Ultralight, Elastic, Hybrid Aerogel for Flexible/Wearable Piezoresistive Sensor and Solid-Solid/Gas-Solid Coupled Triboelectric Nanogenerator

Highly Porous, Ultralight, Biocompatible Silk Fibroin Aerogel-Based Triboelectric Nanogenerator

This study presents the fabrication of an ultralight, porous, and high-performance triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) utilizing silk fibroin (SF) aerogels and PDMS sponges as the friction layer. The transition from two-dimensional film friction layers to three-dimensional porous aerogels significantly increased the specific surface area, offering an effective strategy for designing high-performance SF aerogel-based TENGs. The TENG incorporating the porous SF aerogel exhibited optimal output performance at a 3% SF concentration, achieving a maximum open circuit voltage of 365 V, a maximum short-circuit current of 11.8 μA, and a maximum power density of 7.52 W/m2. In comparison to SF-film-based TENGs, the SF-aerogel based TENG demonstrated a remarkable 6.5-fold increase in voltage and a 4.5-fold increase in current. Furthermore, the power density of our SF-based TENG surpassed the previously reported optimal values for SF-based TENGs by 2.4 times. Leveraging the excellent mechanical stability and biocompatibility of TENGs, we developed an SF-based TENG self-powered sensor for the real-time monitoring of subtle biological movements. The SF-based TENG exhibits promising potential as a wearable bioelectronic device for health monitoring.

Advanced Applications of Porous Materials in Triboelectric Nanogenerator Self-Powered Sensors

Porous materials possess advantages such as rich pore structures, a large surface area, low relative density, high specific strength, and good breathability. They have broad prospects in the development of a high-performance Triboelectric Nanogenerator (TENG) and self-powered sensing fields. This paper elaborates on the structural forms and construction methods of porous materials in existing TENG, including aerogels, foam sponges, electrospinning, 3D printing, and fabric structures. The research progress of porous materials in improving TENG performance is systematically summarized, with a focus on discussing design strategies of porous structures to enhance the TENG mechanical performance, frictional electrical performance, and environmental tolerance. The current applications of porous-material-based TENG in self-powered sensing such as pressure sensing, health monitoring, and human-machine interactions are introduced, and future development directions and challenges are discussed.

Superhydrophobic Highly Flexible Triple-Network Polyorganosiloxane-Based Aerogels for Thermal Insulation, Oil-Water Separation, and Strain/Pressure Sensing

Polyvinylpolymethylsiloxane (PVPMS)/polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) copolymer aerogels were synthesized via consecutive radical polymerization and cohydrolytic polycondensation of vinylmethyldimethoxysilane and dimethyldimethoxysilane, followed by supercritical drying or ambient pressure drying. The resultant PVPMS/PDMS copolymer aerogels exhibit a highly porous, tunable triple-network structure consisting of interlinked hydrocarbon polymers, PVPMS and PDMS. These aerogels display superhydrophobicity (151°), low density (109 mg cm-3), low thermal conductivity (29.8 mW m-1 K-1), and adjustable pore structure. The combination of good machinability, low thermal conductivity, excellent compressive elasticity and bending flexibility, and efficient organic solvent adsorption gives these aerogels broad application prospects in thermal insulation and oil-water separation. In addition, PVPMS/PDMS/carbon nanotube (CNT) composite aerogels were obtained by incorporating the conductive CNTs, followed by vacuum drying. The resultant PVPMS/PDMS/CNT composite aerogel exhibits high sensitivity with a broad pressure sensing range in strain and pressure sensing applications.

Multistrand Twisted Triboelectric Kevlar Yarns for Harvesting High Impact Energy, Body Injury Location and Levels Evaluation

Developing ultrahigh-strength fabric-based triboelectric nanogenerators for harvesting high-impact energy and sensing biomechanical signals is still a great challenge. Here, the constraints are addressed by design of a multistrand twisted triboelectric Kevlar (MTTK) yarn using conductive and non-conductive Kevlar fibers. Manufactured using a multistrand twisting process, the MTTK yarn offers superior tensile strength (372 MPa), compared to current triboelectric yarns. In addition, a self-powered impact sensing fabric patch (SP-ISFP) comprising signal acquisition, processing, communication circuit, and MTTK yarns is integrated. The SP-ISFP features withstanding impact (4 GPa) and a sensitivity and response time under the high impact condition (59.68 V GPa-1; 0.4 s). Furthermore, a multi-channel smart bulletproof vest is developed by the array of 36 SP-ISFPs, enabling the reconstruction of impact mapping and assessment of body injury location and levels by real-time data acquisition. Their potential to reduce body injuries, professional security, and construct a multi-point personal vital signs dynamic monitoring platform holds great promise.

Biomimetic Transparent Layered Tough Aerogels for Thermal Superinsulation and Triboelectric Nanogenerator

Transparent aerogels are ideal candidates for thermally insulating windows, solar thermal receivers, electronics, etc. However, they are usually prepared via energy-consuming supercritical drying and show brittleness and low tensile strength, significantly restricting their practical applications. It remains a great challenge to prepare transparent aerogels with high tensile strength and toughness. Herein, biomimetic transparent tough cellulose nanofiber-based nanocomposite aerogels with a layered nanofibrous structure are achieved by vacuum-assisted self-assembly combined with ambient pressure drying. The nacre-like layered homogeneous nanoporous structures can reduce light scattering and effectively transfer stress and prevent stress concentration under external forces. The aerogels exhibit an attractive combination of excellent transparency and hydrophobicity, high compressive and tensile strengths, high toughness, excellent machinability, thermal superinsulation, and wide working temperature range (-196 to 230 °C). It is demonstrated that they can be used for superinsulating windows of buildings and high-efficient thermal management for electronics and human bodies. In addition, a prototype of transparent flexible aerogel-based triboelectric nanogenerator is developed. This work provides a promising pathway toward transparent tough porous materials for energy saving/harvesting, thermal management, electronics, sensors, etc.

Gel-Based Triboelectric Nanogenerators for Flexible Sensing: Principles, Properties, and Applications

The rapid development of the Internet of Things and artificial intelligence technologies has increased the need for wearable, portable, and self-powered flexible sensing devices. Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) based on gel materials (with excellent conductivity, mechanical tunability, environmental adaptability, and biocompatibility) are considered an advanced approach for developing a new generation of flexible sensors. This review comprehensively summarizes the recent advances in gel-based TENGs for flexible sensors, covering their principles, properties, and applications. Based on the development requirements for flexible sensors, the working mechanism of gel-based TENGs and the characteristic advantages of gels are introduced. Design strategies for the performance optimization of hydrogel-, organogel-, and aerogel-based TENGs are systematically summarized. In addition, the applications of gel-based TENGs in human motion sensing, tactile sensing, health monitoring, environmental monitoring, human-machine interaction, and other related fields are summarized. Finally, the challenges of gel-based TENGs for flexible sensing are discussed, and feasible strategies are proposed to guide future research.

Materials and Structural Designs toward Motion Artifact-Free Bioelectronics

Bioelectronics encompassing electronic components and circuits for accessing human information play a vital role in real-time and continuous monitoring of biophysiological signals of electrophysiology, mechanical physiology, and electrochemical physiology. However, mechanical noise, particularly motion artifacts, poses a significant challenge in accurately detecting and analyzing target signals. While software-based "postprocessing" methods and signal filtering techniques have been widely employed, challenges such as signal distortion, major requirement of accurate models for classification, power consumption, and data delay inevitably persist. This review presents an overview of noise reduction strategies in bioelectronics, focusing on reducing motion artifacts and improving the signal-to-noise ratio through hardware-based approaches such as "preprocessing". One of the main stress-avoiding strategies is reducing elastic mechanical energies applied to bioelectronics to prevent stress-induced motion artifacts. Various approaches including strain-compliance, strain-resistance, and stress-damping techniques using unique materials and structures have been explored. Future research should optimize materials and structure designs, establish stable processes and measurement methods, and develop techniques for selectively separating and processing overlapping noises. Ultimately, these advancements will contribute to the development of more reliable and effective bioelectronics for healthcare monitoring and diagnostics.

Magnetic Material in Triboelectric Nanogenerators: A Review

Nowadays, magnetic materials are also drawing considerable attention in the development of innovative energy converters such as triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), where the introduction of magnetic materials at the triboelectric interface not only significantly enhances the energy harvesting efficiency but also promotes TENG entry into the era of intelligence and multifunction. In this review, we begin from the basic operating principle of TENGs and then summarize the recent progress in applications of magnetic materials in the design of TENG magnetic materials by categorizing them into soft ferrites and amorphous and nanocrystalline alloys. While highlighting key role of magnetic materials in and future opportunities for improving their performance in energy conversion, we also discuss the most promising choices available today and describe emerging approaches to create even better magnetic TENGs and TENG-based sensors as far as intelligence and multifunctionality are concerned. In addition, the paper also discusses the integration of magnetic TENGs as a power source for third-party sensors and briefly explains the self-powered applications in a wide range of related fields. Finally, the paper discusses the challenges and prospects of magnetic TENGs.

Flexible Aerogel Materials: A Review on Revolutionary Flexibility Strategies and the Multifunctional Applications

The design and preparation of flexible aerogel materials with high deformability and versatility have become an emerging research topic in the aerogel fields, as the brittle nature of traditional aerogels severely affects their safety and reliability in use. Herein, we review the preparation methods and properties of flexible aerogels and summarize the various controlling and design methods of aerogels to overcome the fragility caused by high porosity and nanoporous network structure. The mechanical flexibility of aerogels can be revolutionarily improved by monomer regulation, nanofiber assembly, structural design and controlling, and constructing of aerogel composites, which can greatly broaden the multifunctionality and practical application prospects. The design and construction criterion of aerogel flexibility is summarized: constructing a flexible and deformable microstructure in an aerogel matrix. Besides, the derived multifunctional applications in the fields of flexible thermal insulation (flexible thermal protection at extreme temperatures), flexible wearable electronics (flexible sensors, flexible electrodes, electromagnetic shielding, and wave absorption), and environmental protection (oil/water separation and air filtration) are summarized. Furthermore, the future development prospects and challenges of flexible aerogel materials are also summarized. This review will provide a comprehensive research basis and guidance for the structural design, fabrication methods, and potential applications of flexible aerogels.

Fabrication of Electrode Material for Textile-Based Triboelectric Nanogenerators: Research of the Relationship between Output Performance and Dielectric Material Strain

In this work, a textile-based triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) device was developed through electroless plating technology to prepare electrode material. Hydrophilic groups on the fiber surface are able to absorb Ag+, which could play a role in the center of a catalyst to reduce Cu2+ to fabricate Cu-coated cotton toward the fabrication of TENG electrode material. The TENG device established admirable performance and good stabilization, and a maximum voltage at 9.6 V was detected when the stress and strain on the polydimethylsiloxane layer are 82.6 kPa and 5.8%, respectively. In addition, the relationships among device properties and strain/thickness of dielectric materials have been explored in depth as well. The output voltage of the device increases gradually with the enhancement of dielectric strain and stress. As expected, the TENG as-fabricated device was installed to various physical behaviors to illustrate the harvesting of power of knee-jerk movements.

Mechanically resilient hybrid aerogels containing fibers of dual-scale sizes and knotty networks for tissue regeneration

The structure and design flexibility of aerogels make them promising for soft tissue engineering, though they tend to come with brittleness and low elasticity. While increasing crosslinking density may improve mechanics, it also imparts brittleness. In soft tissue engineering, resilience against mechanical loads from mobile tissues is paramount. We report a hybrid aerogel that consists of self-reinforcing networks of micro- and nanofibers. Nanofiber segments physically entangle microfiber pillars, allowing efficient stress distribution through the intertwined fiber networks. We show that optimized hybrid aerogels have high specific tensile moduli (~1961.3 MPa cm3 g-1) and fracture energies (~7448.8 J m-2), while exhibiting super-elastic properties with rapid shape recovery (~1.8 s). We demonstrate that these aerogels induce rapid tissue ingrowth, extracellular matrix deposition, and neovascularization after subcutaneous implants in rats. Furthermore, we can apply them for engineering soft tissues via minimally invasive procedures, and hybrid aerogels can extend their versatility to become magnetically responsive or electrically conductive, enabling pressure sensing and actuation.

Triboelectric Nanogenerators Based on Fluid Medium: From Fundamental Mechanisms toward Multifunctional Applications

Fluid-based triboelectric nanogenerators (FB-TENGs) are at the forefront of promising energy technologies, demonstrating the ability to generate electricity through the dynamic interaction between two dissimilar materials, wherein at least one is a fluidic medium (such as gas or liquid). By capitalizing on the dynamic and continuous properties of fluids and their interface interactions, FB-TENGs exhibit a larger effective contact area and a longer-lasting triboelectric effect in comparison to their solid-based counterparts, thereby affording longer-term energy harvesting and higher-precision self-powered sensors in harsh conditions. In this review, various fluid-based mechanical energy harvesters, including liquid-solid, gas-solid, liquid-liquid, and gas-liquid TENGs, have been systematically summarized. Their working mechanism, optimization strategies, respective advantages and applications, theoretical and simulation analysis, as well as the existing challenges, have also been comprehensively discussed, which provide prospective directions for device design and mechanism understanding of FB-TENGs.

Multilayer Perceptron Algorithm-Assisted Flexible Piezoresistive PDMS/Chitosan/cMWCNT Sponge Pressure Sensor for Sedentary Healthcare Monitoring

Recently, the health problems faced by sedentary workers have received increasing attention. In this study, a pressure sensor based on a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)/carboxylated chitosan (CCS)/carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotube (cMWCNT) sponge was prepared to realize a portable, sensitive, comfortable, and noninvasive healthcare monitoring system for sedentary workers. The proposed piezoresistive pressure sensor exhibited exceptional sensing performances with high sensitivity (147.74 kPa-1), an ultrawide detection range (22 Pa to 1.42 MPa), and reliable stability (over 3000 cycles). Furthermore, the obtained sensor displayed superior capability in detecting various human motion signals. Based on the 4 × 4 sensing array and multilayer perceptron (MLP) algorithm model, a smart cushion was developed to recognize five types of sitting postures and supply timely reminders to sedentary workers. The piezoresistive sponge pressure sensor proposed in this study reveals promising potential in the fields of wearable electronics, healthcare monitoring, and human-machine interface applications.

Physical Properties of Ultrafine Bubbles Generated Using a Generator System

BACKGROUND/AIM

Ultrafine bubbles (UFBs) have been extensively researched owing to their promising physical and biological properties. However, determining the lifespan or ideal concentration of UFBs for various biological events is challenging. This study aimed to determine the maximum concentration and longest lifespan of UFBs and to verify the validity of UFBs for assessing cell properties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A generator system (HMB-H0150+P001, TOSSLEC Corporation Limited, Kyoto, Japan) generated UFBs using various gases. The size and concentration of UFBs in ultrapure water and cell culture medium were measured through a nanoparticle tracking analysis method.

RESULTS

The UFB concentration increased when the generator operated in a time dependent manner. The mean size of UFBs was approximately 120 nm. In the UFB lifespan, the concentration decreased by approximately 30% within the first two weeks of generation and was stable for up to 6 months. The UFB size increased by approximately 20% within the first two weeks of generation and demonstrated minor changes until the 6th month. The number of cells differed significantly with various concentrations of nitrogen gas UFBs.

CONCLUSION

The generator system can generate UFBs with multiple concentrations within a suitable temperature. Consequently, the solution containing UFBs could be widely acceptable in cell culture systems.

Self-Assembled Porous-Reinforcement Microstructure-Based Flexible Triboelectric Patch for Remote Healthcare

Realizing real-time monitoring of physiological signals is vital for preventing and treating chronic diseases in elderly individuals. However, wearable sensors with low power consumption and high sensitivity to both weak physiological signals and large mechanical stimuli remain challenges. Here, a flexible triboelectric patch (FTEP) based on porous-reinforcement microstructures for remote health monitoring has been reported. The porous-reinforcement microstructure is constructed by the self-assembly of silicone rubber adhering to the porous framework of the PU sponge. The mechanical properties of the FTEP can be regulated by the concentrations of silicone rubber dilution. For pressure sensing, its sensitivity can be effectively improved fivefold compared to the device with a solid dielectric layer, reaching 5.93 kPa-1 under a pressure range of 0-5 kPa. In addition, the FTEP has a wide detection range up to 50 kPa with a sensitivity of 0.21 kPa-1. The porous microstructure makes the FTEP ultra-sensitive to external pressure, and the reinforcements endow the device with a greater deformation limit in a wide detection range. Finally, a novel concept of the wearable Internet of Healthcare (IoH) system for real-time physiological signal monitoring has been proposed, which could provide real-time physiological information for ambulatory personalized healthcare monitoring.