Methodologies for "Wiring" Redox Proteins/Enzymes to Electrode Surfaces

Improving the In Vivo Stability of [52Mn]Mn(II) Complexes with 18-Membered Macrocyclic Chelators for PET Imaging

We report the [natMn/52Mn]Mn(II) complexes of the macrocyclic chelators PYAN [3,6,10,13-tetraaza-1,8(2,6)-dipyridinacyclotetradecaphane] and CHXPYAN [(41R,42R,101R,102R)-3,5,9,11-tetraaza-1,7(2,6)-dipyridina-4,10(1,2)-dicyclohexanacyclododecaphane]. The X-ray crystal structures of Mn-PYAN and Mn-CHXPYAN evidence distorted octahedral geometries through coordination of the nitrogen atoms of the macrocycles. Cyclic voltammetry studies evidence reversible processes due to the Mn(II)/Mn(III) pair, indicating that the complexes are resistant to oxidation. CHXPYAN forms a more thermodynamically stable and kinetically inert Mn(II) complex than PYAN. Radiochemical studies with the radioactive isotope manganese-52 (52Mn, t1/2 = 5.6 days) evidenced better radiochemical yields for CHXPYAN than for PYAN. Both [52Mn]Mn(II) complexes remained stable in mouse and human serum, so in vivo stability studies were carried out. Positron emission tomography/computed tomography scans and biodistribution assays indicated that [52Mn]Mn-PYAN has a distribution pattern similar to that of [52Mn]MnCl2, showing persistent radioactivity accumulation in the kidneys. Conversely, [52Mn]Mn-CHXPYAN remained stable in vivo, clearing quickly from the liver and kidneys.

Five years of scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM): new insights and innovations

Scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) is a nanopipette-based technique which enables measurement of localised electrochemistry. SECCM has found use in a wide range of electrochemical applications, and due to the wider uptake of this technique in recent years, new applications and techniques have been developed. This minireview has collected all SECCM research articles published in the last 5 years, to demonstrate and celebrate the recent advances, and to make it easier for SECCM researchers to remain well-informed. The wide range of SECCM applications is demonstrated, which are categorised here into electrocatalysis, electroanalysis, photoelectrochemistry, biological materials, energy storage materials, corrosion, electrosynthesis, and instrumental development. In the collection of this library of SECCM studies, a few key trends emerge. (1) The range of materials and processes explored with SECCM has grown, with new applications emerging constantly. (2) The instrumental capabilities of SECCM have grown, with creative techniques being developed from research groups worldwide. (3) The SECCM research community has grown significantly, with adoption of the SECCM technique becoming more prominent.

Interactive biocatalysis achieved by driving enzyme cascades inside a porous conducting material

An emerging concept and platform, the electrochemical Leaf (e-Leaf), offers a radical change in the way tandem (multi-step) catalysis by enzyme cascades is studied and exploited. The various enzymes are loaded into an electronically conducting porous material composed of metallic oxide nanoparticles, where they achieve high concentration and crowding - in the latter respect the environment resembles that found in living cells. By exploiting efficient electron tunneling between the nanoparticles and one of the enzymes, the e-Leaf enables the user to interact directly with complex networks, rendering simultaneous the abilities to energise, control and observe catalysis. Because dispersion of intermediates is physically suppressed, the output of the cascade - the rate of flow of chemical steps and information - is delivered in real time as electrical current. Myriad enzymes of all major classes now become effectively electroactive in a technology that offers scalability between micro-(analytical, multiplex) and macro-(synthesis) levels. This Perspective describes how the e-Leaf was discovered, the steps in its development so far, and the outlook for future research and applications.

Advanced Electroanalysis for Electrosynthesis

Electrosynthesis is a popular, environmentally friendly substitute for conventional organic methods. It involves using charge transfer to stimulate chemical reactions through the application of a potential or current between two electrodes. In addition to electrode materials and the type of reactor employed, the strategies for controlling potential and current have an impact on the yields, product distribution, and reaction mechanism. In this Review, recent advances related to electroanalysis applied in electrosynthesis were discussed. The first part of this study acts as a guide that emphasizes the foundations of electrosynthesis. These essentials include instrumentation, electrode selection, cell design, and electrosynthesis methodologies. Then, advances in electroanalytical techniques applied in organic, enzymatic, and microbial electrosynthesis are illustrated with specific cases studied in recent literature. To conclude, a discussion of future possibilities that intend to advance the academic and industrial areas is presented.

Fabrication and characterization of electrically conducting electrochemically synthesized polypyrrole-based enzymatic biofuel cell anode with biocompatible redox mediator vitamin K3

Enzymatic biofuel cells (EBFCs) hold tremendous potential to power biomedical devices, biosensors, and bioelectronics. Unlike conventional toxic batteries, these electrochemical devices are biocompatible, harnessing energy from physiological fluids and producing usable electrical energy. But the commercialization of EBFCs is limited by the low operational stability, limited power output and poor electron transport efficiency of the enzymatic electrodes. In this study, a novel bioanode exhibiting a high electron transfer ability and long-term stability was fabricated. For the preparation of the anode, surfactant-assisted polypyrrole (PPy) was electrochemically co-deposited on a platinum wire with the simultaneous entrapment of vitamin K3 (VK3) and GOx (glucose oxidase) in the PPy matrix. Herein, conducting PPy acts as an electron transfer enhancer and provides appropriate electrical communication between the active site of the enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx) and the electrode surface. Biocompatible redox mediator vitamin K3 was employed as an electron transfer mediator to shuttle electrons between the oxidized fuel glucose and surface of the electrode in the electrochemical cell. The electrical conductivity of PPy was measured using the four-probe technique of conductivity measurement of semiconductors. The morphological characterization of as-synthesized anode (PPy/CTAB/VK3/GOx) was performed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The electrochemical characterization was studied by cyclic voltammetry (CV), linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques. It was observed that the room-temperature conductivity of PPy lies in the semiconducting range and it also shows good stability on exposure to laboratory air, making it a promising material to provide electrical contact. The study developed a bioanode producing a modest current density of 6.35 mA cm-2 in 20 mM glucose solution. The stability, current output and ease of manufacturing process of the electrode make it particularly suitable for employment in biofuel cell applications.

Direct real-time measurements of superoxide release from skeletal muscles in rat limbs and human blood platelets using an implantable Cytochrome C microbiosensor

Oxidative stress and excessive accumulation of the superoxide (O2.-) anion are at the genesis of many pathological conditions and the onset of several diseases. The real time monitoring of (O2.-) release is important to assess the extent of oxidative stress in these conditions. Herein, we present the design, fabrication and characterization of a robust (O2.-) biosensor using a simple and straightforward procedure involving deposition of a uniform layer of L-Cysteine on a gold wire electrode to which Cytochrome C (Cyt c) was conjugated. The immobilized layers, studied using conductive Atomic Force Microscopy (c-AFM) revealed a stable and uniformly distributed redox protein on the gold surface, visualized as conductivity and surface topographical plots. The biosensor enabled detection of (O2.-) at an applied potential of 0.15 V with a sensitivity of 42.4 nA/μM and a detection limit of 2.4 nM. Utility of the biosensor was demonstrated in measurements of real time (O2.-) release in activated human blood platelets and skeletal rat limb muscles following ischemia reperfusion injury (IRI), confirming the biosensor's stability and robustness for measurements in complex biological systems. The results demonstrate the ability of these biosensors to monitor real time release of (O2.-) and estimate the extent of oxidative injury in models that could easily be translated to human pathologies.

Bioelectrocatalytic Synthesis: Concepts and Applications

Bioelectrocatalytic synthesis is the conversion of electrical energy into value-added products using biocatalysts. These methods merge the specificity and selectivity of biocatalysis and energy-related electrocatalysis to address challenges in the sustainable synthesis of pharmaceuticals, commodity chemicals, fuels, feedstocks and fertilizers. However, the specialized experimental setups and domain knowledge for bioelectrocatalysis pose a significant barrier to adoption. This review introduces key concepts of bioelectrosynthetic systems. We provide a tutorial on the methods of biocatalyst utilization, the setup of bioelectrosynthetic cells, and the analytical methods for assessing bioelectrocatalysts. Key applications of bioelectrosynthesis in ammonia production and small-molecule synthesis are outlined for both enzymatic and microbial systems. This review serves as a necessary introduction and resource for the non-specialist interested in bioelectrosynthetic research.

Electrochemistry in sensing of molecular interactions of proteins and their behavior in an electric field

Electrochemical methods can be used not only for the sensitive analysis of proteins but also for deeper research into their structure, transport functions (transfer of electrons and protons), and sensing their interactions with soft and solid surfaces. Last but not least, electrochemical tools are useful for investigating the effect of an electric field on protein structure, the direct application of electrochemical methods for controlling protein function, or the micromanipulation of supramolecular protein structures. There are many experimental arrangements (modalities), from the classic configuration that works with an electrochemical cell to miniaturized electrochemical sensors and microchip platforms. The support of computational chemistry methods which appropriately complement the interpretation framework of experimental results is also important. This text describes recent directions in electrochemical methods for the determination of proteins and briefly summarizes available methodologies for the selective labeling of proteins using redox-active probes. Attention is also paid to the theoretical aspects of electron transport and the effect of an external electric field on the structure of selected proteins. Instead of providing a comprehensive overview, we aim to highlight areas of interest that have not been summarized recently, but, at the same time, represent current trends in the field.

Electrochemical transformations catalyzed by cytochrome P450s and peroxidases

Cytochrome P450s (Cyt P450s) and peroxidases are enzymes featuring iron heme cofactors that have wide applicability as biocatalysts in chemical syntheses. Cyt P450s are a family of monooxygenases that oxidize fatty acids, steroids, and xenobiotics, synthesize hormones, and convert drugs and other chemicals to metabolites. Peroxidases are involved in breaking down hydrogen peroxide and can oxidize organic compounds during this process. Both heme-containing enzymes utilize active Fe^IVO intermediates to oxidize reactants. By incorporating these enzymes in stable thin films on electrodes, Cyt P450s and peroxidases can accept electrons from an electrode, albeit by different mechanisms, and catalyze organic transformations in a feasible and cost-effective way. This is an advantageous approach, often called bioelectrocatalysis, compared to their biological pathways in solution that require expensive biochemical reductants such as NADPH or additional enzymes to recycle NADPH for Cyt P450s. Bioelectrocatalysis also serves as an ex situ platform to investigate metabolism of drugs and bio-relevant chemicals. In this paper we review biocatalytic electrochemical reactions using Cyt P450s including C-H activation, S-oxidation, epoxidation, N-hydroxylation, and oxidative N-, and O-dealkylation; as well as reactions catalyzed by peroxidases including synthetically important oxidations of organic compounds. Design aspects of these bioelectrocatalytic reactions are presented and discussed, including enzyme film formation on electrodes, temperature, pH, solvents, and activation of the enzymes. Finally, we discuss challenges and future perspective of these two important bioelectrocatalytic systems.

Molecular Catalysis of Energy Relevance in Metal-Organic Frameworks: From Higher Coordination Sphere to System Effects

The modularity and synthetic flexibility of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have provoked analogies with enzymes, and even the term MOFzymes has been coined. In this review, we focus on molecular catalysis of energy relevance in MOFs, more specifically water oxidation, oxygen and carbon dioxide reduction, as well as hydrogen evolution in context of the MOF-enzyme analogy. Similar to enzymes, catalyst encapsulation in MOFs leads to structural stabilization under turnover conditions, while catalyst motifs that are synthetically out of reach in a homogeneous solution phase may be attainable as secondary building units in MOFs. Exploring the unique synthetic possibilities in MOFs, specific groups in the second and third coordination sphere around the catalytic active site have been incorporated to facilitate catalysis. A key difference between enzymes and MOFs is the fact that active site concentrations in the latter are often considerably higher, leading to charge and mass transport limitations in MOFs that are more severe than those in enzymes. High catalyst concentrations also put a limit on the distance between catalysts, and thus the available space for higher coordination sphere engineering. As transport is important for MOF-borne catalysis, a system perspective is chosen to highlight concepts that address the issue. A detailed section on transport and light-driven reactivity sets the stage for a concise review of the currently available literature on utilizing principles from Nature and system design for the preparation of catalytic MOF-based materials.

Enzymatic and Bioinspired Systems for Hydrogen Production

The extraordinary potential of hydrogen as a clean and sustainable fuel has sparked the interest of the scientific community to find environmentally friendly methods for its production. Biological catalysts are the most attractive solution, as they usually operate under mild conditions and do not produce carbon-containing byproducts. Hydrogenases promote reversible proton reduction to hydrogen in a variety of anoxic bacteria and algae, displaying unparallel catalytic performances. Attempts to use these sophisticated enzymes in scalable hydrogen production have been hampered by limitations associated with their production and stability. Inspired by nature, significant efforts have been made in the development of artificial systems able to promote the hydrogen evolution reaction, via either electrochemical or light-driven catalysis. Starting from small-molecule coordination compounds, peptide- and protein-based architectures have been constructed around the catalytic center with the aim of reproducing hydrogenase function into robust, efficient, and cost-effective catalysts. In this review, we first provide an overview of the structural and functional properties of hydrogenases, along with their integration in devices for hydrogen and energy production. Then, we describe the most recent advances in the development of homogeneous hydrogen evolution catalysts envisioned to mimic hydrogenases.

Streamlining the interface between electronics and neural systems for bidirectional electrochemical communication

Seamless neural interfaces conjoining neurons and electrochemical devices hold great potential for highly efficient signal transmission across neural systems and the external world. Signal transmission through chemical sensing and stimulation via electrochemistry is remarkable because communication occurs through the same chemical language of neurons. Emerging strategies based on synaptic interfaces, iontronics-based neuromodulation, and improvements in selective neurosensing techniques have been explored to achieve seamless integration and efficient neuro-electronics communication. Synaptic interfaces can directly exchange signals to and from neurons, in a similar manner to that of chemical synapses. Hydrogel-based iontronic chemical delivery devices are operationally compatible with neural systems for improved neuromodulation. In this perspective, we explore developments to improve the interface between neurons and electrodes by targeting neurons or sub-neuronal regions including synapses. Furthermore, recent progress in electrochemical neurosensing and iontronics-based chemical delivery is examined.

Hierarchically-structured laccase@Ni3(PO4)2 hybrid nanoflowers for antibiotic degradation: Application in real wastewater effluent and toxicity evaluation

Laccase@Ni₃(PO₄)₂ hybrid nanoflowers (HNFs) were prepared by the anisotropic growth of biomineralized nickel phosphate. The immobilization yield was 77.5 ± 3.6 %, and the immobilized enzyme retained 50 % of its initial activity after 18 reusability cycles. The immobilized and free enzymes lost 80 % of their activity after 18 and 6 h incubation in municipal wastewater effluent (MWWE), respectively. The increase in α-helix content (8 %) following immobilization led to a more rigid enzyme structure, potentially contributing to its improved stability. The removal of ciprofloxacin from MWWE by laccase@Ni₃(PO₄)₂·HNFs/p-coumaric acid oxidation system was optimized using a Box-Behnken design. Under the optimized conditions [initial laccase activity (0.05 U mL^-1), the concentration of p-coumaric acid (2.9 mM), and treatment time (4.9 h)], the biocatalyst removed 90 % of ciprofloxacin (10 mg L^-1) from MWWE. The toxicity of ciprofloxacin against some G⁺ and G^- bacteria was reduced by 35-70 %, depending on their strain. The EC₅₀ of ciprofloxacin for the alga Raphidocelis subcapitata reduced from 3.08 to 1.07 mg L^-1 (p-value <0.05) after the bioremoval. Also, the acute and chronic toxicity of identified biodegradation products was lower than ciprofloxacin at three trophic levels, as predicted by ECOSAR software.

Influence of distal glycan mimics on direct electron transfer performance for bilirubin oxidase bioelectrocatalysts

Bilirubin oxidase (BOD) is a bioelectrocatalyst that reduces dioxygen (O₂) to water and is capable of direct electron transfer (DET)-type bioelectrocatalysis via its electrode-active site (T1 Cu). BOD from Myrothecium verrucaria (mBOD) has been widely studied and has strong DET activity. mBOD contains two N-linked glycans (N-glycans) with N472 and N482 binding sites distal to T1 Cu. We previously reported that different N-glycan compositions affect the enzymatic orientation on the electrode by using recombinant BOD expressed in Pichia pastoris and the deglycosylation method. However, the individual function of the two N-glycans and the effects of N-glycan composition (size, structure, and non-reducing termini) on DET-type reactions are still unclear. In this study, we utilize maleimide-functionalized polyethylene glycol (MAL-PEG) as an N-glycan mimic to evaluate the aforementioned effects. Site-specific enzyme-PEG crosslinking was carried out by specific binding of maleimide to Cys residues. Recombinant BOD expressed in Escherichia coli (eBOD), which does not have a glycosylation system, was used as a benchmark to evaluate the effect. Site-directed mutagenesis of Asn residue (N472 or N482) into Cys residue is utilized to realize site-specific glycan mimic modification to the original binding site.

Biocatalytic Membranes for Carbon Capture and Utilization

Innovative carbon capture technologies that capture CO₂ from large point sources and directly from air are urgently needed to combat the climate crisis. Likewise, corresponding technologies are needed to convert this captured CO₂ into valuable chemical feedstocks and products that replace current fossil-based materials to close the loop in creating viable pathways for a renewable economy. Biocatalytic membranes that combine high reaction rates and enzyme selectivity with modularity, scalability, and membrane compactness show promise for both CO₂ capture and utilization. This review presents a systematic examination of technologies under development for CO₂ capture and utilization that employ both enzymes and membranes. CO₂ capture membranes are categorized by their mode of action as CO₂ separation membranes, including mixed matrix membranes (MMM) and liquid membranes (LM), or as CO₂ gas-liquid membrane contactors (GLMC). Because they selectively catalyze molecular reactions involving CO₂, the two main classes of enzymes used for enhancing membrane function are carbonic anhydrase (CA) and formate dehydrogenase (FDH). Small organic molecules designed to mimic CA enzyme active sites are also being developed. CO₂ conversion membranes are described according to membrane functionality, the location of enzymes relative to the membrane, which includes different immobilization strategies, and regeneration methods for cofactors. Parameters crucial for the performance of these hybrid systems are discussed with tabulated examples. Progress and challenges are discussed, and perspectives on future research directions are provided.

Living electronics: A catalogue of engineered living electronic components

Biology leverages a range of electrical phenomena to extract and store energy, control molecular reactions and enable multicellular communication. Microbes, in particular, have evolved genetically encoded machinery enabling them to utilize the abundant redox-active molecules and minerals available on Earth, which in turn drive global-scale biogeochemical cycles. Recently, the microbial machinery enabling these redox reactions have been leveraged for interfacing cells and biomolecules with electrical circuits for biotechnological applications. Synthetic biology is allowing for the use of these machinery as components of engineered living materials with tuneable electrical properties. Herein, we review the state of such living electronic components including wires, capacitors, transistors, diodes, optoelectronic components, spin filters, sensors, logic processors, bioactuators, information storage media and methods for assembling these components into living electronic circuits.

Covalent conjugation of proteins onto fluorescent single-walled carbon nanotubes for biological and medical applications

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have optical properties that are conducive for biological applications such as sensing, delivery, and imaging. These applications necessitate the immobilization of macromolecules that can serve as therapeutic drugs, molecular templates, or modulators of surface interactions. Although previous studies have focused on non-covalent immobilization strategies, recent advances have introduced covalent functional handles that can preserve or even enhance the SWCNT optical properties. This review presents an overview of covalent sidewall modifications of SWCNTs, with a focus on the latest generation of "sp³ defect" modifications. We summarize and compare the reaction conditions and the reported products of these sp³ chemistries. We further review the underlying photophysics governing SWCNT fluorescence and apply these principles to the fluorescence emitted from these covalently modified SWCNTs. Finally, we provide an outlook on additional chemistries that could be applied to covalently conjugate proteins to these chemically modified, fluorescent SWCNTs. We review the advantages of these approaches, emerging opportunities for further improvement, as well as their implications for enabling new technologies.

The Voltammetric Detection of Cadaverine Using a Diamine Oxidase and Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotube Functionalised Electrochemical Biosensor

Cadaverine is a biomolecule of major healthcare importance in periodontal disease; however, current detection methods remain inefficient. The development of an enzyme biosensor for the detection of cadaverine may provide a cheap, rapid, point-of-care alternative to traditional measurement techniques. This work developed a screen-printed biosensor (SPE) with a diamine oxidase (DAO) and multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) functionalised electrode which enabled the detection of cadaverine via cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry. The MWCNTs were functionalised with DAO using carbodiimide crosslinking with 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) and N-Hydroxysuccinimide (NHS), followed by direct covalent conjugation of the enzyme to amide bonds. Cyclic voltammetry results demonstrated a pair of distinct redox peaks for cadaverine with the C-MWCNT/DAO/EDC-NHS/GA SPE and no redox peaks using unmodified SPEs. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) was used to isolate the cadaverine oxidation peak and a linear concentration dependence was identified in the range of 3-150 µg/mL. The limit of detection of cadaverine using the C-MWCNT/DAO/EDC-NHS/GA SPE was 0.8 μg/mL, and the biosensor was also found to be effective when tested in artificial saliva which was used as a proof-of-concept model to increase the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of this device. Thus, the development of a MWCNT based enzymatic biosensor for the voltammetric detection of cadaverine which was also active in the presence of artificial saliva was presented in this study.

Enzymatic and Microbial Electrochemistry: Approaches and Methods

The coupling of enzymes and/or intact bacteria with electrodes has been vastly investigated due to the wide range of existing applications. These span from biomedical and biosensing to energy production purposes and bioelectrosynthesis, whether for theoretical research or pure applied industrial processes. Both enzymes and bacteria offer a potential biotechnological alternative to noble/rare metal-dependent catalytic processes. However, when developing these biohybrid electrochemical systems, it is of the utmost importance to investigate how the approaches utilized to couple biocatalysts and electrodes influence the resulting bioelectrocatalytic response. Accordingly, this tutorial review starts by recalling some basic principles and applications of bioelectrochemistry, presenting the electrode and/or biocatalyst modifications that facilitate the interaction between the biotic and abiotic components of bioelectrochemical systems. Focus is then directed toward the methods used to evaluate the effectiveness of enzyme/bacteria-electrode interaction and the insights that they provide. The basic concepts of electrochemical methods widely employed in enzymatic and microbial electrochemistry, such as amperometry and voltammetry, are initially presented to later focus on various complementary methods such as spectroelectrochemistry, fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy, and surface analytical/characterization techniques such as quartz crystal microbalance and atomic force microscopy. The tutorial review is thus aimed at students and graduate students approaching the field of enzymatic and microbial electrochemistry, while also providing a critical and up-to-date reference for senior researchers working in the field.

Structural design of anthraquinone bridges in direct electron transfer of fructose dehydrogenase

Multi-functional small molecules attached to an electrode surface can bind non-covalently to the redox enzyme fructose dehydrogenase (FDH) to ensure efficient electrochemical electron transfer (ET) and electrocatalysis of the enzyme in both mediated (MET) and direct (DET) ET modes. The present work investigates the potential of exploiting secondary, electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions between substituents on a small molecular bridge and the local FDH surfaces. Such interactions ensure alignment of the enzyme in an orientation favourable for both MET and DET. We have used a group of novel synthesized anthraquinones as the small molecule bridge, functionalised with electrostatically neutral, anionic, or cationic substituents. Particularly, we investigated the immobilisation of FDH on a nanoporous gold (NPG) electrode decorated with the novel synthesised anthraquinones using electrochemical methods. The best DET-capable fraction out of four anthraquinone derivatives tested is achieved for an anthraquinone functionalised with an anionic sulphonate group. Our study demonstrates, how the combination of chemical design and bioelectrochemistry can be brought to control alignment of enzymes in productive orientations on electrodes, a paradigm for thiol modified surfaces in biosensors and bioelectronics.

Geometric Control of Cell Behavior by Biomolecule Nanodistribution

Many dynamic interactions within the cell microenvironment modulate cell behavior and cell fate. However, the pathways and mechanisms behind cell–cell or cell–extracellular matrix interactions remain understudied, as they occur at a nanoscale level. Recent progress in nanotechnology allows for mimicking of the microenvironment at nanoscale in vitro; electron-beam lithography (EBL) is currently the most promising technique. Although this nanopatterning technique can generate nanostructures of good quality and resolution, it has resulted, thus far, in the production of only simple shapes (e.g., rectangles) over a relatively small area (100 × 100 μm), leaving its potential in biological applications unfulfilled. Here, we used EBL for cell-interaction studies by coating cell-culture-relevant material with electron-conductive indium tin oxide, which formed nanopatterns of complex nanohexagonal structures over a large area (500 × 500 μm). We confirmed the potential of EBL for use in cell-interaction studies by analyzing specific cell responses toward differentially distributed nanohexagons spaced at 1000, 500, and 250 nm. We found that our optimized technique of EBL with HaloTags enabled the investigation of broad changes to a cell-culture-relevant surface and can provide an understanding of cellular signaling mechanisms at a single-molecule level.

Performance of electrochemical immunoassays for clinical diagnostics of SARS-CoV-2 based on selective nucleocapsid N protein detection: Boron-doped diamond, gold and glassy carbon evaluation

The 21st century has already brought us a plethora of new threats related to viruses that emerge in humans after zoonotic transmission or drastically change their geographic distribution or prevalence. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first spotted at the end of 2019 to rapidly spread in southwest Asia and later cause a global pandemic, which paralyzes the world since then. We have designed novel immunosensors targeting conserved protein sequences of the N protein of SARS-CoV-2 based on lab-produced and purified anti-SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid antibodies that are densely grafted onto various surfaces (diamond/gold/glassy carbon). Titration of antibodies shows very strong reactions up to 1:72 900 dilution. Next, we showed the mechanism of interactions of our immunoassay with nucleocapsid N protein revealing molecular recognition by impedimetric measurements supported by hybrid modeling results with both density functional theory and molecular dynamics methods. Biosensors allowed for a fast (in less than 10 min) detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus with a limit of detection from 0.227 ng/ml through 0.334 ng/ml to 0.362 ng/ml for glassy carbon, boron-doped diamond, and gold surfaces, respectively. For all tested surfaces, we obtained a wide linear range of concentrations from 4.4 ng/ml to 4.4 pg/ml. Furthermore, our sensor leads to a highly specific response to SARS-CoV-2 clinical samples versus other upper respiratory tract viruses such as influenza, respiratory syncytial virus, or Epstein-Barr virus. All clinical samples were tested simultaneously on biosensors and real-time polymerase chain reactions.

Effects of N-linked glycans of bilirubin oxidase on direct electron transfer-type bioelectrocatalysis

Bilirubin oxidase from Myrothecium verrucaria (mBOD) is a promising enzyme for catalyzing the four-electron reduction of dioxygen into water and realizes direct electron transfer (DET)-type bioelectrocatalysis. It has two N-linked glycans (N-glycans), and N472 and N482 are known as binding sites. Both binding sites located on opposite side of the type I (T1) Cu, which is the electrode-active site of BOD. We investigated the effect of N-glycans on DET-type bioelectrocatalysis by performing electrochemical measurements using electrodes with controlled surface charges. Two types of BODs with different N-glycans, mBOD and recombinant BOD overexpressed in Pichia pastoris (pBOD), and their deglycosylated forms (dg-mBOD and dg-pBOD) were used in this study. Kinetic analysis of the steady-state catalytic waves revealed that both size and composition of N-glycans affected the orientation of adsorbed BODs on the electrodes. Interestingly, the most favorable orientation was achieved with pBOD, which has the largest N-glycans. Furthermore, the effect of the orientation control by the N-glycans is cooperative with electrostatic interaction.

Covalent Immobilization of Dehydrogenases on Carbon Felt for Reusable Anodes with Effective Electrochemical Cofactor Regeneration

This study presents the immobilization with aldehyde groups (glyoxyl carbon felt) of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and formate dehydrogenase (FDH) on carbon-felt-based electrodes. The compatibility of the immobilization method with the electrochemical application was studied with the ADH bioelectrode. The electrochemical regeneration process of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide in its oxidized form (NAD⁺ ), on a carbon felt surface, has been deeply studied with tests performed at different electrical potentials. By applying a potential of 0.4 V versus Ag/AgCl electrode, a good compromise between NAD⁺ regeneration and energy consumption was observed. The effectiveness of the regeneration of NAD⁺ was confirmed by electrochemical oxidation of ethanol catalyzed by ADH in the presence of NADH, which is the no active form of the cofactor for this reaction. Good reusability was observed by using ADH immobilized on glyoxyl functionalized carbon felt with a residual activity higher than 60 % after 3 batches.

Controlling and exploiting intrinsic unpaired electrons in metalloproteins

Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy encompasses a versatile set of techniques that allow detailed insight into intrinsically occurring paramagnetic centers in metalloproteins and enzymes that undergo oxidation-reduction reactions. In this chapter, we discuss the process from isolating the protein to acquiring and analyzing pulse EPR spectra, adopting a practical perspective. We start with considerations when preparing the protein sample, explain techniques and procedures available for determining the reduction potential of the redox-active center of interest and provide details on methodologies to trap a given paramagnetic state for detailed pulse EPR studies, with an emphasis on biochemical and spectroscopic tools available when multiple EPR-active species are present. We elaborate on some of the most commonly used pulse EPR techniques and the choices the user has to make, considering advantages and disadvantages and how to avoid pitfalls. Examples are provided throughout.

Control of carbon monoxide dehydrogenase orientation by site-specific immobilization enables direct electrical contact between enzyme cofactor and solid surface

Controlling the orientation of redox enzymes on electrode surfaces is essential in the development of direct electron transfer (DET)-based bioelectrocatalytic systems. The electron transfer (ET) distance varies according to the enzyme orientation when immobilized on an electrode surface, which influences the interfacial ET rate. We report control of the orientation of carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) as a model enzyme through the fusion of gold-binding peptide (gbp) at either the N- or the C-terminus, and at both termini to strengthen the binding interactions between the fusion enzyme and the gold surface. Key factors influenced by the gbp fusion site are described. Collectively, our data show that control of the CODH orientation on an electrode surface is achieved through the presence of dual tethering sites, which maintains the enzyme cofactor within a DET-available distance (<14 Å), thereby promoting DET at the enzyme-electrode interface.

Elucidating Film Loss and the Role of Hydrogen Bonding of Adsorbed Redox Enzymes by Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance Analysis

The immobilization of redox enzymes on electrodes enables the efficient and selective electrocatalysis of useful reactions such as the reversible interconversion of dihydrogen (H₂) to protons (H⁺) and formate to carbon dioxide (CO₂) with hydrogenase (H₂ase) and formate dehydrogenase (FDH), respectively. However, their immobilization on electrodes to produce electroactive protein films for direct electron transfer (DET) at the protein–electrode interface is not well understood, and the reasons for their activity loss remain vague, limiting their performance often to hour timescales. Here, we report the immobilization of [NiFeSe]-H₂ase and [W]-FDH from Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough on a range of charged and neutral self-assembled monolayer (SAM)-modified gold electrodes with varying hydrogen bond (H-bond) donor capabilities. The key factors dominating the activity and stability of the immobilized enzymes are determined using protein film voltammetry (PFV), chronoamperometry (CA), and electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (E-QCM) analysis. Electrostatic and H-bonding interactions are resolved, with electrostatic interactions responsible for enzyme orientation while enzyme desorption is strongly limited when H-bonding is present at the enzyme–electrode interface. Conversely, enzyme stability is drastically reduced in the absence of H-bonding, and desorptive enzyme loss is confirmed as the main reason for activity decay by E-QCM during CA. This study provides insights into the possible reasons for the reduced activity of immobilized redox enzymes and the role of film loss, particularly H-bonding, in stabilizing bioelectrode performance, promoting avenues for future improvements in bioelectrocatalysis.

Cyanide sensitivity in direct electron transfer-type bioelectrocatalysis by membrane-bound alcohol dehydrogenase from Gluconobacter oxydans

An overexpression system of membrane-bound alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) from Gluconobacter oxydans was constructed to examine its bioelectrocatalytic characteristics. The effects of cyanide (CN-) addition on the kinetics of direct electron transfer (DET)-type bioelectrocatalysis by ADH were analyzed. CN- enhanced the bioelectrocatalytic activity, while the catalytic activity in the solution remained unchanged, even in the presence of CN-. Electrochemical methods and electron spin resonance spectroscopy showed the detailed electron transfer pathway in the DET-type bioelectrocatalysis by ADH. Briefly, ADH is suggested to communicate with an electrode via a CN--insensitive and H+-sensitive heme c in DET. These characteristics of ADH with respect to CN- suggest the involvement of ADH in CN--insensitive respiration in G. oxydans.

Electrochemistry for the Chemoselective Modification of Peptides and Proteins

Although electrochemical strategies for small-molecule synthesis are flourishing, this technology has yet to be fully exploited for the mild and chemoselective modification of peptides and proteins. With the growing number of diverse peptide natural products being identified and the emergence of modified proteins as therapeutic and diagnostic agents, methods for electrochemical modification stand as alluring prospects for harnessing the reactivity of polypeptides to build molecular complexity. As a mild and inherently tunable reaction platform, electrochemistry is arguably well-suited to overcome the chemo- and regioselectivity issues which limit existing bioconjugation strategies. This Perspective will showcase recently developed electrochemical approaches to peptide and protein modification. The article also highlights the wealth of untapped opportunities for the production of homogeneously modified biomolecules, with an eye toward realizing the enormous potential of electrochemistry for chemoselective bioconjugation chemistry.

Peptide sequence-driven direct electron transfer properties and binding behaviors of gold-binding peptide-fused glucose dehydrogenase on electrode

Oriented enzyme immobilization on electrodes is crucial for interfacial electrical coupling of direct electron transfer (DET)-based enzyme-electrode systems. As inorganic-binding peptides are introduced as molecular binders and enzyme-orienting agents, inorganic-binding peptide-fused enzymes should be designed and constructed to achieve efficient DET. In this study, it is aimed to compare the effects of various gold-binding peptides (GBPs) fused to enzymes on electrocatalytic activity, bioactivity, and material-binding behaviors. Here, GBPs with identical gold-binding properties but different amino acid sequences were fused to the FAD-dependent glucose dehydrogenase gamma-alpha complex (GDHγα) to generate four GDHγα variants. The structural, biochemical, mechanical, and bioelectrochemical properties of these GDHγα variants immobilized on electrode were determined by their fused GBPs. Our results confirmed that the GBP type is vital in the design, construction, and optimization of GBP-fused enzyme-modified electrodes for facile interfacial DET and practical DET-based enzyme-electrode systems.

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The four GBP sequences are genetically fused to catalytic subunit of GDHγα complex

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The cofactor-surface interface was investigated with 3D models of fusion enzymes

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The four systems exhibit diverse electrochemical results depending on GBP type

Capturing the signal of weak electricigens: a worthy endeavour

Recently several non-traditional electroactive microorganisms have been discovered. These can be considered weak electricigens; microorganisms that typically rely on soluble electron acceptors and donors in their lifecycle but are also capable of extracellular electron transfer (EET), resulting in either a low, unreliable, or otherwise unexpected current. These unanticipated electroactive microorganisms represent a new chapter in electromicrobiology and have important medical, environmental, and biotechnological relevance. As such, it is essential to continue the momentum of their discovery. However, their study poses unique challenges due to their low current output. Capturing their signal necessitates novel approaches including unconventional electrode choice, the use of sensitive electrochemical techniques, and modifications of conventional experiments that use bioelectrochemical systems (BES).

Cysteine protecting groups: applications in peptide and protein science

Protecting group chemistry for the cysteine thiol group has enabled a vast array of peptide and protein chemistry over the last several decades. Increasingly sophisticated strategies for the protection, and subsequent deprotection, of cysteine have been developed, facilitating synthesis of complex disulfide-rich peptides, semisynthesis of proteins, and peptide/protein labelling in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we analyse and discuss the 60+ individual protecting groups reported for cysteine, highlighting their applications in peptide synthesis and protein science.

Amperometric Biosensors Based on Direct Electron Transfer Enzymes

The accurate determination of analyte concentrations with selective, fast, and robust methods is the key for process control, product analysis, environmental compliance, and medical applications. Enzyme-based biosensors meet these requirements to a high degree and can be operated with simple, cost efficient, and easy to use devices. This review focuses on enzymes capable of direct electron transfer (DET) to electrodes and also the electrode materials which can enable or enhance the DET type bioelectrocatalysis. It presents amperometric biosensors for the quantification of important medical, technical, and environmental analytes and it carves out the requirements for enzymes and electrode materials in DET-based third generation biosensors. This review critically surveys enzymes and biosensors for which DET has been reported. Single- or multi-cofactor enzymes featuring copper centers, hemes, FAD, FMN, or PQQ as prosthetic groups as well as fusion enzymes are presented. Nanomaterials, nanostructured electrodes, chemical surface modifications, and protein immobilization strategies are reviewed for their ability to support direct electrochemistry of enzymes. The combination of both biosensor elements-enzymes and electrodes-is evaluated by comparison of substrate specificity, current density, sensitivity, and the range of detection.

Measuring the Multiscale Dynamics, Structure, and Function of Biomolecules at Interfaces

The individual and collective structure and properties of biomolecules can change dramatically when they are localized at an interface. However, the small spatial extent of interfacial regions poses challenges to the detailed characterization of multiscale processes that dictate the structure and function of large biological units such as peptides, proteins, or nucleic acids. This Perspective surveys a broad set of tools that provide new opportunities to probe complex, dynamic interfaces across the vast range of temporal regimes that connect molecular-scale events to macroscopic observables. An emphasis is placed on the integration over multiple time scales, the use of complementary techniques, and the incorporation of external stimuli to control interfacial properties with spatial, temporal, and chemical specificity.

Enhancement of direct electron transfer in graphene bioelectrodes containing novel cytochrome c553 variants with optimized heme orientation

The highly efficient bioelectrodes based on single layer graphene (SLG) functionalized with pyrene self-assembled monolayer and novel cytochromec₅₅₃(cytc₅₅₃)peptide linker variants were rationally designed to optimize the direct electron transfer (DET) between SLG and the heme group of cyt. Through a combination of photoelectrochemical and quantum mechanical (QM/MM) approaches we show that the specific amino acid sequence of a short peptide genetically inserted between the cytc₅₅₃holoprotein and thesurface anchoring C-terminal His₆-tag plays a crucial role in ensuring the optimal orientation and distance of the heme group with respect to the SLG surface. Consequently, efficient DET occurring between graphene and cyt c₅₅₃ leads to a 20-fold enhancement of the cathodic photocurrent output compared to the previously reported devices of a similar type. The QM/MM modeling implies that a perpendicular or parallel orientation of the heme group with respect to the SLG surface is detrimental to DET, whereas the tilted orientation favors the cathodic photocurrent generation. Our work confirms the possibility of fine-tuning the electronic communication within complex bio-organic nanoarchitectures and interfaces due to optimization of the tilt angle of the heme group, its distance from the SLG surface and optimal HOMO/LUMO levels of the interacting redox centers.

Building Tailored Interfaces through Covalent Coupling Reactions at Layers Grafted from Aryldiazonium Salts

Aryldiazonium ions are widely used reagents for surface modification. Attractive aspects of their use include wide substrate compatibility (ranging from plastics to carbons to metals and metal oxides), formation of stable covalent bonding to the substrate, simplicity of modification methods that are compatible with organic and aqueous solvents, and the commercial availability of many aniline precursors with a straightforward conversion to the active reagent. Importantly, the strong bonding of the modifying layer to the surface makes the method ideally suited to further on-surface (postfunctionalization) chemistry. After an initial grafting from a suitable aryldiazonium ion to give an anchor layer, a target species can be coupled to the layer, hugely expanding the range of species that can be immobilized. This strategy has been widely employed to prepare materials for numerous applications including chemical sensors, biosensors, catalysis, optoelectronics, composite materials, and energy conversion and storage. In this Review our goal is first to summarize how a target species with a particular functional group may be covalently coupled to an appropriate anchor layer. We then review applications of the resulting materials.

In Situ Spectroelectrochemical Investigations of Electrode-Confined Electron-Transferring Proteins and Redox Enzymes

This perspective analyzes recent advances in the spectroelectrochemical investigation of redox proteins and enzymes immobilized on biocompatible or biomimetic electrode surfaces. Specifically, the article highlights new insights obtained by surface-enhanced resonance Raman (SERR), surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA), protein film infrared electrochemistry (PFIRE), polarization modulation infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy (PMIRRAS), Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DMES)-based spectroelectrochemical methods on the structure, orientation, dynamics, and reaction mechanisms for a variety of immobilized species. This includes small heme and copper electron shuttling proteins, large respiratory complexes, hydrogenases, multicopper oxidases, alcohol dehydrogenases, endonucleases, NO-reductases, and dye decolorizing peroxidases, among other enzymes. Finally, I discuss the challenges and foreseeable future developments toward a better understanding of the functioning of these complex macromolecules and their exploitation in technological devices.

Electrocatalysis by Heme Enzymes—Applications in Biosensing

Heme proteins take part in a number of fundamental biological processes, including oxygen transport and storage, electron transfer, catalysis and signal transduction. The redox chemistry of the heme iron and the biochemical diversity of heme proteins have led to the development of a plethora of biotechnological applications. This work focuses on biosensing devices based on heme proteins, in which they are electronically coupled to an electrode and their activity is determined through the measurement of catalytic currents in the presence of substrate, i.e., the target analyte of the biosensor. After an overview of the main concepts of amperometric biosensors, we address transduction schemes, protein immobilization strategies, and the performance of devices that explore reactions of heme biocatalysts, including peroxidase, cytochrome P450, catalase, nitrite reductase, cytochrome c oxidase, cytochrome c and derived microperoxidases, hemoglobin, and myoglobin. We further discuss how structural information about immobilized heme proteins can lead to rational design of biosensing devices, ensuring insights into their efficiency and long-term stability.

Membrane Protein Modified Electrodes in Bioelectrocatalysis

Transmembrane proteins involved in metabolic redox reactions and photosynthesis catalyse a plethora of key energy-conversion processes and are thus of great interest for bioelectrocatalysis-based applications. The development of membrane protein modified electrodes has made it possible to efficiently exchange electrons between proteins and electrodes, allowing mechanistic studies and potentially applications in biofuels generation and energy conversion. Here, we summarise the most common electrode modification and their characterisation techniques for membrane proteins involved in biofuels conversion and semi-artificial photosynthesis. We discuss the challenges of applications of membrane protein modified electrodes for bioelectrocatalysis and comment on emerging methods and future directions, including recent advances in membrane protein reconstitution strategies and the development of microbial electrosynthesis and whole-cell semi-artificial photosynthesis.

Photovoltage generation by photosystem II core complexes immobilized onto a Millipore filter on an indium tin oxide electrode

The light-induced functioning of photosynthetic pigment-protein complex of photosystem II (PSII) is linked to the vectorial translocation of charges across the membrane, which results in the formation of voltage. Direct measurement of the light-induced voltage (∆V) generated by spinach oxygen-evolving PSII core complexes adsorbed onto a Millipore membrane filter (MF) on an indium tin oxide (ITO) electrode under continuous illumination has been performed. PSII was shown to participate in electron transfer from water to the ITO electrode, resulting in ∆V generation. No photovoltage was detected in PSII deprived of the water-oxidizing complex. The maximal and stable photoelectric signal was observed in the presence of disaccharide trehalose and 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone, acting as a redox mediator between the primary quinone acceptor Q_A of PSII and electrode surface. Long time preservation of the steady-state photoactivity at room temperature in a simple in design ITO|PSII-MF|ITO system may be related to the retention of water molecules attached to the PSII surface in the presence of trehalose.

Enzymatic Bioreactors: An Electrochemical Perspective

Biocatalysts provide a number of advantages such as high selectivity, the ability to operate under mild reaction conditions and availability from renewable resources that are of interest in the development of bioreactors for applications in the pharmaceutical and other sectors. The use of oxidoreductases in biocatalytic reactors is primarily focused on the use of NAD(P)-dependent enzymes, with the recycling of the cofactor occurring via an additional enzymatic system. The use of electrochemically based systems has been limited. This review focuses on the development of electrochemically based biocatalytic reactors. The mechanisms of mediated and direct electron transfer together with methods of immobilising enzymes are briefly reviewed. The use of electrochemically based batch and flow reactors is reviewed in detail with a focus on recent developments in the use of high surface area electrodes, enzyme engineering and enzyme cascades. A future perspective on electrochemically based bioreactors is presented.

Engineering Protein Switches for Rapid Diagnostic Tests

Biological signaling pathways are underpinned by protein switches that sense and respond to molecular inputs. Inspired by nature, engineered protein switches have been designed to directly transduce analyte binding into a quantitative signal in a simple, wash-free, homogeneous assay format. As such, they offer great potential to underpin point-of-need diagnostics that are needed across broad sectors to improve access, costs, and speed compared to laboratory assays. Despite this, protein switch assays are not yet in routine diagnostic use, and a number of barriers to uptake must be overcome to realize this potential. Here, we review the opportunities and challenges in engineering protein switches for rapid diagnostic tests. We evaluate how their design, comprising a recognition element, reporter, and switching mechanism, relates to performance and identify areas for improvement to guide further optimization. Recent modular switches that enable new analytes to be targeted without redesign are crucial to ensure robust and efficient development processes. The importance of translational steps toward practical implementation, including integration into a user-friendly device and thorough assay validation, is also discussed.