells quickly remove these nanostructures from the systemic circulation via the reticuloendothelial system (RES). To overcome these concerns, ecofriendly block copolymers are increasingly being investigated as innovative carriers for the delivery of bioactives. In this review, we discuss the design, fabrication techniques, and recent advances in the development of block copolymers and their applications as drug carrier systems to improve the physicochemical and pharmacological attributes of bioactives.

Self-Assembling Polymers with p-Aminosalicylate Anions Supported by Encapsulation of p-Aminosalicylate for the Improvement of Drug Content and Release Efficiency

Bioactive linear choline-based copolymers were developed as micellar carriers for drug delivery systems (DDSs). The polymethacrylates containing trimethylammonium groups with p-aminosalicylate anions (PAS-based copolymers: series 1) or chloride anions (Cl-based copolymers: series 2) differing in ionic content and chain length were selected for drug loading. The diverse structures of amphiphilic copolymers made it possible to adjust the encapsulation efficiency of a well-known antibiotic, i.e., p-aminosalicylate in the form of sodium salt (PASNa) or acid (PASA), providing single drug systems. Goniometry was applied to verify the self-assembly capacity of the copolymers using the critical micelle concentration (CMC = 0.03-0.18 mg/mL) and the hydrophilicity level quantifying the surface wettability of polymer film using the water contact angle (WCA = 30-53°). Both parameters were regulated by the copolymer composition, indicating that the increase in ionic content caused higher CMC and lower WCA, but the latter was also modified to a less hydrophilic surface by drug encapsulation. The drug content (DC) in the PAS-based polymers was increased twice by encapsulation of PASNa and PASA (47-96% and 86-104%), whereas in the chloride-based polymer systems, the drug was loaded in 43-96% and 73-100%, respectively. Efficient drug release was detected for PASNa (80-100% series 1; 50-100% series 2) and PASA as complete in both series. The strategy of loading extra drug by encapsulation, which enhances the drug content in the copolymers containing anions of the same pharmaceutics, provided promising characteristics, which highlight the potential of PAS-loaded micellar copolymers for drug delivery.

Emerging strategies to fabricate polymeric nanocarriers for enhanced drug delivery across blood-brain barrier: An overview

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) serves as an essential interface between central nervous system (CNS) and its periphery, allowing selective permeation of ions, gaseous molecules, and other nutrients to maintain metabolic functions of brain. Concurrently, it restricts passage of unsolicited materials from bloodstream to CNS which could otherwise lead to neurotoxicity. Nevertheless, in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma, and other brain cancers, drugs must reach CNS. Among various materials developed for this purpose, a few judiciously selected polymeric nanocarriers are reported to be highly prospective to facilitate BBB permeation. However, the challenge of transporting drug-loaded nanomaterials across this barrier remains formidable. Herein a concise analysis of recently employed strategies for designing polymeric nanocarriers to deliver therapeutics across BBB is presented. Impacts of 3Ss, namely, size, shape, and surface charge of polymeric nanocarriers on BBB permeation along with different ligands used for nanoparticle surface modification to achieve targeted delivery have been scrutinized. Finally, we elucidated future research directions in the context of designing smart polymeric nanocarriers for BBB permeation. This work aims to guide researchers engaged in polymeric nanocarrier design, helping them navigate where to begin, what challenges to address, and how to proceed effectively.

Chitosan-Biotin-Conjugated pH-Responsive Ru(II) Glucose Nanogel: A Dual Pathway of Targeting Cancer Cells and Self-Drug Delivery

The current study paves the way for improved chemotherapy by creating pH-responsive nanogels (NGs) (GC1 and GC2) loaded with synthetic ruthenium(II) arene complexes to increase biological potency. NGs are fabricated by the conjugation of chitosan (CTS)-biotin biopolymers that selectively target the cancer cells as CTS has the pH-responsive property, which helps in releasing the drug in cancer cells having pH ∼ 5.5, and biotin provides the way to target the cancer cells selectively due to the overexpression of integrin. The synthesized compounds and NGs were thoroughly characterized using various spectroscopic and analytical techniques such as NMR, electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry, Fourier transform infrared, UV-vis, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, rheology, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller, and others. NGs displayed exceptional increased efficacy toward cancerous cells with IC50 values ranging from 7.50 to 18.86 μM via induced apoptosis in three human cancer cell lines. Apart from its potency, NGs were found to be highly selective toward cancer cells. Moreover, based on the results of immunoblot analysis, it was observed that the synthesized compounds exhibit a significant increase in the expression of cleaved caspase-3 and a decrease in the expression of the antiapoptotic protein BCL-XL. Interestingly, the complexes were discovered to have the additional capability of catalyzing the conversion of NADH to NAD+, leading to the generation of radical oxygen species within the cells. Additionally, it was discovered that NG-induced apoptosis depends on ROS production and DNA binding. A narrower range of LD50 values (1185.93 and 823.03 μM) was seen after administering NGs to zebrafish embryos in vivo. The results support the use of drug-loaded NGs as potential chemotherapeutic and chemopreventive agents for human cancer cells.

Multi-functional chitosan-based nanoparticles for drug delivery: Recent advanced insight into cancer therapy

Cancer therapy continues to be a major global concern, with conventional treatments suffering from low efficacy, untargeted drug delivery, and severe side effects. Recent research in nanomedicine suggests that nanoparticles' unique physicochemical properties can be leveraged to surmount the limitations of conventional cancer treatment. Chitosan-based nanoparticles have gained significant attention due to their high drug-carrying capacity, non-toxicity, biocompatibility, and long circulation time. Chitosan is utilized in cancer therapies as a carrier to accurately deliver active ingredients to tumor sites. This review focuses on clinical studies and current market offerings of anticancer drugs. The unique nature of tumor microenvironments presents new opportunities for the development of smart drug delivery systems, and this review explores the design and preparation of chitosan-based smart nanoparticles. Further, we discuss the therapeutic efficacies of these nanoparticles based on various in vitro and in vivo findings. Finally, we present a forward-looking perspective on the challenges and prospects of chitosan-based nanoparticles in cancer therapy, intending to provide fresh ideas for advancing cancer treatment strategies.

Hsp70-Targeting and Size-Tunable Nanoparticles Combine with PD-1 Checkpoint Blockade to Treat Glioma

Invasive glioma usually disrupts the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), making the delivery of nanodrugs across the BBB possible, but sufficient targeting ability is still avidly needed to improve drug accumulation in glioma. Membrane-bound heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) is expressed on the membrane of glioma cells rather than adjacent normal cells, therefore it can serve as a specific glioma target. Meanwhile, prolonging the retention in tumors is important for active-targeting nanoparticles to overcome receptor-binding barriers. Herein, the Hsp70-targeting and acid-triggered self-assembled gold nanoparticles (D-A-DA/TPP) are proposed to realize selective delivery of doxorubicin (DOX) to glioma. In the weakly acidic glioma matrix, D-A-DA/TPP formed aggregates to prolong retention, improve receptor-binding efficiency and facilitate acid-responsive DOX release. DOX accumulation in glioma induced immunogenic cell death (ICD) to promote antigen presentation. Meanwhile, combination with the PD-1 checkpoint blockade further activate T cells and provokes robust anti-tumor immunity. The results showed that D-A-DA/TPP can induce more glioma apoptosis. Furthermore, in vivo studies indicated D-A-DA/TPP plus PD-1 checkpoint blockade significantly improved median survival time. This study offeres a potential nanocarrier combining size-tunable strategy with active targeting ability to increase drug enrichment in glioma and synergizes with PD-1 checkpoint blockade to achieve chemo-immunotherapy.

Light, pH, and Temperature Triple-Responsive Magnetic Composites for Highly Efficient Phosphopeptide Enrichment

Smart materials can dynamically and reversibly change their structures and functions in response to external stimuli. In this study, we designed a smart magnetic composite (MNP-pSPA-b-pNIPAm) with a triple response to ultraviolet (UV) light, pH, and temperature. Relying on the response of spiropyranyl acrylate (SPA) and N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAm) to external stimuli (light, pH, and temperature), MNP-pSPA-b-pNIPAm was used for the controlled capture and release of phosphopeptides. The established phosphopeptide enrichment platform exhibits high sensitivity (detection limit of 0.04 fmol), high selectivity (BSA/β-casein, 1000:1), and good reusability (6 cycles). In addition, the method was also applied to the enrichment of phosphopeptides in real samples (skim milk, human saliva, and serum), demonstrating the feasibility of this method for phosphoproteomic analysis. After enriching from human nonsmall cell lung cancer cell (A549) lysates with MNP-pSPA-b-pNIPAm, 2595 phosphopeptides corresponding to 2281 phosphoproteins were identified. The novel responsive enrichment probe is highly specific for phosphoproteomic analysis and provides an effective method for studying the significance of protein phosphorylation in complex biological samples.

Dendrimer: An update on recent developments and future opportunities for the brain tumors diagnosis and treatment

A brain tumor is an uncontrolled cell proliferation, a mass of tissue composed of cells that grow and divide abnormally and appear to be uncontrollable by the processes that normally control normal cells. Approximately 25,690 primary malignant brain tumors are discovered each year, 70% of which originate in glial cells. It has been observed that the blood-brain barrier (BBB) limits the distribution of drugs into the tumour environment, which complicates the oncological therapy of malignant brain tumours. Numerous studies have found that nanocarriers have demonstrated significant therapeutic efficacy in brain diseases. This review, based on a non-systematic search of the existing literature, provides an update on the existing knowledge of the types of dendrimers, synthesis methods, and mechanisms of action in relation to brain tumours. It also discusses the use of dendrimers in the diagnosis and treatment of brain tumours and the future possibilities of dendrimers. Dendrimers are of particular interest in the diagnosis and treatment of brain tumours because they can transport biochemical agents across the BBB to the tumour and into the brain after systemic administration. Dendrimers are being used to develop novel therapeutics such as prolonged release of drugs, immunotherapy, and antineoplastic effects. The use of PAMAM, PPI, PLL and surface engineered dendrimers has proven revolutionary in the effective diagnosis and treatment of brain tumours.

Polymer nanoparticles from low-energy nanoemulsions for biomedical applications

The formulation of nanoemulsions by low-energy strategies, particularly by the phase inversion composition method, and the use of these nanoemulsions as templates for the preparation of polymer nanoparticles for biomedical applications are reviewed. The methods of preparation, nature of the components in the formulation, and their impact on the physicochemical properties, drug loading, and drug release are discussed. We highlight the utilization of ethyl cellulose, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), and polyurethane/polyurea in the field of nanomedicine as potential drug delivery systems. Advances are still needed to achieve better control over size distribution, nanoparticle concentration, surface functionalization, and the type of polymers that can be processed.

Polymeric Metal Contrast Agents for T1-Weighted Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain

Imaging plays an integral role in diagnostics and treatment monitoring for conditions affecting the brain; enhanced brain imaging capabilities will improve upon both while increasing the general understanding of how the brain works. T₁-weighted magnetic resonance imaging is the preferred modality for brain imaging. Commercially available contrast agents, which are often required to render readable brain images, have considerable toxicity concerns. In recent years, much progress has been made in developing new contrast agents based on the magnetic features of gadolinium, iron, or magnesium. Nanotechnological approaches for these systems allow for the protected integration of potentially harmful metals with added benefits like reduced dosage and improved transport. Polymeric enhancement of each design further improves biocompatibility while allowing for specific brain targeting. This review outlines research on polymeric nanomedicine designs for T₁-weighted contrast agents that have been evaluated for performance in the brain.

Polymer- and lipid-based nanocarriers for ocular drug delivery: Current status and future perspectives

Ocular diseases seriously affect patients' vision and life quality, with a global morbidity of over 43 million blindness. However, efficient drug delivery to treat ocular diseases, particularly intraocular disorders, remains a huge challenge due to multiple ocular barriers that significantly affect the ultimate therapeutic efficacy of drugs. Recent advances in nanocarrier technology offer a promising opportunity to overcome these barriers by providing enhanced penetration, increased retention, improved solubility, reduced toxicity, prolonged release, and targeted delivery of the loaded drug to the eyes. This review primarily provides an overview of the progress and contemporary applications of nanocarriers, mainly polymer- and lipid-based nanocarriers, in treating various eye diseases, highlighting their value in achieving efficient ocular drug delivery. Additionally, the review covers the ocular barriers and administration routes, as well as the prospective future developments and challenges in the field of nanocarriers for treating ocular diseases.

Intranasal Polymeric and Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for CNS Drug Delivery

Nanomedicine is currently focused on the design and development of nanocarriers that enhance drug delivery to the brain to address unmet clinical needs for treating neuropsychiatric disorders and neurological diseases. Polymer and lipid-based drug carriers are advantageous for delivery to the central nervous system (CNS) due to their safety profiles, drug-loading capacity, and controlled-release properties. Polymer and lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) are reported to penetrate the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and have been extensively assessed in in vitro and animal models of glioblastoma, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative disease. Since approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of intranasal esketamine for treatment of major depressive disorder, intranasal administration has emerged as an attractive route to bypass the BBB for drug delivery to the CNS. NPs can be specifically designed for intranasal administration by tailoring their size and coating with mucoadhesive agents or other moieties that promote transport across the nasal mucosa. In this review, unique characteristics of polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers desirable for drug delivery to the brain are explored in addition to their potential for drug repurposing for the treatment of CNS disorders. Progress in intranasal drug delivery using polymeric and lipid-based nanostructures for the development of treatments of various neurological diseases are also described.

Binary Graft of Poly(acrylic acid) and Poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) onto PDMS Films for Load and Release of Ciprofloxacin

Polymers are versatile compounds which physical and chemical properties can be taken advantage of in wide applications. Particularly, in the biomedical field, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is one of the most used for its high biocompatibility, easy manipulation, thermal, and chemical stability. Nonetheless, its hydrophobic nature makes it susceptible to bacterial pollution, which represents a disadvantage in this field. A potential solution to this is through the graft of stimuli-sensitive polymers that, besides providing hydrophilicity, allow the creation of a drug delivery system. In this research, PDMS was grafted with acrylic acid (AAc) and vinyl pyrrolidone (VP) in two steps using gamma radiation. The resulting material was analyzed by several characterization techniques such as infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), swelling, contact angle, critical pH, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), demonstrating the presence of both polymers onto PDMS films and showing hydrophilic and pH-response properties. Among the performed methods to graft, the loading and release of ciprofloxacin were successful in those samples obtained by direct irradiation method. Furthermore, the antimicrobial assays showed zones of inhibition for microorganisms such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.

pH-triggered cancer-targeting polymers: From extracellular accumulation to intracellular release

Stimuli-responsive polymers are promising to achieve targeted delivery, improved stability during circulation, and controlled release of therapeutic and diagnostic agents. Among them, pH-responsive polymeric nanocarriers have attracted significant attention as pH varies in different body fluids (e.g., stomach, intestine, and colon) and intracellular organelles (e.g., endosome, lysosome, and mitochondria) to maintain homeostasis, while distinctive pH changes are also found in certain pathological states. For example, the extracellular environment of the tumor is acidic, which can be employed to drive selective delivery. During the internalization process, since most nanocarriers enter cells upon endocytosis where a drop of pH from 6.5 to 5.0 can occur from endosome to lysosome, pH-sensitive groups have been developed for enhanced cargo release. In this review, both non-covalent and covalent interactions responsive to pH changes are introduced, with a focus on the structure-property relationship and their applications in cancer targeting and endosomal escape.