Effective Utilization of NIR Wavelengths for Photo-Controlled Polymerization: Penetration Through Thick Barriers and Parallel Solar Syntheses

Simulation an effective light trapping structure for boosting photoelectrocatalytic water splitting

Solar energy converted by photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells showcases significant potential for addressing the energy crisis. However, limitations stemming from photoelectrode structure have hindered the efficiency improvements of PEC cells. In this work, we utilized the finite-time domain difference method to simulate the PEC performance of GaAs photoanode in a PEC cell. Through finite element analysis, we determined the thickness of GaAs photoanode to be 265 nm and subsequently designed the concave-structured photoanode. Comparison of cross-sectional photoelectric characteristic between flat and concave structured photoanodes revealed significant improvements in the latter. Specifically, the absorption of concave structure increased by 30.61 % compared to flat structure, accompanied by 2.7 times increase in Pmax and 2.2 times increase in JSC. Further analysis of the impact of depth-to-width ratio and inner surface area on light-trapping characteristics demonstrated their influence on absorption and photoelectrical performance. Interestingly, concave structures presented a 14.70 % higher absorption compared to flat structures, translating to 1.48 times increase in surface area absorption rate. Moreover, the Pmax increase was 3.08 times greater than the increase in surface area. We anticipate that our structural simulation findings will offer valuable theoretical insights for the design of light-trapping structures, thereby enhancing the performance of PEC cells.

Confinement of Sustainable Carbon Dots Results in Long Afterglow Emitters and Photocatalyst for Radical Photopolymerization

Sustainable carbon dots based on cellulose, particularly carboxymethyl cellulose carbon dots (CMCCDs), were confined in an inorganic network resulting in CMCCDs@SiO2. This resulted in a material exhibiting long afterglow covering a time frame of several seconds also under air. Temperature-dependent emission spectra gave information on thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) and room temperature phosphorescence (RTP) while photocurrent experiments provided a deeper understanding of charge availability in the dark period, and therefore, its availability on the photocatalyst surface. The photo-ATRP initiator, ethyl α-bromophenylacetate (EBPA), quenched the emission from the millisecond to the nanosecond time frame indicating participation of the triplet state in photoinduced electron transfer (PET). Both free radical and controlled radical polymerization based on photo-ATRP protocol worked successfully. Metal-free photo-ATRP resulted in chain extendable macroinitiators based on a reductive mechanism with either MMA or in combination with styrene. Addition of 9 ppm Cu2+ resulted in Mw/Mn of 1.4 while an increase to 72 ppm improved uniformity of the polymers; that is Mw/Mn=1.03. Complementary experiments with kerria laca carbon dots confined materials, namely KCDs@SiO2, provided similar results. Deposition of Cu2+ (9 ppm) on the photocatalyst surface explains better uniformity of the polymers formed in the ATRP protocol.

Photo-Deactivation Strategy for Switchable ATRP with the Assistance of Molecular Switches

Light irradiation is an external stimulus, rapidly developed in switchable atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) via photo-activation methods in recent years. Herein, a photo-deactivation strategy is introduced to regulate ATRP with the assistance of photoswitchable hexaarylbiimidozole (HABI). Under visible light irradiation and in the presence of HABI, ATRP is greatly decelerated or quenched depending on the concentration of HABI. Interestingly, with visible light off, ATRP can proceed smoothly and follow a first-order kinetics. Moreover, photo-switchable ATRP alternatively with light off and on is demonstrated. Besides, the mechanism of photo-deactivation ATRP involving radical quenching is proposed in the presence of HABI.

Near-infrared Light-Induced Polymerizations: Mechanisms and Applications

Photopolymerizations have garnered significant attention in polymer science due to their low polymerization temperature, high production efficiency, environmental friendliness, and spatial controllability. Despite these merits, the poor penetration and severe chemical damage from ultraviolet/visible (UV/Vis) light resources pose significant barriers to their success in conventional photopolymerizations. A recent breakthrough involving the utilization of near-infrared (NIR) laser with long wavelength has been exploited for diverse applications. With the combination of a NIR photosensitizer (PS), NIR-induced photopolymerizations have been successfully developed to alleviate the challenges in conventional methods. The enhancement of penetration depth and safety of NIR-induced photopolymerizations can contribute significantly to improving the efficiency of polymerization for production of intricate structures across various scales. In this concept, the typical types of PSs and polymerization mechanisms (PMs) within the NIR-induced photopolymerization systems have been classified in detail. Additionally, the applications of various polymers achieved by NIR-induced photopolymerizations are summarized. Furthermore, research directions and future challenges of this field are also discussed comprehensively.

Light-Mediated Polymerization Catalyzed by Carbon Nanomaterials

Carbon nanomaterials, specifically carbon dots and carbon nitrides, play a crucial role as heterogeneous photoinitiators in both radical and cationic polymerization processes. These recently introduced materials offer promising solutions to the limitations of current homogeneous systems, presenting a novel approach to photopolymerization. This review highlights the preparation and photocatalytic performance of these nanomaterials, emphasizing their application in various polymerization techniques, including photoinduced i) free radical, ii) RAFT, iii) ATRP, and iv) cationic photopolymerization. Additionally, it discusses their potential in addressing contemporary challenges and explores prospects in this field. Moreover, carbon nitrides, in particular, exhibit exceptional oxygen tolerance, underscoring their significance in radical polymerization processes and allowing their applications such as 3D printing, surface modification of coatings, and hydrogel engineering.

Near-Infrared Light-Driven Photocatalysis with an Emphasis on Two-Photon Excitation: Concepts, Materials, and Applications

Efficient utilization of sunlight in photocatalysis is widely recognized as a promising solution for addressing the growing energy demand and environmental issues resulting from fossil fuel consumption. Recently, there have been significant developments in various near-infrared (NIR) light-harvesting systems for artificial photosynthesis and photocatalytic environmental remediation. This review provides an overview of the most recent advancements in the utilization of NIR light through the creation of novel nanostructured materials and molecular photosensitizers, as well as modulating strategies to enhance the photocatalytic processes. A special focus is given to the emerging two-photon excitation NIR photocatalysis. The unique features and limitations of different systems are critically evaluated. In particular, it highlights the advantages of utilizing NIR light and two-photon excitation compared to UV-visible irradiation and one-photon excitation. Ongoing challenges and potential solutions for the future exploration of NIR light-responsive materials are also discussed.

Near-Infrared Light and Acid/Base Dual-Regulated Polymerization Utilizing Imidazole-Anion-Fused Perylene Diimides as Photocatalysts

This work presents the first example of acid/base-responsive and near-infrared (NIR)-absorbing photocatalysts based on imidazole-anion-fused perylene diimide chromophores. The photocatalysts were in situ generated by deprotonation of imidazole-fused perylene diimide under an alkaline environment. NIR (λ = 730 nm, 128 mW/cm2) photoinduced atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) was implemented, exhibiting high efficiency and excellent livingness under ppm level of photocatalysts (15 ppm relative to monomer) and Cu(II) complex (10 ppm relative to monomer) concentrations. The method showed capabilities to polymerize behind opaque barriers (i.e., paper and pig skin) and under aerobic condition. Notably, this work demonstrated a dual temporal control of polymerization by adding weak base/acid and switching NIR light on/off. The polymerization can even be halted by bubbling CO2 and was then fully recovered by adding triethylamine. The NIR photoATRP of acrylamide monomers in aqueous solution was also performed, which can be regulated by the change of pH.

Red-Light-Driven Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization for High-Throughput Polymer Synthesis in Open Air

Photoinduced reversible-deactivation radical polymerization (photo-RDRP) techniques offer exceptional control over polymerization, providing access to well-defined polymers and hybrid materials with complex architectures. However, most photo-RDRP methods rely on UV/visible light or photoredox catalysts (PCs), which require complex multistep synthesis. Herein, we present the first example of fully oxygen-tolerant red/NIR-light-mediated photoinduced atom transfer radical polymerization (photo-ATRP) in a high-throughput manner under biologically relevant conditions. The method uses commercially available methylene blue (MB+) as the PC and [X-CuII/TPMA]+ (TPMA = tris(2-pyridylmethyl)amine) complex as the deactivator. The mechanistic study revealed that MB+ undergoes a reductive quenching cycle in the presence of the TPMA ligand used in excess. The formed semireduced MB (MB•) sustains polymerization by regenerating the [CuI/TPMA]+ activator and together with [X-CuII/TPMA]+ provides control over the polymerization. This dual catalytic system exhibited excellent oxygen tolerance, enabling polymerizations with high monomer conversions (>90%) in less than 60 min at low volumes (50-250 μL) and high-throughput synthesis of a library of well-defined polymers and DNA-polymer bioconjugates with narrow molecular weight distributions (Đ < 1.30) in an open-air 96-well plate. In addition, the broad absorption spectrum of MB+ allowed ATRP to be triggered under UV to NIR irradiation (395-730 nm). This opens avenues for the integration of orthogonal photoinduced reactions. Finally, the MB+/Cu catalysis showed good biocompatibility during polymerization in the presence of cells, which expands the potential applications of this method.

Near-Infrared Light-Induced Reversible Deactivation Radical Polymerization: Expanding Frontiers in Photopolymerization

Photoinduced reversible deactivation radical polymerization (photo-RDRP) or photoinduced controlled/living radical polymerization has emerged as a versatile and powerful technique for preparing functional and advanced polymer materials under mild conditions by harnessing light energy. While UV and visible light (λ = 400-700 nm) are extensively employed in photo-RDRP, the utilization of near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths (λ = 700-2500 nm) beyond the visible region remains relatively unexplored. NIR light possesses unique properties, including enhanced light penetration, reduced light scattering, and low biomolecule absorption, thereby providing opportunities for applying photo-RDRP in the fields of manufacturing and medicine. This comprehensive review categorizes all known NIR light-induced RDRP (NIR-RDRP) systems into four mechanism-based types: mediation by upconversion nanoparticles, mediation by photocatalysts, photothermal conversion, and two-photon absorption. The distinct photoinitiation pathways associated with each mechanism are discussed. Furthermore, this review highlights the diverse applications of NIR-RDRP reported to date, including 3D printing, polymer brush fabrication, drug delivery, nanoparticle synthesis, and hydrogel formation. By presenting these applications, the review underscores the exceptional capabilities of NIR-RDRP and offers guidance for developing high-performance and versatile photopolymerization systems. Exploiting the unique properties of NIR light unlocks new opportunities for synthesizing functional and advanced polymer materials.

Emulsion-Directed Synthesis of Poly-Porphyrin Nanoparticles as Heterogeneous Photocatalysts for PET-RAFT Polymerization

Heterogeneous photocatalysts have attracted extensive attention in photo-induced electron transfer-reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (PET-RAFT) polymerization due to their remarkable advantages such as easy preparation, tunable photoelectric properties, and recyclability. In this study, zinc (II) 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-aminophenyl)porphyrin (ZnTAPP)-based poly-porphyrin nanoparticles (PTAPP-Zn) are constructed by an emulsion-directed approach. It is investigated as a heterogeneous photocatalyst for PET-RAFT polymerization of various methacrylate monomers under visible light exposure, and the reactions show refined polymerization control with high monomer conversions. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the PTAPP-Zn nanoparticles with the larger pore size enhance photocatalytic activity in PET-RAFT polymerization. In addition, the capabilities of oxygen tolerance and temporal control are demonstrated and PTAPP-Zn particles can be easily recycled and reused without an obvious decrease in catalytic efficiency.

Photo Fenton RAFT Polymerization of (Meth)Acrylates in DMSO Sensitized by Methylene Blue

A novel open-to-air photo RAFT polymerization of a series of acrylate and methacrylate monomers mediated by matching chain transfer agent irradiated by far-red light in DMSO is reported. Hydroxyl radical (•OH) generated from methylene blue (MB) sensitized decomposition of H2 O2 via photo-Fenton like-reaction is used for polymerization initiation. The "living/control" characteristic is evidenced by kinetic study, in which a pseudo first order curve and linearly increases of molecular weight with the increase of monomer conversion are observed. The living end-group fidelity is characterized by MALDI-TOF-MS and 1 H NMR results, and confirmed by successful chain extension. The temporary controllability is proved by light on/off switch experiment.

Conjugated cross-linked phosphine as broadband light or sunlight-driven photocatalyst for large-scale atom transfer radical polymerization

The use of light to regulate photocatalyzed reversible deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP) under mild conditions, especially driven by broadband light or sunlight directly, is highly desired. But the development of a suitable photocatalyzed polymerization system for large-scale production of polymers, especially block copolymers, has remained a big challenge. Herein, we report the development of a phosphine-based conjugated hypercrosslinked polymer (PPh₃-CHCP) photocatalyst for an efficient large-scale photoinduced copper-catalyzed atom transfer radical polymerization (Cu-ATRP). Monomers including acrylates and methyl acrylates can achieve near-quantitative conversions under a wide range (450-940 nm) of radiations or sunlight directly. The photocatalyst could be easily recycled and reused. The sunlight-driven Cu-ATRP allowed the synthesis of homopolymers at 200 mL from various monomers, and monomer conversions approached 99% in clouds intermittency with good control over polydispersity. In addition, block copolymers at 400 mL scale can also be obtained, which demonstrates its great potential for industrial applications.

Triplet Fusion Upconversion for Photocuring 3D-Printed Particle-Reinforced Composite Networks

High energy photons (λ < 400 nm) are frequently used to initiate free radical polymerizations to form polymer networks, but are only effective for transparent objects. This phenomenon poses a major challenge to additive manufacturing of particle-reinforced composite networks since deep light penetration of short-wavelength photons limits the homogeneous modification of physicochemical and mechanical properties. Herein, the unconventional, yet versatile, multiexciton process of triplet-triplet annihilation upconversion (TTA-UC) is employed for curing opaque hydrogel composites created by direct-ink-write (DIW) 3D printing. TTA-UC converts low energy red light (λ_max  = 660 nm) for deep penetration into higher-energy blue light to initiate free radical polymerizations within opaque objects. As proof-of-principle, hydrogels containing up to 15 wt.% TiO₂ filler particles and doped with TTA-UC chromophores are readily cured with red light, while composites without the chromophores and TiO₂ loadings as little as 1-2 wt.% remain uncured. Importantly, this method has wide potential to modify the chemical and mechanical properties of complex DIW 3D-printed composite polymer networks.

NIR-Photocontrolled Aqueous RAFT Polymerization with Polymerizable Water-Soluble Zinc Phthalocyanine as Photocatalyst

In order to give an answer for the challenges of long wavelength-photocontrolled radical polymerization in aqueous solutions and to address the shortcomings of conventional near-infrared (NIR) photocatalysts (PCs) that are difficult to subject to post-treatment, we designed and synthesized a series of β-tetra-substituted water-soluble zinc phthalocyanines (β-TS-Zns) as the NIR PCs for reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization successfully under irradiation with NIR (λ_max = 730 nm) light at room temperature. Importantly, the NIR PCs can also be designed as polymerizable monomers and covalently loaded on the polymer chains, which are endowed with permanent NIR photocatalysis of the resultant polymers. Moreover, the polymerization can not only be carried out in water but also in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) solution, yielding polymers with controlled molar mass and narrow dispersities (Đ = 1.03-1.25). Therefore, this NIR-photocontrolled aqueous RAFT polymerization system may provide a charming strategy for possible applications in tissue engineering biomaterial in situ benefiting from the high penetration ability of NIR light.

Switchable RAFT Polymerization Employing Photoresponsive HABI as a Mediator

Recently, considerable interest has been devoted to developing switchable reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerizations via photoactivation methods. Herein, a photo-deactivation strategy is introduced to regulate RAFT polymerization using photoresponsive hexaarylbiimidozole (HABI) as a mediator, which leads to switchable RAFT polymerization by repeated ON/OFF experiments. In comparison with well-known PET-RAFT polymerization, photo-deactivation RAFT (PD-RAFT) polymerization can be temporally stopped with UV light ON, where photoresponsive HABI can reversibly quench propagating radicals, resulting in switchable RAFT polymerization. The proposed mechanism of PD-RAFT polymerization in the presence of HABI involving radical quenching is based on ESR, NMR, GPC, MALDI-TOF-MS, and kinetics studies.

An aqueous photo-controlled polymerization under NIR wavelengths: synthesis of polymeric nanoparticles through thick barriers

We report an aqueous and near-infrared (NIR) light mediated photoinduced reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (photo-RAFT) polymerization system using tetrasulfonated zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPcS4 -) as a photocatalyst. Owing to the high catalytic efficiency and excellent oxygen tolerance of this system, well-controlled polyacrylamides, polyacrylates, and polymethacrylates were synthesized at fast rates without requiring deoxygenation. Notably, NIR wavelengths possess enhanced light penetration through non-transparent barriers compared to UV and visible light, allowing high polymerization rates through barriers. Using 6.0 mm pig skin as a barrier, the polymerization rate was only reduced from 0.36 to 0.21 h-1, indicating potential for biomedical applications. Furthermore, longer wavelengths (higher λ) can be considered an ideal light source for dispersion photopolymerization, especially for the synthesis of large diameter (d) nanoparticles, as light scattering is proportional to d 6/λ 4. Therefore, this aqueous photo-RAFT system was applied to photoinduced polymerization-induced self-assembly (photo-PISA), enabling the synthesis of polymeric nanoparticles with various morphologies, including spheres, worms, and vesicles. Taking advantage of high penetration and reduced light scattering of NIR wavelengths, we demonstrate the first syntheses of polymeric nanoparticles with consistent morphologies through thick barriers.

A Porphyrin-Based Organic Network Comprising Sustainable Carbon Dots for Photopolymerization

Sustainable carbon dots (CDs) based on furfuraldehyde (F-CD) resulted in a photosensitive material after pursuing the Alder-Longo reaction. The porphyrin moiety formed connects the F-CDs in a covalent organic network. This heterogeneous material (P-CD) was characterized by XPS indicating incorporation of the respective C, N and O moieties. Time resolved fluorescence including global analysis showed contribution of three linked components to the overall dynamics of the excited state. Electrochemical and photonic properties of this heterogeneous material facilitated photopolymerization in a photo-ATRP setup where either CuBr₂ /TPMA, FeBr₃ /Br^- or a metal free reaction setup activated controlled polymerization. Chain extension experiments worked in all three cases showing end group fidelity for activation of controlled block copolymerization using MMA and styrene as monomers. Traditional radical polymerization using a diaryl iodonium salt as co-initiator failed.

A Plurizyme with Transaminase and Hydrolase Activity Catalyzes Cascade Reactions

Engineering dual‐function single polypeptide catalysts with two abiotic or biotic catalytic entities (or combinations of both) supporting cascade reactions is becoming an important area of enzyme engineering and catalysis. Herein we present the development of a PluriZyme, TR₂E₂, with efficient native transaminase (k_cat: 69.49±1.77 min⁻¹) and artificial esterase (k_cat: 3908–0.41 min⁻¹) activities integrated into a single scaffold, and evaluate its utility in a cascade reaction. TR₂E₂ (pH_opt: 8.0–9.5; T_opt: 60–65 °C) efficiently converts methyl 3‐oxo‐4‐(2,4,5‐trifluorophenyl)butanoate into 3‐(R)‐amino‐4‐(2,4,5‐trifluorophenyl)butanoic acid, a crucial intermediate for the synthesis of antidiabetic drugs. The reaction proceeds through the conversion of the β‐keto ester into the β‐keto acid at the hydrolytic site and subsequently into the β‐amino acid (e.e. >99 %) at the transaminase site. The catalytic power of the TR₂E₂PluriZyme was proven with a set of β‐keto esters, demonstrating the potential of such designs to address bioinspired cascade reactions.

Photocatalyzed decarboxylation of oxamic acids under near-infrared conditions

Photocatalyzed oxidative decarboxylation of oxamic acids under near-infrared irradiation using Os(bptpy)₂(PF₆)₂ as catalyst is reported. The reaction was applied to the synthesis of urethanes and heterocyclic amides. Mechanistic studies and comparative penetration depths between the NIR and the visible light mediated processes are discussed.

RAFT Polymerization of Semifluorinated Monomers Mediated by a NIR Fluorinated Photocatalyst

Near-infrared (NIR) light plays an increasingly important role in the field of photoinduced electron/energy transfer-reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (PET-RAFT) polymerization due to its unique properties. Yet, the NIR photocatalyst with good stability for PET-RAFT polymerization remains promising. Here, a strategy of NIR PET-RAFT polymerization of semifluorinated monomers using fluorophenyl bacteriochlorin as a photocatalyst with strong absorption at the NIR light region (710-780 nm) is reported. In which, the F atoms are used to modify reduced tetraphenylporphyrin structure with enhanced photostability of photocatalyst. Under the irradiation of NIR light (λ_max = 740 nm), the PET-RAFT polymerization of semifluorinated methylacrylic monomers presents living/control characteristics and temporal modulation. By the PET-RAFT polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) strategy, stable fluorine-containing micelles are constructed in various solvents. In addition, the fluorinated hydrophobic surface is fabricated via a surface-initiated PET-RAFT (SI-PET-RAFT) polymerization using silicon wafer bearing RAFT agents with tunable surface hydrophobicity. This strategy not only enlightens the application of further modified compounds based on porphyrin structure in photopolymerization, but also shows promising potential for the construction of well-defined functional fluoropolymers.

Red-Light-Induced, Copper-Catalyzed Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization

Despite advances in photochemical atom transfer radical polymerization (photoATRP), these systems often rely on the use of UV light for the activation/generation of the copper-based catalytic species. To circumvent the problems associated with the UV light, we developed a dual photoredox catalytic system to mediate photoinduced ATRP under red-light irradiation. The catalytic system is comprised of a Cu catalyst to control the polymerization via ATRP equilibrium and a photocatalyst, such as zinc(II) tetraphenylporphine or zinc(II) phthalocyanine, to generate the activator Cu^I species under red-light irradiation. In addition, this system showed oxygen tolerance due to the consumption of oxygen in the photoredox reactions, yielding well-controlled polymerizations without the need for deoxygenation processes.

Selective Photoactivation of Trithiocarbonates Mediated by Metal Naphthalocyanines and Overcoming Activation Barriers Using Thermal Energy

Metal naphthalocyanines (MNcs) were demonstrated to be efficient photocatalysts to activate photoinduced electron-transfer reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (PET-RAFT) polymerization, enabling well-controlled polymerization of (meth)acrylates under near-infrared (λ = 780 nm) light. Owing to their lower redox potential compared to previously explored photocatalysts, the activation of trithiocarbonate RAFT agents exhibited a unique selectivity that was dependent on the nature of the R group. Specifically, MNcs were capable in activating tertiary R group trithiocarbonates, whereas no activation of the trithiocarbonate possessing a secondary R group was observed. The combination of density functional theory calculations and experimental studies have revealed new mechanistic insights into the factors governing a PET-RAFT mechanism and explained this unique selectivity of MNcs toward tertiary carbon trithiocarbonates. Interestingly, by increasing the reaction temperature moderately (i.e., ∼15 °C), the energy barrier prohibiting the photoactivation of the trithiocarbonate with a secondary R group was overcome, enabling their successful activation.

Reversible complexation mediated polymerization: an emerging type of organocatalytically controlled radical polymerization

Reversible complexation mediated polymerization (RCMP) was developed as a new class of controlled radical polymerization (CRP) using organic catalysts. In particular, photo-RCMP is among the simplest, cheapest, and most robust photoinduced CRPs.

Aqueous broadband photopolymerization on microreactor arrays: from high throughput polymerization to fabricating artificial cells

Microreactor arrays combining ZnO and polyaniline are fabricated onto the bottom of multi-well plates to catalyze broadband sunlight-driven open-to-air polymerization in aqueous media.

Photoinduced organocatalyzed controlled radical polymerization feasible over a wide range of wavelengths

We successfully synthesized a catalyst with a wide absorption range (300–1000 nm) for controlled radical polymerization of PEGMA in aqueous solution and MMA in bulk under the irradiation of white, blue, green, red, and NIR LED light, and sunlight.

Contributions of photochemistry to bio-based antibacterial polymer materials

Surgical site infections constitute a major health concern that may be addressed by conferring antibacterial properties to surgical tools and medical devices via functional coatings. Bio-sourced polymers are particularly well-suited to prepare such coatings as they are usually safe and can exhibit intrinsic antibacterial properties or serve as hosts for bactericidal agents. The goal of this Review is to highlight the unique contribution of photochemistry as a green and mild methodology for the development of such bio-based antibacterial materials. Photo-generation and photo-activation of bactericidal materials are illustrated. Recent efforts and current challenges to optimize the sustainability of the process, improve the safety of the materials and extend these strategies to 3D biomaterials are also emphasized.

Visible-Light-Enabled Organocatalyzed Controlled Alternating Terpolymerization of Perfluorinated Vinyl Ethers

Polymerizations of perfluorinated vinyl ethers (PFVEs) provide an important category of fluoropolymers that have received considerable interests in applications. In this work, we report the development of an organocatalyzed controlled radical alternating terpolymerization of PFVEs and vinyl ethers (VEs) under visible-light irradiation. This method not only enables the synthesis of a broad scope of fluorinated terpolymers of low dispersities and high chain-end fidelity, facilitating tuning the chemical compositions by rationally choosing the type and/or ratio of comonomers, but also allows temporal control of chain-growth, as well as the preparation of a variety of novel fluorinated block copolymers. To showcase the versatility of this method, fluorinated alternating terpolymers have been synthesized and customized to simultaneously display a variety of desirable properties for solid polymer electrolyte design, creating new opportunities in high-performance energy storage devices.

Azacalixphyrins as an innovative alternative for the free-radical photopolymerization under visible and NIR irradiation without the need of co-initiators

Azacalixphyrins are unique aromatic macrocycles featuring strong absorption from the visible to the near-infrared (NIR) spectral ranges. This work demonstrates through EPR spin-trapping experiments that the N-alkyl tetrasubstituted azacalixphyrin (ACP) can lead to the formation of carbon-centered radicals initiating for the free-radical photopolymerization (FRP) of bio-based acrylate monomer upon the irradiation of several light emitting diodes, which emissions range from 455 to 660 nm. Compared to other previously reported systems, the tremendous advantage of the ACP photoinitiating system is its ability to promote photopolymerization on its own, avoiding the introduction of co-initiators. A new potential application of this promising photoinitiator is highlighted through the fabrication of well-defined microstructures under NIR laser diode irradiation at λ = 800 nm.

Recognition of human hemoglobin with macromolecularly imprinted polymeric nanoparticles using non-covalent interactions

Hemoglobin (Hb) is the most abundant protein in the blood. It is vital for the living as oxygen carriers. Some of the very pure Hb-containing biological fluids are currently under clinical trial. However, the removal and purification of Hb from the blood are quite difficult, especially when it is at a low concentration level. In this study, the molecularly imprinted polymeric nanoparticles (MIPNs) were prepared using N-methacryloyl-histidine methyl ester (MAH) by mini-emulsion polymerization technique for specific binding of human hemoglobin (HHb). MIPNs in monosize form have a size of 152 ± 4 nm. They also have a high binding capacity (32.33 mg/g) of HHb. MIPNs retain 84% of the re-binding capacity for HHb after 10 cycles. The nanoparticles have 16 and 5 times higher binding capacity of HHb, respectively, in the presence of bovine serum albumin and lysozyme. Thanks to their high binding capacity and selectivity, MIPNs will allow them to be detected selectively for different target molecules. According to molecular docking, the main binding forces depend on hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces in the interaction within 5 Å around MAH molecule are observed through the amino acid residues of HHb at β1 and β2 subunit. The statistical mechanical analysis of docking showed that the free energy (ΔG) is -2732.14 kcal/mol, which indicates the interaction between MAH and HHb is energetically favorable at 298.15°K.

Visible Light-Regulated Heterogeneous Catalytic PET-RAFT by High Crystallinity Covalent Organic Framework

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are a class of promising photocatalysts for conversing light energy into chemical energy. Based on the tunable building blocks, COFs can be well-designed as photocatalyst for mediating reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Herein, 1,3,6,8-tetrakis(4-formylphenyl)pyrene (TFPPy) and 2,2″-bipyridine-5,5″-diamine (Bpy) are chosen to construct imine-based TFPPy-Bpy-COFs for catalyzing RAFT polymerization of methacrylates under white light irradiation. The well-defined polymers with precise molecular weight and narrow molecular weight distribution are obtained. The switch on/off light experiments suggest excellent temporal control toward RAFT polymerization system and the chain-extension reaction indicates high chain-end fidelity of macro-initiators. Mechanism study clarifies that the electron transfer between excited state of TFPPy-Bpy-COFs and RAFT agent can form living radicals to mediate polymerization. This methodology provides a novel platform for reversible-deactivation radical polymerization using COFs as heterogeneous catalysts.

Photocontrolled RAFT Polymerization Catalyzed by Conjugated Polymers under Aerobic Aqueous Conditions

Photocontrolled polymerization offers a convenient way to direct the reaction progress and tailor the polymer structures. Nevertheless, conjugated polymers are yet to be utilized as the photocatalyst in associated reactions. Herein, we employed poly(boron dipyrromethene-alt-fluorene) (PBF), a conjugated polymer with better photostability than eosin Y, as the photocatalyst for photo-RAFT polymerizations of acrylic monomers, and the polymers were obtained with moderately narrow molecular weight distributions. The reaction progress was effectively controlled by switching irradiation conditions, and the block copolymers were prepared from chain extension of a macroinitiator. As electron spin resonance (ESR) and optical spectra results suggested, the reductive quenching of PBF* by ascorbate was the key step leading to the reduction of a chain transfer agent (CTA), whereas the hydroxyl radical derived from superoxide was considered as a byproduct of deoxygenation.

Photopolymerization performed under dark conditions using long-stored electrons in carbon nitride

In nature, the chemical energy and electrons stored in ATP and NADPH generated during irradiation can facilitate biochemical reactions under dark conditions. However, in artificial photoreaction systems, it is still very difficult to perform photoreactions under dark conditions due to the fact that the photogenerated charge pairs can recombine immediately upon ceasing the irradiation. Preventing the recombination of photogenerated charge pairs still constitutes a major challenge at present. Here, it is reported that functionalized carbon nitride nanomaterials having many heptazine rings with a positive charge distribution, which can tightly trap photogenerated electrons, efficiently prevent the recombination of photogenerated charges. These stored charges are exceedingly long-lived (up to months) and can drive photopolymerization without light irradiation, even after one month. The system introduced here demonstrates a new approach for storing light energy as long-lived radicals, enabling photoreactions under dark conditions.

Conjugated Cross-linked Phenothiazines as Green or Red Light Heterogeneous Photocatalysts for Copper-Catalyzed Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization

Using the power of light to drive controlled radical polymerizations has provided significant advances in synthesis of well-defined polymers. Photoinduced atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) systems often employ UV light to regenerate copper activator species to mediate the polymerization. Taking full advantage of long-wavelength visible light for ATRP would require developing appropriate photocatalytic systems that engage in photoinduced electron transfer processes with the ATRP components to generate activating species. Herein, we developed conjugated microporous polymers (CMP) as heterogeneous photocatalysts to exploit the power of visible light in promoting copper-catalyzed ATRP. The photocatalyst was designed by cross-linking phenothiazine (PTZ) as a photoactive core in the presence of dimethoxybenzene as a cross-linker via the Friedel-Crafts reaction. The resulting PTZ-CMP network showed photoactivity in the visible region due to the extended conjugation throughout the network because of the aromatic groups connecting the PTZ units. Therefore, photoinduced copper-catalyzed ATRP was performed with CMPs that regenerated activator species under green or red light irradiation to start the ATRP process. This resulted in efficient polymerization of acrylate and methacrylate monomers with high conversion and well-controlled molecular weight. The heterogeneous nature of the photocatalyst enabled easy separation and efficient reusability in subsequent polymerizations.

Facile Synthesis of Unimodal Polymethacrylates with Narrow Dispersity via NIR LED Light-Controlled Bromine-Iodine Transformation Reversible-Deactivation Radical Polymerization

A facile and clean strategy for synthesizing unimodal polymethacrylates with narrow dispersity (Đ < 1.10) is successfully developed by a near-infrared (NIR) light-emitting diode (LED) light (λ_max = 740 nm)-controlled in situ bromine-iodine transformation reversible-deactivation radical polymerization system without the use of NIR dyes and expensive catalysts. In this system, alkyl iodide ethyl α-iodophenylacetate (EIPA) initiator is generated in situ by the nucleophilic substitution reaction between an alkyl bromide compound ethyl α-bromophenylacetate and sodium iodide (NaI). At the same time, excessive NaI is also acted as a highly active catalyst by forming halogen bonds with terminal iodine of the polymer chains in this system to make it capable of precisely synthesizing polymethacrylates with narrow dispersities (Đ = 1.03-1.10). In addition, the strong penetration ability of NIR LED light is illustrated by the successful polymerization even through 11 pieces of A4 paper.

Distinct Sustainable Carbon Nanodots Enable Free Radical Photopolymerization, Photo-ATRP and Photo-CuAAC Chemistry

Carbon nanodots (CDs) originating from different biomass result in different activities to sensitize photo-ATRP and photo-CuAAC reaction protocols with visible light. Free radical polymerization of tri(propylene glycol)diacrylate also exhibited a good efficiency using CDs in combination with an iodonium salt employing LEDs emitting either at 405 nm, 525 nm or 660 nm. Photo-ATRP experiments confirmed controlled polymerization conditions using CuII at the ppm scale resulting in dispersities between 1.06 to 1.10. Chain end fidelity was successfully provided by chain extension and block copolymerization additionally approving the living feature of polymerization using a CD synthesized from lac dye comprising olefinic moieties in the originating biomass. By global analysis, time resolved fluorescence measurements indicated the appearance of several emitting species contributing to the reactivity of the excited states. Different cytotoxic response appeared following the answer of MCF-10A cells in a flow cytometry assay; that is 400 μg mL-1 . Thus, cell viability was greater 80 % in the case of CD-2-CD-5 while that of CD-1 was close to 70 %.

Unravelling an oxygen-mediated reductive quenching pathway for photopolymerisation under long wavelengths

Photomediated-reversible-deactivation radical polymerisation (photo-RDRP) has a limited scope of available photocatalysts (PCs) due to multiple stringent requirements for PC properties, limiting options for performing efficient polymerisations under long wavelengths. Here we report an oxygen-mediated reductive quenching pathway (O-RQP) for photoinduced electron transfer reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (PET-RAFT) polymerisation. The highly efficient polymerisations that are performed in the presence of ambient air enable an expanded scope of available PCs covering a much-broadened absorption spectrum, where the oxygen tolerance of PET-RAFT allows high-quality polymerisation by preventing the existence of O2 in large amounts and efficient O-RQP is permitted due to its requirement for only catalytic amounts of O2. Initially, four different porphyrin dyes are investigated for their ability to catalyse PET-RAFT polymerisation via an oxidative quenching pathway (OQP), reductive quenching pathway (RQP) and O-RQP. Thermodynamic studies with the aid of (time-dependent) density functional theory calculations in combination with experimental studies, enable the identification of the thermodynamic constraints within the OQP, RQP and O-RQP frameworks. This knowledge enables the identification of four phthalocyanine photocatalysts, that were previously thought to be inert for PET-RAFT, to be successfully used for photopolymerisations via O-RQP. Well-controlled polymerisations displaying excellent livingness are performed at wavelengths in the red to near-infrared regions. The existence of this third pathway O-RQP provides an attractive pathway to further expand the scope of photocatalysts compatible with the PET-RAFT process and facile access to photopolymerisations under long wavelengths.

NIR-Sensitized Cationic and Hybrid Radical/Cationic Polymerization and Crosslinking

NIR‐sensitized cationic polymerization proceeded with good efficiency, as was demonstrated with epoxides, vinyl ether, and oxetane. A heptacyanine functioned as sensitizer while iodonium salt served as coinitiator. The anion adopts a special function in a series selected from fluorinated phosphates (a: [PF₆]⁻, b: [PF₃(C₂F₅)₃]⁻, c: [PF₃(n‐C₄F₉)₃]⁻), aluminates (d: [Al(O‐t‐C₄F₉)₄]⁻, e: [Al(O(C₃F₆)CH₃)₄]⁻), and methide [C(O‐SO₂CF₃)₃]⁻ (f). Vinyl ether showed the best cationic polymerization efficiency followed by oxetanes and oxiranes. DFT calculations provided a rough pattern regarding the electrostatic potential of each anion where d showed a better reactivity than e and b. Formation of interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) using trimethylpropane triacrylate and epoxides proceeded in the case of NIR‐sensitized polymerization where anion d served as counter ion in the initiator system. No IPN was formed by UV‐LED initiation using the same monomers but thioxanthone/iodonium salt as photoinitiator. Exposure was carried out with new NIR‐LED devices emitting at either 805 or 870 nm.