In vivo gene delivery of glial cell line--derived neurotrophic factor for Parkinson's disease

Freshwater Clam Extract Mitigates Neuroinflammation and Amplifies Neurotrophic Activity of Glia: Insights from In Vitro Model of Neurodegenerative Pathomechanism

Background. An extensive body of research suggests that brain inflammation and oxidative stress are the underlying causes of Parkinson’s disease (PD), for which no potent therapeutic approach exists to mitigate the degradation of dopamine neurons. Freshwater clams, an ancient health food of Chinese origin, have been documented to exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. We previously reported that freshwater clam extract (FCE) can attenuate astrocytic activation and subsequent proinflammatory cytokine production from substantia nigra in an MPTP-induced PD mouse model. This article provides insight into the potential mechanisms through which FCE regulates neuroinflammation in a glia model of injury. Materials and methods. In total, 1 μg/mL lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and 200 μM rotenone were conducted in primary glial cell cultures to mimic the respective neuroinflammation and oxidative stress during injury-induced glial cell reactivation, which is relevant to the pathological process of PD. Results. FCE markedly reduced LPS-induced neuroinflammation by suppressing NO and TNF-α production and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, FCE was effective at reducing rotenone-induced toxicity by diminishing ROS production, promoting antioxidant enzymes (SOD, catalase, and GPx) and minimizing the decline in glial-cell-secreted neurotrophic factors (GDNF, BDNF). These impacts ultimately led to a decrease in glial apoptosis. Conclusions. Evidence reveals that FCE is capable of stabilizing reactive glia, as demonstrated by reduced neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, the increased release of neurotrophic factors and the inhibition of apoptosis, which provides therapeutic insight into neurodegenerative diseases, including PD.

Revisiting gene delivery to the brain: silencing and editing

Neurodegenerative disorders, ischemic brain diseases, and brain tumors are debilitating diseases that severely impact a person's life and could possibly lead to their demise if left untreated. Many of these diseases do not respond to small molecule therapeutics and have no effective long-term therapy. Gene therapy offers the promise of treatment or even a cure for both genetic and acquired brain diseases, mediated by either silencing or editing disease-specific genes. Indeed, in the last 5 years, significant progress has been made in the delivery of non-coding RNAs as well as gene-editing formulations to the brain. Unfortunately, the delivery is a major limiting factor for the success of gene therapies. Both viral and non-viral vectors have been used to deliver genetic information into a target cell, but they have limitations. Viral vectors provide excellent transduction efficiency but are associated with toxic effects and have limited packaging capacity; however, non-viral vectors are less toxic and show a high packaging capacity at the price of low transfection efficiency. Herein, we review the progress made in the field of brain gene therapy, particularly in the design of non-toxic and trackable non-viral vectors, capable of controlled release of genes in response to internal/external triggers, and in the delivery of formulations for gene editing. The application of these systems in the context of various brain diseases in pre-clinical and clinical tests will be discussed. Such promising approaches could potentially pave the way for clinical realization of brain gene therapies.

Toll-like receptors and their therapeutic potential in Parkinson's disease and α-synucleinopathies

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors which mediate an inflammatory response upon the detection of specific molecular patterns found on foreign organisms and on endogenous damage-related molecules. These receptors play a major role in the activation of microglia, the innate immune cells of the CNS, and are also expressed in peripheral tissues, including blood mononuclear cells and the gut. It is well established that immune activation, in both the brain and periphery, is a feature of Parkinson's disease as well as other α-synucleinopathies. Aggregated forms of α-synuclein can act as ligands for TLRs (particularly TLR2 and TLR4), and hence these receptors may play a critical role in mediating a detrimental immune response to this protein, as well as other inflammatory signals in Parkinson's and related α-synucleinopathies. In this review, the potential role of TLRs in contributing to the progression of these disorders is discussed. Existing evidence comes predominantly from studies in in vitro and in vivo models, as well as analyses of postmortem human brain tissue and pre-clinical studies of TLR inhibitors. This evidence is evaluated in detail, and the potential for therapeutic intervention in α-synucleinopathies through TLR inhibition is discussed.

Different Generations of Type-B Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in Parkinson's Disease: From Bench to Bedside

Three inhibitors of type-B monoamine oxidase (MAOB), selegiline, rasagiline, and safinamide, are used for the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). All three drugs improve motor signs of PD, and are effective in reducing motor fluctuations in patients undergoing long-term L-DOPA treatment. The effect of MAOB inhibitors on non-motor symptoms is not uniform and may not be class-related. Selegiline and rasagiline are irreversible inhibitors forming a covalent bond within the active site of MAOB. In contrast, safinamide is a reversible MAOB inhibitor, and also inhibits voltage- sensitive sodium channels and glutamate release. Safinamide is the prototype of a new generation of multi-active MAOB inhibitors, which includes the antiepileptic drug, zonisamide. Inhibition of MAOB-mediated dopamine metabolism largely accounts for the antiparkinsonian effect of the three drugs. Dopamine metabolism by MAOB generates reactive oxygen species, which contribute to nigro-striatal degeneration. Among all antiparkinsonian agents, MAOB inhibitors are those with the greatest neuroprotective potential because of inhibition of dopamine metabolism, induction of neurotrophic factors, and, in the case of safinamide, inhibition of glutamate release. The recent development of new experimental animal models that more closely mimic the progressive neurodegeneration associated with PD will allow to test the hypothesis that MAOB inhibitors may slow the progression of PD.

Depletion of microglia augments the dopaminergic neurotoxicity of MPTP

The activation of microglia and the various substances they produce have been linked to the pathologic development of Parkinson’s disease (PD), but the precise role of microglia in PD remains to be defined. The survival of microglia depends on colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) signaling, and CSF1R inhibition results in rapid elimination of microglia in the central nervous system. Using a mouse PD model induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) treatment, we showed that the depletion of microglia via the CSF1R inhibitor PLX3397 exacerbated the impairment of locomotor activities and the loss of dopaminergic neurons. Further, depletion of microglia augmented the production of inflammatory mediators and infiltration of leukocytes in the brain after MPTP exposure. Microglia depletion–induced aggravation of MPTP neurotoxicity was also seen in lymphocyte-deficient mice. In addition, the depletion of microglia did not affect the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, but it dramatically augmented the production of inflammatory mediators by astrocytes after MPTP treatment. Our findings suggest microglia play a protective role against MPTP-induced neuroinflammation and dopaminergic neurotoxicity.—Yang, X., Ren, H., Wood, K., Li, M., Qiu, S., Shi, F.-D., Ma, C., Liu, Q. Depletion of microglia augments the dopaminergic neurotoxicity of MPTP.

Neuroprotective Effects of Encapsulated CNTF-Producing Cells in a Rodent Model of Huntington's Disease are Dependent on the Proximity of the Implant to the Lesioned Striatum

Huntington's disease (HD) is a devastating genetic disorder with no effective treatments for preventing or lessening the underlying neuronal degeneration. Intracerebral delivery of CNTF in animal models of HD has shown considerable promise as a means of protecting striatal neurons that would otherwise be destined to die. The present study examines whether the neuroprotective effects of CNTF require that the delivery be immediately proximal to the lesion site or whether protective effects can be exerted when the delivery site is more distal to the site of injury. Encapsulated CNTF-producing cells were implanted into the lateral ventricle either ipsilateral or contralateral to an intrastriatal quinolinic acid (QA) injection. A robust neuroprotective effect was observed only in those animals receiving CNTF implants ipsilateral to the QA injection. In these animals, the loss of striatal ChAT and GAD activity as well as the behavioral impairments that resulted from QA were completely prevented. In contrast, no neurochemical or behavioral benefits were produced by implants of CNTF-producing cells in the contralateral ventricle. These data continue to support the use of cellular delivery of CNTF for HD but caution that delivery directly to the striatum may be needed if any clinical benefits are to be seen.

Protective Microglia and Their Regulation in Parkinson's Disease

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammation is a hallmark of Parkinson’s disease (PD). In the brains of patients with PD, microglia have both neurotoxic and neuroprotective effects, depending on their activation state. In this review, we focus on recent research demonstrating the neuroprotective role of microglia in PD. Accumulating evidence indicates that the protective mechanisms of microglia may result from their regulation of transrepression pathways via nuclear receptors, anti-inflammatory responses, neuron–microglia crosstalk, histone modification, and microRNA regulation. All of these mechanisms work together to suppress the production of neurotoxic inflammatory components. However, during the progression of PD, the detrimental effects of inflammation overpower the protective actions of microglia. Therefore, an in-depth exploration of the mechanisms underlying microglial neuroprotection, and a means of promoting the transformation of microglia to the protective phenotype, are urgently needed for the treatment of PD.

Co-transplantation of GDNF-overexpressing neural stem cells and fetal dopaminergic neurons mitigates motor symptoms in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

Striatal transplantation of dopaminergic (DA) neurons or neural stem cells (NSCs) has been reported to improve the symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD), but the low rate of cell survival, differentiation, and integration in the host brain limits the therapeutic efficacy. We investigated the therapeutic effects of intracranial co-transplantation of mesencephalic NSCs stably overexpressing human glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF-mNSCs) together with fetal DA neurons in the 6-OHDA rat model of PD. Striatal injection of mNSCs labeled by the contrast enhancer superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) resulted in a hypointense signal in the striatum on T2-weighted magnetic resonance images that lasted for at least 8 weeks post-injection, confirming the long-term survival of injected stem cells in vivo. Co-transplantation of GDNF-mNSCs with fetal DA neurons significantly reduced apomorphine-induced rotation, a behavioral endophenotype of PD, compared to sham-treated controls, rats injected with mNSCs expressing empty vector (control mNSCs) plus fetal DA neurons, or rats injected separately with either control mNSCs, GDNF-mNSCs, or fetal DA neurons. In addition, survival and differentiation of mNSCs into DA neurons was significantly greater following co-transplantation of GDNF-mNSCs plus fetal DA neurons compared to the other treatment groups as indicated by the greater number of cell expressing both the mNSCs lineage tracer enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) and the DA neuron marker tyrosine hydroxylase. The success of cell-based therapies for PD may be greatly improved by co-transplantation of fetal DA neurons with mNSCs genetically modified to overexpress trophic factors such as GDNF that support differentiation into DA cells and their survival in vivo.

Therapeutic effects of human mesenchymal and hematopoietic stem cells on rotenone-treated parkinsonian mice

To appreciate the potential applications of stem cell technology in neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD), it is important to understand the characteristics of the various types of stem cells. In this study, we designed a set of experiments to compare the ability of three types of human stem cells--mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), bone marrow CD34(+) cells (BM), and cord blood CD34(+) cells (CB)--using rotenone-treated NOD/SCID mice. Rotenone was orally administered once daily at a dose of 30 mg/kg for 56 days to induce a parkinsonian phenotype. Intravenous delivery of CB into rotenone-treated mice was slightly more beneficial than that of MSCs or BM according to both histological and behavioral analyses. Human nucleus (hNu)(+) cells, which are a specific marker of human cells, were observed in the striatum of rotenone-treated mice transplanted with stem cells. These hNu(+) cells expressed tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Additionally, α-synuclein(+)/TH(+) cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta decreased significantly following stem cell transplantation. Immunohistochemical analysis also revealed that chronic exposure to rotenone decreased glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor immunoreactivity and that the reduction was improved by each stem cell transplantation. Gene expression analyses revealed that MSCs, BM, and CB expressed several neurotrophic factors. These results suggest that the beneficial effects of intravenous delivery of stem cells into rotenone-treated mice may result not only from a neurotrophic effect but also from endogenous brain repair mechanisms and the potential of intravenous delivery of stem cells derived from an autologous source for clinical applications in PD.

Gene therapy for the treatment of Parkinson's disease: the nature of the biologics expands the future indications

The pharmaceutical industry's development of therapeutic medications for the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) endures, as a result of the continuing need for better agents, and the increased clinical demand due to the aging population. Each new drug offers advantages and disadvantages to patients when compared to other medical offerings or surgical options. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has become a standard surgical remedy for the effective treatment of select patients with PD, for whom most drug regimens have failed or become refractory. Similar to DBS as a surgical option, gene therapy for the treatment of PD is evolving as a future option. In the four different PD gene therapy approaches that have reached clinical trials investigators have documented an excellent safety profile associated with the stereotactic delivery, viral vectors and doses utilized, and transgenes expressed. In this article, we review the clinically relevant gene therapy strategies for the treatment of PD, concentrating on the published preclinical and clinical results, and the likely mechanisms involved. Based on these presentations, we advance an analysis of how the nature of the gene therapy used may eventually expand the scope and utility for the management of PD.

Neurotrophic factors and neurodegenerative diseases: a delivery issue

Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) represent one of the most stimulating challenge in neurodegenerative diseases, due to their potential in neurorestoring and neuroprotection. Despite the large number of proofs-of-concept and evidences of their activity, most of the clinical trials, mainly regarding Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease, demonstrated several failures of the therapeutic intervention. A large number of researches were conducted on this hot topic of neuroscience, clearly evidencing the advantages of NTF approach, but evidencing the major limitations in its application. The inability in crossing the blood-brain barrier and the lack of selectivity actually represent some of the most highlighted limits of NTFs-based therapy. In this review, beside an overview of NTF activity versus the main neuropathological disorders, a summary of the most relevant approaches, from invasive to noninvasive strategies, applied for improving NTF delivery to the central nervous systems is critically considered and evaluated.

Cell transplantation and gene therapy in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting, in part, dopaminergic motor neurons of the ventral midbrain and their terminal projections that course to the striatum. Symptomatic strategies focused on dopamine replacement have proven effective at remediating some motor symptoms during the course of disease but ultimately fail to deliver long-term disease modification and lose effectiveness due to the emergence of side effects. Several strategies have been experimentally tested as alternatives for Parkinson's disease, including direct cell replacement and gene transfer through viral vectors. Cellular transplantation of dopamine-secreting cells was hypothesized as a substitute for pharmacotherapy to directly provide dopamine, whereas gene therapy has primarily focused on restoration of dopamine synthesis or neuroprotection and restoration of spared host dopaminergic circuitry through trophic factors as a means to enhance sustained controlled dopamine transmission. This seems now to have been verified in numerous studies in rodents and nonhuman primates, which have shown that grafts of fetal dopamine neurons or gene transfer through viral vector delivery can lead to improvements in biochemical and behavioral indices of dopamine deficiency. However, in clinical studies, the improvements in parkinsonism have been rather modest and variable and have been plagued by graft-induced dyskinesias. New developments in stem-cell transplantation and induced patient-derived cells have opened the doors for the advancement of cell-based therapeutics. In addition, viral-vector-derived therapies have been developed preclinically with excellent safety and efficacy profiles, showing promise in clinical trials thus far. Further progress and optimization of these therapies will be necessary to ensure safety and efficacy before widespread clinical use is deemed appropriate.

Potential of cystamine and cysteamine in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative disorders are a subset of disabling pathologies characterized, in part, by a progressive and specific loss of certain brain cell populations. Current therapeutic approaches for the treatment of these disorders are mainly designed towards symptom management and do not manifestly block their typified neuronal loss. However, research conducted over the past decade has reflected the increasing interest and need to find disease-modifying molecules. Among the several neuroprotective agents emerging from experimental animal work, cystamine, as well as its reduced form cysteamine, have been identified as potential candidate drugs. Given the significant benefits observed in a Huntington's disease (HD) model, cysteamine has recently leaped to clinical trial. Here, we review the beneficial properties of these compounds as reported in animal studies, their mechanistic underpinnings, and their potential implications for the future treatment of patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases, and more specifically for HD and Parkinson's disease (PD).

Anterograde axonal transport of AAV2-GDNF in rat basal ganglia

We elucidated the effects of parkinsonian degeneration on trafficking of AAV2-GDNF in the nigro-striatum (nigro-ST) of unilaterally 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-lesioned rats. Vector infused into striatum (ST) was transported to substantia nigra (SN), both pars compacta (SNc), and pars reticulata (SNr). In the lesioned hemisphere, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) immunoreactivity was only found in SNr consistent with elimination of SNc dopaminergic (DA) neurons by 6-OHDA. Further analysis showed that striatal delivery of AAV2-GDNF resulted in GDNF expression in globus pallidus (GP), entopeduncular nucleus (EPN), and subthalamic nucleus (STN) in both lesioned and unlesioned hemispheres. Injection of vector into SN, covering both SNc and SNr, resulted in striatal expression of GDNF in the unlesioned hemisphere but not in the lesioned hemisphere. No expression was seen in GP or EPN. We conclude that adeno-associated virus serotype 2 (AAV2) is transported throughout the nigro-ST exclusively by anterograde transport. This transport phenomenon directs GDNF expression throughout the basal ganglia in regions that are adversely affected in Parkinson's disease (PD) in addition to SNc. Delivery of vector to SN, however, does not direct expression of GDNF in ST, EPN, or GP. On this basis, we believe that striatal delivery of AAV2-GDNF is the preferred course of action for trophic rescue of DA function.

Transduction of brain dopamine neurons by adenoviral vectors is modulated by CAR expression: rationale for tropism modified vectors in PD gene therapy

Background

Gene-based therapy is a new paradigm for the treatment of Parkinson disease (PD) and offers considerable promise for precise targeting and flexibility to impact multiple pathobiological processes for which small molecule agents are not available. Some success has been achieved utilizing adeno-associated virus for this approach, but it is likely that the characteristics of this vector system will ultimately create barriers to progress in clinical therapy. Adenovirus (Ad) vector overcomes limitations in payload size and targeting. The cellular tropism of Ad serotype 5 (Ad5)–based vectors is regulated by the Ad attachment protein binding to its primary cellular receptor, the coxsackie and adenovirus receptor (CAR). Many clinically relevant tissues are refractory to Ad5 infection due to negligible CAR levels but can be targeted by tropism-modified, CAR-independent forms of Ad. Our objective was to evaluate the role of CAR protein in transduction of dopamine (DA) neurons in vivo.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Ad5 was delivered to the substantia nigra (SN) in wild type (wt) and CAR transgenic animals. Cellular tropism was assessed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) in the SN and striatal terminals. CAR expression was assessed by western blot and IHC. We found in wt animals, Ad5 results in robust transgene expression in astrocytes and other non-neuronal cells but poor infection of DA neurons. In contrast, in transgenic animals, Ad5 infects SNc neurons resulting in expression of transduced protein in their striatal terminals. Western blot showed low CAR expression in the ventral midbrain of wt animals compared to transgenic animals. Interestingly, hCAR protein localizes with markers of post-synaptic structures, suggesting synapses are the point of entry into dopaminergic neurons in transgenic animals.

Conclusions/Significance

These findings demonstrate that CAR deficiency limits infection of wild type DA neurons by Ad5 and provide a rationale for the development of tropism-modified, CAR-independent Ad-vectors for use in gene therapy of human PD.

The yin and yang of VEGF and PEDF: multifaceted neurotrophic factors and their potential in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease

Over the last few decades, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) have emerged as multifaceted players in not only the pathogenesis, but potential treatment, of numerous diseases. They activate diverse intracellular signaling cascades known to have extensive crosstalk, and have been best studied for their effects in cardiology and cancer biology. Recent work with the two factors indicates that the activity of one growth factor is often directly related to the action of the other. Their respective neuroprotective effects, in particular, raise important questions regarding the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson’s disease.

Parkinson's disease and growth factors - are they the answer?

The core loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra in Parkinson's disease (PD) coupled to the therapeutic benefits of dopaminergic therapies in patients, simplifies the treatment strategy for this disease. In the context of neurotrophic factors, this distils down to the simple question as to whether a factor exists for these cells that can promote their survival in the face of the degenerative disease process. If such a factor exists, and GDNF seems a strong candidate, then one could anticipate that this treatment would be as effective as L-dopa therapy. However it would not be better than this, nor curative, given the extensive pathology in PD. To date a number of clinical trials have been undertaken in which GDNF has been directly delivered to the PD brain. In addition there have been studies in which neurturin (part of the GDNF family) has also been delivered to the CNS using a viral vector delivery system. These trials have produced mixed results. Importantly though, some patients have shown a sustained clinical response to this treatment which correlates with evidence of increased dopaminergic activity in the brain at the site of delivery using F-dopa PET as well as in a single post-mortem study. The challenge therefore is not whether this approach works, because it self-evidently does in some patients, but rather how we can do this more consistently.

Neurotrophic factor therapy for Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic, progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder for which there is currently no effective therapy. Over the past several decades, there has been a considerable interest in neuroprotective therapies using trophic factors to alleviate the symptoms of PD. Neurotrophic factors (NTFs) are a class of molecules that influence a number of neuronal functions, including cell survival and axonal growth. Experimental studies in animal models suggest that members of neurotrophin family and GDNF family of ligands (GFLs) have the potent ability to protect degenerating dopamine neurons as well as promote regeneration of the nigrostriatal dopamine system. In clinical trials, although no serious adverse events related to the NTF therapy has been reported in patients, they remain inconclusive. In this chapter, we attempt to give a brief overview on several different growth factors that have been explored for use in animal models of PD and those already used in PD patients.

Identification of glial-cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor-regulated proteins of striatum in mouse model of Parkinson disease

Glial-cell-line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a potent survival factor for dopaminergic neurons, and hence serves as a therapeutic candidate for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. However, despite the potential clinical and physiological importance of GDNF, its mechanism of action is unclear. Therefore, we employed a state-of-the-art proteomic technique, DIGE, along with MS and a bioinformatics tool called Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery (DAVID), to profile proteome changes in the parkinsonian mouse striatum after GDNF challenge. Forty-six unique differentially expressed proteins were successfully identified, which were found either up-regulated and/or down-regulated at the two time points 4 and 72 h compared with the control. Proteins involved in cell differentiation and system development formed the largest part of the proteins regulated under GDNF. Furthermore, the aberrant expression of HSPs and mitochondria-associated proteins were noticeable. Moreover, mitochondrial stress 70 protein and heat shock cognate 71 kDa protein, whose relative levels increased significantly in GDNF-treated striatum, were further evaluated with Western blot and RT-PCR, demonstrating a good agreement with quantitative proteomic data. These data will provide some clues for understanding the mechanisms by which GDNF promotes the survival of dopaminergic neurons.

Activation of mGlu3 receptors stimulates the production of GDNF in striatal neurons

Metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors have been considered potential targets for the therapy of experimental parkinsonism. One hypothetical advantage associated with the use of mGlu receptor ligands is the lack of the adverse effects typically induced by ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists, such as sedation, ataxia, and severe learning impairment. Low doses of the mGlu2/3 metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist, LY379268 (0.25–3 mg/kg, i.p.) increased glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) mRNA and protein levels in the mouse brain, as assessed by in situ hybridization, real-time PCR, immunoblotting, and immunohistochemistry. This increase was prominent in the striatum, but was also observed in the cerebral cortex. GDNF mRNA levels peaked at 3 h and declined afterwards, whereas GDNF protein levels progressively increased from 24 to 72 h following LY379268 injection. The action of LY379268 was abrogated by the mGlu2/3 receptor antagonist, LY341495 (1 mg/kg, i.p.), and was lost in mGlu3 receptor knockout mice, but not in mGlu2 receptor knockout mice. In pure cultures of striatal neurons, the increase in GDNF induced by LY379268 required the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase pathways, as shown by the use of specific inhibitors of the two pathways. Both in vivo and in vitro studies led to the conclusion that neurons were the only source of GDNF in response to mGlu3 receptor activation. Remarkably, acute or repeated injections of LY379268 at doses that enhanced striatal GDNF levels (0.25 or 3 mg/kg, i.p.) were highly protective against nigro-striatal damage induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine in mice, as assessed by stereological counting of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons in the pars compacta of the substantia nigra. We speculate that selective mGlu3 receptor agonists or enhancers are potential candidates as neuroprotective agents in Parkinson's disease, and their use might circumvent the limitations associated with the administration of exogenous GDNF.

Scientific rationale for the development of gene therapy strategies for Parkinson's disease

The ever-evolving understanding of the neuronal systems involved in Parkinson's disease together with the recent advances in recombinant viral vector technology has led to the development of several gene therapy applications that are now entering into clinical testing phase. To date, four fundamentally different approaches have been pursued utilizing recombinant adeno-associated virus and lentiviruses as vectors for delivery. These strategies aim either to restore the lost brain functions by substitution of enzymes critical for synthesis of neurotransmitters or neurotrophic factors as a means to boost the function of remaining neurons in the diseased brain. In this review we discuss the differences in mechanism of action and describe the scientific rationale behind the currently tested gene therapy approaches for Parkinson's disease in some detail and pinpoint their individual unique strengths and weaknesses.

Gene therapy for Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is characterized by the degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons with the manifestation of tremor, rigidity, akinesia, and disturbances of postural reflexes. Medication using L-DOPA and surgeries including deep brain stimulation are the established therapies for Parkinson's disease. Cell therapies are also effective and have rapidly developed with the recent advancement in molecular biological technology including gene transfer. In this review, ex vivo gene therapy using genetically engineered cell transplantation for Parkinson's disease model of animals is described, including catecholamine/neurotrophic factor-secreting cell transplantation with or without encapsulation, as well as in vivo gene therapy using direct injection of viral vector to increase dopamine-production, ameliorate the survival of dopaminergic neurons, correct the deteriorated microenvironment, or normalize genetic abnormality. Furthermore, the future directions for clinical application are described together with recent clinical trials of gene therapy.

alpha-Synuclein: a therapeutic target for Parkinson's disease?

Parkinson's disease is a progressive age-related neurodegenerative disease with invariant loss of substantia nigra dopamine neurons and striatal projections. This disorder is well known for the associated motoric symptoms including resting tremor and the inability to initiate movement. However, it is now apparent that Parkinson's disease is a multisystem disorder with patients exhibiting symptoms derived from peripheral nervous system and extra-nigral dysfunctions in addition to the prototypical nigrostriatal damage. Although the etiology for sporadic Parkinson's disease is unknown, information gleaned from both familial forms of the disease and animal models places misfolded alpha-synuclein at the forefront. The disease is currently without a cure and most therapies target the motoric symptoms relying on increasing dopamine tone. In this review, the role of alpha-synuclein in disease pathogenesis and as a potential therapeutic target focusing on toxic conformers of this protein is considered. The addition of protofibrillar/oligomer-directed neurotherapeutics to the existing armamentarium may extend the symptom-free stage of Parkinson's disease as well as alleviate pathogenesis.

Surgery for movement disorders

Movement disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, tremor, and dystonia, are among the most common neurological conditions and affect millions of patients. Although medications are the mainstay of therapy for movement disorders, neurosurgery has played an important role in their management for the past 50 years. Surgery is now a viable and safe option for patients with medically intractable Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, and dystonia. In this article, we provide a review of the history, neurocircuitry, indication, technical aspects, outcomes, complications, and emerging neurosurgical approaches for the treatment of movement disorders.

Optical coherence tomography guided neurosurgical procedures in small rodents

The delivery of therapeutic agents directly to targets deep within the brain is becoming an important tool in the treatment of a variety of neurological disorders. Currently, the standard method to accomplish this is by using stereotactic procedures. While this existing method is adequate for many experimental situations, it is essentially a blind procedure that cannot provide real-time feedback on whether the actual location deviated from the intended location or whether the therapeutic agent was actually delivered. Here we describe an optical guidance technique that is designed to work in conjunction with existing stereotactic procedures to provide the needed real-time feedback for therapeutic delivery in live animals. This real-time feedback is enabled by a technology called catheter-based optical coherence tomography (OCT). In this study we show that OCT can provide real-time position feedback based on microanatomic landmarks from the live rodent brain. We show that OCT can provide the necessary guidance to perform microsurgery such as the selective transection of the Schaffer collateral inputs to the CA1 region of the hippocampus with minimal perturbation of overlying structures. We also show that OCT allows visual monitoring of the successful delivery of viral vectors to specific subregions of the hippocampus.

Why neurodegenerative diseases are progressive: uncontrolled inflammation drives disease progression

Neurodegenerative diseases are a group of chronic, progressive disorders characterized by the gradual loss of neurons in discrete areas of the central nervous system (CNS). The mechanism(s) underlying their progressive nature remains unknown but a timely and well-controlled inflammatory reaction is essential for the integrity and proper function of the CNS. Substantial evidence has documented a common inflammatory mechanism in various neurodegenerative diseases. We hypothesize that in the diseased CNS, interactions between damaged neurons and dysregulated, overactivated microglia create a vicious self-propagating cycle causing uncontrolled, prolonged inflammation that drives the chronic progression of neurodegenerative diseases. We further propose that dynamic modulation of this inflammatory reaction by interrupting the vicious cycle might become a disease-modifying therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases.

AAV2-mediated gene transfer of GDNF to the striatum of MPTP monkeys enhances the survival and outgrowth of co-implanted fetal dopamine neurons

Neural transplantation offers the potential of treating Parkinson's disease by grafting fetal dopamine neurons to depleted regions of the brain. However, clinical studies of neural grafting in Parkinson's disease have produced only modest improvements. One of the main reasons for this is the low survival rate of transplanted neurons. The inadequate supply of critical neurotrophic factors in the adult brain is likely to be a major cause of early cell death and restricted outgrowth of fetal grafts placed into the mature striatum. Glial derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a potent neurotrophic factor that is crucial to the survival, outgrowth and maintenance of dopamine neurons, and so is a candidate for protecting grafted fetal dopamine neurons in the adult brain. We found that implantation of adeno-associated virus type 2 encoding GDNF (AAV2-GDNF) in the normal monkey caudate nucleus induced overexpression of GDNF that persisted for at least 6 months after injection. In a 6-month within-animal controlled study, AAV2-GDNF enhanced the survival of fetal dopamine neurons by 4-fold, and increased the outgrowth of grafted fetal dopamine neurons by almost 3-fold in the caudate nucleus of MPTP-treated monkeys, compared with control grafts in the other caudate nucleus. Thus, the addition of GDNF gene therapy to neural transplantation may be a useful strategy to improve treatment for Parkinson's disease.

Preclinical development of gene therapy for Parkinson's disease

Multiple targets and pathways may be amenable to the development of gene therapy approaches for Parkinson's disease. This article discusses some of the cellular and brain circuit pathways relevant to Parkinson's disease that would be clinically amenable to gene therapy. Approaches could be classified according to two main categories, i.e. symptomatic vs. neuroprotective/neurorestorative strategies. Examples of the different possibilities currently in development are given and feature both dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic symptomatic treatments of parkinsonian symptoms and/or L-DOPA-induced side effects, anti-apoptotic neuroprotective strategies and growth-factor delivery for neuroprotection/neurorestoration. While gene therapy has been mostly used so far for enhancing the expression of the target gene, the use of dominant negative or siRNA opens new possibilities. This, combined with the key feature of gene delivery that offers access to intracellular signalling pathways, is likely to further expand the number of proposed targets to be studied.

GDNF delivery for Parkinson's disease

The mainstays of Parkinson's disease (PD) treatment remain symptomatic, including initial dopamine replacement and subsequent deep brain stimulation, however, neither of these approaches is neuroprotective. Neurotrophic factors - proteins that activate cell signalling pathways regulating neuronal survival, differentiation, growth and regeneration - represent an alternative for treating dopaminergic neurons in PD but are difficult to administer clinically because they do not pass through the blood-brain barrier. Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) has potent neurotrophic effects particularly but not exclusively on dopaminergic neurons; in animal models of PD, it has consistently demonstrated both neuroprotective and neuroregenerative effects when provided continuously, either by means of a viral vector or through continuous infusion either into the cerebral ventricles (ICV) or directly into the denervated putamen. This led to a human PD study in which GDNF was administered by monthly bolus intracerebroventricular injections, however, no clinical benefit resulted, probably because of the limited penetration to the target brain areas, and instead significant side effects occurred. In an open-label study of continuous intraputamenal GDNF infusion in five patients (one unilaterally and four bilaterally), we reported excellent tolerance, few side effects and clinical benefit evident within three months of the commencement of treatment. The clinical improvement was sustained and progressive, and by 24-months patients demonstrated a 57 and 63% improvement in their off-medication motor and activities of daily living UPDRS subscores, respectively, with clear benefit in dyskinesias. The benefit was associated with a significant increase in putamenal 18F-dopa uptake on positron emission tomography (PET), and in one patient coming to autopsy after 43 months of unilateral infusion there was evident increased tyrosine hydroxylase immunopositive nerve fibres in the infused putamen. A second open trial in 10 patients using unilateral intraputamenal GDNF infusions has also demonstrated a greater than 30% bilateral benefit in both on- and off-medication scores at 24 weeks. Based on our 6-month results, a randomized controlled clinical trial was conducted to confirm the open-label results, however, GDNF infusion over 6-months did not confer the predetermined level of clinical benefit to patients with PD despite increased 18F-dopa uptake surrounding the catheter tip. It is possible that technical differences between this trial and the positive open label studies contributed to this negative outcome.

Absence of Ret signaling in mice causes progressive and late degeneration of the nigrostriatal system

Support of ageing neurons by endogenous neurotrophic factors such as glial cell line–derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may determine whether the neurons resist or succumb to neurodegeneration. GDNF has been tested in clinical trials for the treatment of Parkinson disease (PD), a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neurons. BDNF modulates nigrostriatal functions and rescues DA neurons in PD animal models. The physiological roles of GDNF and BDNF signaling in the adult nigrostriatal DA system are unknown. We generated mice with regionally selective ablations of the genes encoding the receptors for GDNF (Ret) and BDNF (TrkB). We find that Ret, but not TrkB, ablation causes progressive and adult-onset loss of DA neurons specifically in the substantia nigra pars compacta, degeneration of DA nerve terminals in striatum, and pronounced glial activation. These findings establish Ret as a critical regulator of long-term maintenance of the nigrostriatal DA system and suggest conditional Ret mutants as useful tools for gaining insights into the molecular mechanisms involved in the development of PD.

What does a neuron need to survive? Our body produces its own survival factors for neurons, so-called neurotrophic factors, which have additional roles in neuron differentiation, growth, and function. Declining production of a neurotrophic factor or impaired signal transduction in ageing neurons may contribute to pathological neurodegeneration in humans. Glial cell line–derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) have been suggested as survival factors for midbrain dopaminergic neurons, a group of neurons primarily affected in Parkinson disease.

To investigate the physiological requirements for GDNF and BDNF to establish and maintain an important output pathway of these neurons—the nigrostriatal pathway—in the intact brain, we generated mutant mice with regionally selective ablations of the receptors for these survival factors, Ret (receptor of GDNF and related family members) or TrkB (BDNF receptor). Surprisingly, these mice survive to adulthood and show normal development and maturation of the nigrostriatal system. However, in ageing mice, ablation of Ret leads to a progressive and cell-type–specific loss of substantia nigra pars compacta neurons and their projections into the striatum. Our findings establish Ret and subsequent downstream effectors as critical regulators of long-term maintenance of the nigrostriatal system.

Ret, a receptor for glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, selectively regulates long-term maintenance of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system.

Gazing into the future: Parkinson's disease gene therapeutics to modify natural history

PD gene therapy clinical trials have primarily focused on increasing the production of dopamine (DA) through supplemental amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) expression, neurotrophic support for surviving dopaminergic neurons (DAN) or altering brain circuitry to compensate for DA neuron loss. The future of PD gene therapy will depend upon resolving a number of important issues that are discussed in this special issue. Of particular importance is the identification of novel targets that are amenable to early intervention prior to the substantial loss of DAN. However, for the most part the etiopathogenesis of PD is unknown making early intervention a challenge and the development of early biomarker diagnostics imperative.

Human neural progenitor cells over-expressing IGF-1 protect dopamine neurons and restore function in a rat model of Parkinson's disease

Growth factors such as glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) have been shown to prevent neurodegeneration and promote regeneration in many animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD). Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is also known to have neuroprotective effects in a number of disease models but has not been extensively studied in models of PD. We produced human neural progenitor cells (hNPC) releasing either GDNF or IGF-1 and transplanted them into a rat model of PD. hNPC secreting either GDNF or IGF-1 were shown to significantly reduce amphetamine-induced rotational asymmetry and dopamine neuron loss when transplanted 7 days after a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion. Neither untransduced hNPC nor a sham transplant had this effect suggesting GDNF and IGF-1 release was required. Interestingly, GDNF, but not IGF-1, was able to protect or regenerate tyrosine hydroxylase-positive fibers in the striatum. In contrast, IGF-1, but not GDNF, significantly increased the overall survival of hNPC both in vitro and following transplantation. This suggests a dual role of IGF-1 to both increase hNPC survival after transplantation and exert trophic effects on degenerating dopamine neurons in this rat model of PD.

Cell-replacement and gene-therapy strategies for Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease

Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease are the most common neurodegenerative diseases in the elderly population. Given that age is the most important risk factor in these diseases, the number of patients is expected to rise dramatically in the coming years. Therefore, an effective therapy for these diseases is highly sought. Current treatment brings only temporary symptomatic relief and does not result in halting the progression of these diseases. The increasing knowledge on the molecular mechanisms that underlie these diseases enables the design of novel therapies, targeted at degenerating neurons by creating an optimal regenerative cellular environment. Here, we review the progress made in the field of cell-replacement and gene-therapy strategies. New developments in the application of embryonic stem cells and adult neuronal progenitors are discussed. We also discuss the use of genetically engineered cells in neuronal rescuing strategies that have recently advanced into the clinic. The first trials for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease with this approach are ongoing.

The need for regulatable vectors for gene therapy for Parkinson's disease

Gene therapy is now a very promising approach for the treatment of Parkinson's disease, for which there are currently few treatment options. However, gene therapy is invasive and irreversible, and its long-term effects are not yet known. Regulatable vectors allow the expression of the introduced gene to be adjusted or stopped by changing the dose of an oral inducer drug, thus adding an important safety mechanism as well as the ability to tailor the dose to an individual patient's needs. Although the use of conventional gene therapy should not be delayed until regulatable systems are available, clinical trials of regulatable gene therapies are imminent. Regulatable systems provide the best hope for safely delivering effective, flexible treatments over the long course of Parkinson's disease, and their development should be actively supported.

Potential application of embryonic stem cells in Parkinson's disease: drug screening and cell therapy

Embryonic stem (ES) cells are genetically normal, continuous cell lines that can give rise to a variety of somatic cells in culture. These include the midbrain dopaminergic neurons, a major cell type lost in Parkinson's disease. With the promising outcome of mesencephalic fetal transplantation in some Parkinson's disease patients, the establishment of human ES cells has sparked much attention in both the scientific and general community regarding their potential as an alternative to aborted fetal tissue for cell replacement therapies. There is also great interest in developing the ES cell system as a platform for pharmaceutical and toxicological screening. Progress has been made in developing protocols for dopaminergic neuronal specification in ES cell development. Research to define the criteria for the 'right' category of therapeutic dopaminergic cells is underway. However, the promise of human ES cells rests largely on our ability to expand stem cells without genetic and epigenetic compromise, and to direct stem cell differentiation with absolute phenotypic fidelity. The delivery of these goals will require a much better understanding of the control of ES cell self-renewal, proliferation and the commitment of differentiation.

Prospects for gene therapy in inherited neurodegenerative diseases

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The use of gene therapy to correct or replace deficient genes has been a long-standing aspiration.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent findings from basic and applied research suggest that at last it may be possible to translate experimental procedures into effective patient therapies for genetic diseases. Therapies for neurodegenerative diseases potentially include, as their targets, both monogenic conditions (e.g. lysosomal storage disorders) and more genetically complex diseases (such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disorders).

SUMMARY

The use of gene therapy to target the central nervous system presents specific technical and biological challenges. These may be overcome by using novel gene vector delivery strategies. Current research should illuminate the temporal window required to achieve a successful therapy. As greater knowledge is accumulated about gene therapy, correlations will be made between the level of gene expression from the therapeutic vector, the extent of correction after treatment, and the stage of disease progression when therapy is initiated.

Effect of Kangxin Capsule on the expression of nerve growth factors in parietal lobe of cortex and hippocampus CA1 area of vascular dementia model rats

OBJECTIVE

To observe the effect of Kangxin Capsule (KXC) on the expression of nerve growth factor (NGF) as well as the morphology and amount of nerve synapse in the cortical parietal lobe and hippocampus CA, area of vascular dementia ( VD) model rats.

METHODS

The model rats of VD made by photochemical reaction technique were randomly divided into five groups: the model group (MG), the high-dose, middle-dose and low-dose KXC groups (HDG, MDG and LDG), and the Western medicine hydergin control group (WMG). They were treated respectively with distilled water, high, middle and low dosage of KXC suspended liquid, and hydergin for a month. Besides, a blank group consisting of normal (non-model) rats was set up for control (CG). The ultrastructure of nerve synapse in the cortical parietal lobe and hippocampus CA1 area of the rats were observed and its density estimated. The condition of NGF positive neurons in the above-mentioned two regions were also observed by immunohistochemical stain.

RESULTS

All the KXC or hydergin treated groups demonstrated a normal amount of nerve synapse with integral structure in the cortical parietal lobe and hippocampus CA, area, which approached that in the CG and was superior to that in the MG. Also, the NGF positive neuron in all the treated groups was much more than that in MG with significant difference ( P<0.01), approaching to that in the CG.

CONCLUSION

KXC could elevate the expression of NGF in the cortical parietal lobe and hippocampus CA, area, preserve the number and morphology of synapse, thus to protect the function of nerve system from ischemic injury.

Calcitriol protection against dopamine loss induced by intracerebroventricular administration of 6-hydroxydopamine

Calcitriol has been implicated as an agent that has neuroprotective effects in various animal models of diseases, possibly by upregulating glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). The present study examined the neuroprotective effects of calcitriol in a model of early Parkinson's disease. Rats were treated daily with calcitriol or saline for 7 days before an intraventricular injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), and then for 1 day or daily for 3(1/2) to 4 weeks after lesioning. Evoked overflow and tissue content of dopamine (DA) were determined 3(1/2) to 4 weeks post lesion. The 8-day calcitriol treatment did not attenuate 6-OHDA-induced decreases in evoked overflow of DA, nor did it protect against 6-OHDA-induced reductions in tissue levels of DA in the striatum or substantia nigra. However, the long-term calcitriol treatment did significantly increase evoked overflow of DA, as well as the amount of DA in the striatum, compared to saline treated animals. GDNF was significantly increased in the substantia nigra, but not in the striatum, of non-lesioned, calcitriol treated rats. These results suggest that long-term treatment with calcitriol can provide partial protection for dopaminergic neurons against the effects of intraventricularly administered 6-OHDA.

GDNF applied to the MPTP-lesioned nigrostriatal system requires TGF-beta for its neuroprotective action

GDNF is a potent neurotrophic factor for nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in vitro and in animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD), but has largely failed when tested in therapeutic applications in human PD. We report here that GDNF requires transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) to elicit its neurotrophic activity. Lesioning the mouse nigrostriatal system with MPTP significantly upregulates striatal TGF-beta2 mRNA levels. As expected, GDNF protects against the destructive effects of MPTP, including losses of TH-ir nigral neurons, striatal dopamine and TH-ir fibers. Application of antibodies neutralizing all three TGF-beta isoforms to the MPTP-lesioned striatum abolishes the neurotrophic effect of GDNF. We show that TGF-beta antibodies are not toxic and do not interfere with retrograde transport of iodinated GDNF, suggesting that TGF-beta antibodies do not impair internalization and retrograde trafficking of GDNF. We conclude that striatal TGF-beta may be essential for permitting exogenous GDNF to act as a neuroprotective factor.

Derivation and large-scale expansion of multipotent astroglial neural progenitors from adult human brain

The isolation and expansion of human neural cell types has become increasingly relevant in restorative neurobiology. Although embryonic and fetal tissue are frequently envisaged as providing sufficiently primordial cells for such applications, the developmental plasticity of endogenous adult neural cells remains largely unclear. To examine the developmental potential of adult human brain cells, we applied conditions favoring the growth of neural stem cells to multiple cortical regions, resulting in the identification and selection of a population of adult human neural progenitors (AHNPs). These nestin(+) progenitors may be derived from multiple forebrain regions, are maintainable in adherent conditions, co-express multiple glial and immature markers, and are highly expandable, allowing a single progenitor to theoretically form sufficient cells for approximately 4x10(7) adult brains. AHNPs longitudinally maintain the ability to generate both glial and neuronal cell types in vivo and in vitro, and are amenable to genetic modification and transplantation. These findings suggest an unprecedented degree of inducible plasticity is retained by cells of the adult central nervous system.

Retinal pigment epithelial cell transplantation could provide trophic support in Parkinson's disease: results from an in vitro model system

Transplantation of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells in the basal ganglia could provide a novel cell-based therapy for Parkinson's disease by providing a constant source of dopamine replacement via the melanin synthetic pathway enzyme tyrosinase. We now demonstrate that human RPE cells also produce a neurotrophic effect on primary cultures of rat striatal (enkephalinergic) and mesencephalic (dopaminergic) neurons. Differentiation of RPE cells to a pigmented monolayer using a Ca(++)-switch protocol increased the potency of the neurotrophic effect on dopaminergic neurons. Conditioned medium derived from differentiated RPE cells increased neurite outgrowth in dopaminergic neurons by 125% compared to 25% for undifferentiated RPE cells. The neurotrophic effect was not due to tyrosinase activity. Differentiation of RPE cells doubled the production of pigment-derived epithelial factor (PEDF). However, PEDF accounted for only a portion of the neurotrophic effect as determined by depletion experiments and dose-response comparisons with purified PEDF, indicating that differentiation increased the production of other trophic factors as well. Conditioned medium from differentiated RPE cells also provided a neurotrophic effect on a subset of enkephalinergic striatal neurons increasing neurite outgrowth by 78%. Survival of enkephalinergic neurons in vitro was increased by RPE conditioned medium. In untreated cultures the number of enkephalinergic neurons declined 62% over a 2-week period compared to a 29% decline in RPE-treated cultures. These results indicate that transplantation RPE cells could potentially provide a dual benefit in Parkinson's disease producing both dopamine and neurotrophic support of the basal ganglia.