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Bompolaki M, Vantrease JE, DeJoseph MR, Miranda Tapia AP, Colmers WF, Urban JH. Activation of NPY Receptors in the BLA Inhibits Projections to the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis and Buffers Stress-Induced Decreases in Social Interaction in Male Rats. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e0228242024. [PMID: 39025677 PMCID: PMC11340280 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0228-24.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2024] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) increases resilience and buffers behavioral stress responses in male rats in part through decreasing the excitability of principal output neurons in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Intra-BLA administration of NPY acutely increases social interaction (SI) through activation of either Y1 or Y5 receptors, whereas repeated NPY (rpNPY) injections (once daily for 5 d) produce persistent increases in SI through Y5 receptor-mediated neuroplasticity in the BLA. In this series of studies, we characterized the neural circuits from the BLA that underlie these behavioral responses to NPY. Using neuronal tract tracing, NPY Y1 and Y5 receptor immunoreactivity was identified on subpopulations of BLA neurons projecting to the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA). Inhibition of BLA→BNST, but not BLA→CeA, neurons using projection-restricted, cre-driven designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drug-Gi expression increased SI and prevented stress-induced decreases in SI produced by a 30 min restraint stress. This behavioral profile was similar to that seen after both acute and rpNPY injections into the BLA. Intracellular recordings of BLA→BNST neurons demonstrated NPY-mediated inhibition via suppression of H currents, as seen previously. Repeated intra-BLA injections of NPY, which are associated with the induction of BLA neuroplasticity, decreased the activity of BLA→BNST neurons and decreased their dendritic complexity. These results demonstrate that NPY modulates the activity of BNST-projecting BLA neurons, suggesting that this pathway contributes to the stress-buffering actions of NPY and provides a novel substrate for the proresilient effects of NPY.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bompolaki
- Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders; Discipline of Physiology and Biophysics, The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois 60064
| | - Jaime E Vantrease
- Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders; Discipline of Physiology and Biophysics, The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois 60064
| | - Mary R DeJoseph
- Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders; Discipline of Physiology and Biophysics, The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois 60064
| | - Ana P Miranda Tapia
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - William F Colmers
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Janice H Urban
- Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders; Discipline of Physiology and Biophysics, The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois 60064
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Mizzi S, Pedersen M, Rossell SL, Rendell P, Terrett G, Heinrichs M, Labuschagne I. Resting-state amygdala subregion and precuneus connectivity provide evidence for a dimensional approach to studying social anxiety disorder. Transl Psychiatry 2024; 14:147. [PMID: 38485930 PMCID: PMC10940725 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-024-02844-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a prevalent and disabling mental health condition, characterized by excessive fear and anxiety in social situations. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigms have been increasingly used to understand the neurobiological underpinnings of SAD in the absence of threat-related stimuli. Previous studies have primarily focused on the role of the amygdala in SAD. However, the amygdala consists of functionally and structurally distinct subregions, and recent studies have highlighted the importance of investigating the role of these subregions independently. Using multiband fMRI, we analyzed resting-state data from 135 participants (42 SAD, 93 healthy controls). By employing voxel-wise permutation testing, we examined group differences of fMRI connectivity and associations between fMRI connectivity and social anxiety symptoms to further investigate the classification of SAD as a categorical or dimensional construct. Seed-to-whole brain functional connectivity analysis using multiple 'seeds' including the amygdala and its subregions and the precuneus, revealed no statistically significant group differences. However, social anxiety severity was significantly negatively correlated with functional connectivity of the precuneus - perigenual anterior cingulate cortex and positively correlated with functional connectivity of the amygdala (specifically the superficial subregion) - parietal/cerebellar areas. Our findings demonstrate clear links between symptomatology and brain connectivity in the absence of diagnostic differences, with evidence of amygdala subregion-specific alterations. The observed brain-symptom associations did not include disturbances in the brain's fear circuitry (i.e., disturbances in connectivity between amygdala - prefrontal regions) likely due to the absence of threat-related stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Mizzi
- School of Health and Biomedical Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Mangor Pedersen
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Susan L Rossell
- Centre for Mental Health, School of Health Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Australia
- Psychiatry, St Vincent's Hospital, Fitzroy, Australia
| | - Peter Rendell
- Healthy Brain and Mind Research Centre, School of Behavioral and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Fitzroy, Australia
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Gill Terrett
- Healthy Brain and Mind Research Centre, School of Behavioral and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Fitzroy, Australia
| | - Markus Heinrichs
- Department of Psychology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Brain Imaging Center, University Medical Center, Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Izelle Labuschagne
- Healthy Brain and Mind Research Centre, School of Behavioral and Health Sciences, Australian Catholic University, Fitzroy, Australia.
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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3
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Robinson SL, Bendrath SC, Yates EM, Thiele TE. Basolateral amygdala neuropeptide Y system modulates binge ethanol consumption. Neuropsychopharmacology 2024; 49:690-698. [PMID: 37758802 PMCID: PMC10876546 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-023-01742-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) signaling regulation of corticolimbic communication is known to modulate binge-like ethanol consumption in rodents. In this work we sought to assess the impact of intra-BLA NPY system modulation on binge-like ethanol intake and to assess the role of the NPY1R+ projection from the BLA to the mPFC in this behavior. We used "drinking-in-the-dark" (DID) procedures in C57BL6J mice to address these questions. First, the impact of intra-BLA administration of NPY on binge-like ethanol intake was assessed. Next, the impact of repeated cycles of DID intake on NPY1R expression in the BLA was assessed with use of immunohistochemistry (IHC). Finally, chemogenetic inhibition of BLA→mPFC NPY1R+ projections was assessed to determine if limbic communication with the mPFC was specifically involved in binge-like ethanol intake. Importantly, as both the BLA and NPY system are sexually dimorphic, both sexes were assessed in these studies. Intra-BLA NPY dose-dependently decreased binge-like ethanol intake in males only. Repeated DID reduced NPY1R expression in the BLA of both sexes. Silencing of BLA→mPFC NPY1R+ neurons significantly reduced binge-like ethanol intake in both sexes in a dose-dependent manner. We provide novel evidence that (1) intra-BLA NPY reduces binge-like ethanol intake in males; (2) binge-like ethanol intake reduces NPY1R levels in the BLA; and (3) chemogenetic inhibition of BLA→mPFC NPY1R+ neurons blunts binge-like drinking in male and female mice. These observations provide the first direct evidence that NPY signaling in the BLA, and specifically BLA communication with the mPFC, modulates binge-like ethanol consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey L Robinson
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3270, USA
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA
| | - Sophie C Bendrath
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3270, USA
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Yates
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3270, USA
| | - Todd E Thiele
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3270, USA.
- Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7178, USA.
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van de Poll Y, Cras Y, Ellender TJ. The neurophysiological basis of stress and anxiety - comparing neuronal diversity in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) across species. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1225758. [PMID: 37711509 PMCID: PMC10499361 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1225758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), as part of the extended amygdala, has become a region of increasing interest regarding its role in numerous human stress-related psychiatric diseases, including post-traumatic stress disorder and generalized anxiety disorder amongst others. The BNST is a sexually dimorphic and highly complex structure as already evident by its anatomy consisting of 11 to 18 distinct sub-nuclei in rodents. Located in the ventral forebrain, the BNST is anatomically and functionally connected to many other limbic structures, including the amygdala, hypothalamic nuclei, basal ganglia, and hippocampus. Given this extensive connectivity, the BNST is thought to play a central and critical role in the integration of information on hedonic-valence, mood, arousal states, processing emotional information, and in general shape motivated and stress/anxiety-related behavior. Regarding its role in regulating stress and anxiety behavior the anterolateral group of the BNST (BNSTALG) has been extensively studied and contains a wide variety of neurons that differ in their electrophysiological properties, morphology, spatial organization, neuropeptidergic content and input and output synaptic organization which shape their activity and function. In addition to this great diversity, further species-specific differences are evident on multiple levels. For example, classic studies performed in adult rat brain identified three distinct neuron types (Type I-III) based on their electrophysiological properties and ion channel expression. Whilst similar neurons have been identified in other animal species, such as mice and non-human primates such as macaques, cross-species comparisons have revealed intriguing differences such as their comparative prevalence in the BNSTALG as well as their electrophysiological and morphological properties, amongst other differences. Given this tremendous complexity on multiple levels, the comprehensive elucidation of the BNSTALG circuitry and its role in regulating stress/anxiety-related behavior is a major challenge. In the present Review we bring together and highlight the key differences in BNSTALG structure, functional connectivity, the electrophysiological and morphological properties, and neuropeptidergic profiles of BNSTALG neurons between species with the aim to facilitate future studies of this important nucleus in relation to human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yana van de Poll
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Yasmin Cras
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Tommas J. Ellender
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Sakharkar M, Rockland KS, Duque A. Complex Neurochemical Microstructure of the Stria Terminalis in Infant and Adult Macaque Monkey. Front Neuroanat 2022; 16:891608. [PMID: 35692258 PMCID: PMC9174467 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2022.891608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The stria terminalis (ST) is a major bidirectional fiber tract anchored in the amygdala and bed nucleus (BNST). Extensive investigations in rodents report a complex arrangement of neurochemically diverse neurons within the ST, but fewer data are available for non-human primates. Given the functional importance of the ST, we investigated its microarchitecture in one newborn, four infant, and two adult macaque brains, by parallel immunocytochemical series for cells or fibers. Main results are as follows: (1) The pan-neuronal marker NeuN shows scattered neurons and small neuronal clusters in both the dorsal and ventral ST, but more numerous dorsally; (2) smaller neuronal subpopulations are labeled by calretinin (CR), neuropeptide Y (NPY), calbindin (CB), and somatostatin (SOM), of which the CR + neurons are the most numerous; (3) the infant brains on average have more neurons in the ST than the adult brains, but across our sample, there is notable individual variability; and (4) fiber architectonics have a complex organization, which can be referenced to myelin-poor or myelin-dense zones. Myelin-poor zones coincide with concentrations of fibers positive for CB, CR, or tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Neurons have been reported in other white matter domains (e.g., anterior commissure, corpus callosum, cingulum bundle, and subcortical white matter). Like these, at least some neurons within the ST may give rise to long-distance connections, and/or participate in more local functions, such as vascular regulation or axon guidance/maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kathleen S. Rockland
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Alvaro Duque
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
- *Correspondence: Alvaro Duque,
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Gastrin-releasing peptide regulates fear learning under stressed conditions via activation of the amygdalostriatal transition area. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:1694-1703. [PMID: 34997193 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01408-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The amygdala, a critical brain region responsible for emotional behavior, is crucially involved in the regulation of the effects of stress on emotional behavior. In the mammalian forebrain, gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), a 27-amino-acid mammalian neuropeptide, which is a homolog of the 14-amino-acid amidated amphibian peptide bombesin, is highly expressed in the amygdala. The levels of GRP are markedly increased in the amygdala after acute stress; therefore, it is known as a stress-activated modulator. To determine the role of GRP in emotional behavior under stress, we conducted some behavioral and biochemical experiments with GRP-knockout (KO) mice. GRP-KO mice exhibited a longer freezing response than wild-type (WT) littermates in both contextual and auditory fear (also known as threat) conditioning tests only when they were subjected to acute restraint stress 20 min before the conditioning. To identify the critical neural circuits associated with the regulation of emotional memory by GRP, we conducted Arc/Arg3.1-reporter mapping in the amygdala with an Arc-Venus reporter transgenic mouse line. In the amygdalostriatal transition area (AST) and the lateral side of the basal nuclei, fear conditioning after restraint stress increased neuronal activity significantly in WT mice, and GRP KO was found to negate this potentiation only in the AST. These results indicate that the GRP-activated neurons in the AST are likely to suppress excessive fear expression through the regulation of downstream circuits related to fear learning following acute stress.
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7
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Cortes MA, Corder KM, Dobrunz LE. Differences between adult and adolescent male mice in approach/avoidance and expression of hippocampal NPY in response to acute footshock. Stress 2021; 24:965-977. [PMID: 34546150 PMCID: PMC8908778 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2021.1976139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are the most common neuropsychiatric disorders diagnosed in adolescence and adulthood. Stress can lead to an increase in anxiety-related behaviors, although the consequences of stress in rodents are typically investigated only in adults. The levels of Neuropeptide Y (NPY), a mediator of stress resilience, are reduced in adult patients with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. For rodents, footshock is a physical stressor that increases anxiety-like behavior and reduces NPY in adults, however, the effects in adolescents are unknown. Here we used a 30-min unpredictable footshock protocol to investigate the differences in behavior and stress-relevant molecules between adolescent (6 weeks) and adult (3 months) male C57Bl6/J mice. The protocol resulted in fear expression in both ages as observed by enhanced freezing during footshock and elevation in plasma corticosterone and NPY shortly after exposure. However, effects on approach/avoidance behavior were different between the two ages. One week after footshock exposure, adult mice showed reduced open arm time and entries on elevated plus maze (EPM), whereas adolescent mice showed no effect. Footshock mice in both age groups displayed reduced activity levels in EPM and open field. The hypolocomotion did not relate to motor deficits, as there were no differences between footshock and control groups using rotarod. Surprisingly, we found that the adolescent mice had elevated NPY peptide expression in hippocampus, whereas adults had reduced expression one week after footshock exposure. Together, these results demonstrate that stress differentially affects both behavior and the important stress resilience factor NPY in adolescents compared to adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana A Cortes
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Katelynn M Corder
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Lynn E Dobrunz
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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8
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Horie S, Kiyokage E, Hayashi S, Inoue K, Sohn J, Hioki H, Furuta T, Toida K. Structural basis for noradrenergic regulation of neural circuits in the mouse olfactory bulb. J Comp Neurol 2021; 529:2189-2208. [PMID: 33616936 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory input is processed in the glomerulus of the main olfactory bulb (OB) and relayed to higher centers in the brain by projection neurons. Conversely, centrifugal inputs from other brain regions project to the OB. We have previously analyzed centrifugal inputs into the OB from several brain regions using single-neuron labeling. In this study, we analyzed the centrifugal noradrenergic (NA) fibers derived from the locus coeruleus (LC), because their projection pathways and synaptic connections in the OB have not been clarified in detail. We analyzed the NA centrifugal projections by single-neuron labeling and immunoelectron microscopy. Individual NA neurons labeled by viral infection were three-dimensionally traced using Neurolucida software to visualize the projection pathway from the LC to the OB. Also, centrifugal NA fibers were visualized using an antibody for noradrenaline transporter (NET). NET immunoreactive (-ir) fibers contained many varicosities and synaptic vesicles. Furthermore, electron tomography demonstrated that NET-ir fibers formed asymmetrical synapses of varied morphology. Although these synapses were present at varicosities, the density of synapses was relatively low throughout the OB. The maximal density of synapses was found in the external plexiform layer; about 17% of all observed varicosities contained synapses. These results strongly suggest that NA-containing fibers in the OB release NA from both varicosities and synapses to influence the activities of OB neurons. The present study provides a morphological basis for olfactory modulation by centrifugal NA fibers derived from the LC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sawa Horie
- Department of Anatomy, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan
| | - Emi Kiyokage
- Department of Medical Technology, Faculty of Health Science and Technology, Kawasaki University of Medical Welfare, Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan
| | - Shuichi Hayashi
- Department of Anatomy, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan
| | - Kanako Inoue
- Research Center for Ultra-High Voltage Electron Microscopy, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Jaerin Sohn
- Division of Cerebral Circuitry, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, Aichi, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Hioki
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takahiro Furuta
- Department of Oral Anatomy and Neurobiology, Osaka University Graduate School of Dentistry, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kazunori Toida
- Department of Anatomy, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, Okayama, Japan.,Research Center for Ultra-High Voltage Electron Microscopy, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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Hammack SE, Braas KM, May V. Chemoarchitecture of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis: Neurophenotypic diversity and function. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2021; 179:385-402. [PMID: 34225977 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-819975-6.00025-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) is a compact but neurophenotypically complex structure in the ventral forebrain that is structurally and functionally linked to other limbic structures, including the amygdala nuclear complex, hypothalamic nuclei, hippocampus, and related midbrain structures, to participate in a wide range of functions, especially emotion, emotional learning, stress-related responses, and sexual behaviors. From a variety of sensory inputs, the BNST acts as a node for signal integration and coordination for information relay to downstream central neuroendocrine and autonomic centers for appropriate homeostatic physiological and behavioral responses. In contrast to the role of the amygdala in fear, the BNST has gained wide interest from work suggesting that it has main roles in mediating sustained responses to diffuse, unpredictable and/or long-duration threats that are typically associated with anxiety-related responses. Further, some BNST subregions are highly sexually dimorphic which appear contributory to the differential stress and social interactive behaviors, including reproductive responses, between males and females. Notably, maladaptive BNST neuroplasticity and function have been implicated in chronic pain, depression, anxiety-related abnormalities, and other psychopathologies including posttraumatic stress disorders. The BNST circuits are predominantly GABAergic-the glutaminergic neurons represent a minor population-but the complexity of the system results from an overlay of diverse neuropeptide coexpression in these neurons. More than a dozen neuropeptides may be differentially coexpressed in BNST neurons, and from variable G protein-coupled receptor signaling, may inhibit or activate downstream circuit activities. The mechanisms and roles of these peptides in modulating intrinsic BNST neurocircuit signaling and BNST long-distance target cell projections are still not well understood. Nevertheless, an understanding of some of the principal players may allow assembly of the circuit interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sayamwong E Hammack
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States
| | - Karen M Braas
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, United States
| | - Victor May
- Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Vermont Larner College of Medicine, Burlington, VT, United States.
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10
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Michaelson SD, Miranda Tapia AP, McKinty A, Silveira Villarroel H, Mackay JP, Urban JH, Colmers WF. Contribution of NPY Y 5 Receptors to the Reversible Structural Remodeling of Basolateral Amygdala Dendrites in Male Rats Associated with NPY-Mediated Stress Resilience. J Neurosci 2020; 40:3231-3249. [PMID: 32144180 PMCID: PMC7159890 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2621-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Endogenous neuropeptide Y (NPY) and corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) modulate the responses of the basolateral amygdala (BLA) to stress and are associated with the development of stress resilience and vulnerability, respectively. We characterized persistent effects of repeated NPY and CRF treatment on the structure and function of BLA principal neurons in a novel organotypic slice culture (OTC) model of male rat BLA, and examined the contributions of specific NPY receptor subtypes to these neural and behavioral effects. In BLA principal neurons within the OTCs, repeated NPY treatment caused persistent attenuation of excitatory input and induced dendritic hypotrophy via Y5 receptor activation; conversely, CRF increased excitatory input and induced hypertrophy of BLA principal neurons. Repeated treatment of OTCs with NPY followed by an identical treatment with CRF, or vice versa, inhibited or reversed all structural changes in OTCs. These structural responses to NPY or CRF required calcineurin or CaMKII, respectively. Finally, repeated intra-BLA injections of NPY or a Y5 receptor agonist increased social interaction, a validated behavior for anxiety, and recapitulated structural changes in BLA neurons seen in OTCs, while a Y5 receptor antagonist prevented NPY's effects both on behavior and on structure. These results implicate the Y5 receptor in the long-term, anxiolytic-like effects of NPY in the BLA, consistent with an intrinsic role in stress buffering, and highlight a remarkable mechanism by which BLA neurons may adapt to different levels of stress. Moreover, BLA OTCs offer a robust model to study mechanisms associated with resilience and vulnerability to stress in BLA.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Within the basolateral amygdala (BLA), neuropeptide Y (NPY) is associated with buffering the neural stress response induced by corticotropin releasing factor, and promoting stress resilience. We used a novel organotypic slice culture model of BLA, complemented with in vivo studies, to examine the cellular mechanisms associated with the actions of NPY. In organotypic slice cultures, repeated NPY treatment reduces the complexity of the dendritic extent of anxiogenic BLA principal neurons, making them less excitable. NPY, via activation of Y5 receptors, additionally inhibits and reverses the increases in dendritic extent and excitability induced by the stress hormone, corticotropin releasing factor. This NPY-mediated neuroplasticity indicates that resilience or vulnerability to stress may thus involve neuropeptide-mediated dendritic remodeling in BLA principal neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheldon D Michaelson
- Department of Pharmacology, and the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada, and
| | - Ana Pamela Miranda Tapia
- Department of Pharmacology, and the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada, and
| | - Amanda McKinty
- Department of Pharmacology, and the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada, and
| | - Heika Silveira Villarroel
- Department of Pharmacology, and the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada, and
| | - James P Mackay
- Department of Pharmacology, and the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada, and
| | - Janice H Urban
- Center for the Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Discipline of Physiology and Biophysics, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois 60064
| | - William F Colmers
- Department of Pharmacology, and the Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H7, Canada, and
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11
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McDonald AJ. Functional neuroanatomy of the basolateral amygdala: Neurons, neurotransmitters, and circuits. HANDBOOK OF BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2020; 26:1-38. [PMID: 34220399 PMCID: PMC8248694 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-815134-1.00001-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J McDonald
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, United States
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12
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Beyeler A, Dabrowska J. Neuronal diversity of the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. HANDBOOK OF BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2020; 26:63-100. [PMID: 32792868 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-815134-1.00003-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Beyeler
- Neurocentre Magendie, French National Institutes of Health (INSERM) unit 1215, Neurocampus of Bordeaux University, Bordeaux, France
| | - Joanna Dabrowska
- Center for the Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Discipline of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, The Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL, United States
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13
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Munshi S, Loh MK, Ferrara N, DeJoseph MR, Ritger A, Padival M, Record MJ, Urban JH, Rosenkranz JA. Repeated stress induces a pro-inflammatory state, increases amygdala neuronal and microglial activation, and causes anxiety in adult male rats. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 84:180-199. [PMID: 31785394 PMCID: PMC7010555 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2019.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
A link exists between immune function and psychiatric conditions, particularly depressive and anxiety disorders. Psychological stress is a powerful trigger for these disorders and stress influences immune state. However, the nature of peripheral immune changes after stress conflicts across studies, perhaps due to the focus on few measures of pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory processes. The basolateral amygdala (BLA) is critical for emotion, and plays an important role in the effects of stress on anxiety. As such, it may be a primary central nervous system (CNS) mediator for the effects of peripheral immune changes on anxiety after stress. Therefore, this study aimed to delineate the influence of stress on peripheral pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory aspects, BLA immune activation, and its impact on BLA neuronal activity. To produce a more encompassing view of peripheral immune changes, this study used a less restrictive approach to categorize and group peripheral immune changes. We found that repeated social defeat stress in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats increased the frequencies of mature T-cells positive for intracellular type 2-like cytokine and serum pro-inflammatory cytokines. Principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering was used to guide grouping of T-cells and cytokines, producing unique profiles. Stress shifted the balance towards a specific set that included mostly type 2-like T-cells and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Within the CNS component, repeated stress caused an increase of activated microglia in the BLA, increased anxiety-like behaviors across several assays, and increased BLA neuronal firing in vivo that was prevented by blockade of microglia activation. Because repeated stress can trigger anxiety states by actions in the BLA, and altered immune function can trigger anxiety, these results suggest that repeated stress may trigger anxiety-like behaviors by inducing a pro-inflammatory state in the periphery and the BLA. These results begin to uncover how stress may recruit the immune system to alter the function of brain regions critical to emotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumyabrata Munshi
- Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.,Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Neuroscience, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Maxine K. Loh
- Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.,Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Nicole Ferrara
- Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.,Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - M. Regina DeJoseph
- Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Physiology and Biophysics, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.,Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Alexandra Ritger
- Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Neuroscience, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.,Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Mallika Padival
- Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.,Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Matthew J. Record
- Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Janice H. Urban
- Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Physiology and Biophysics, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.,Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - J. Amiel Rosenkranz
- Department of Foundational Sciences and Humanities, Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.,Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA.,Corresponding Author: J. Amiel Rosenkranz, Ph.D., Center for Neurobiology of Stress Resilience and Psychiatric Disorders, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, 3333 Green Bay Road, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA., Telephone: 847-578-8680; Fax: 847-578-3268,
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14
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Bobeck EN, Gomes I, Pena D, Cummings KA, Clem RL, Mezei M, Devi LA. The BigLEN-GPR171 Peptide Receptor System Within the Basolateral Amygdala Regulates Anxiety-Like Behavior and Contextual Fear Conditioning. Neuropsychopharmacology 2017; 42:2527-2536. [PMID: 28425495 PMCID: PMC5686498 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Revised: 04/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Studies show that neuropeptide-receptor systems in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) play an important role in the pathology of anxiety and other mood disorders. Since GPR171, a recently deorphanized receptor for the abundant neuropeptide BigLEN, is expressed in the BLA, we investigated its role in fear and anxiety-like behaviors. To carry out these studies we identified small molecule ligands using a homology model of GPR171 to virtually screen a library of compounds. One of the hits, MS0021570_1, was identified as a GPR171 antagonist based on its ability to block (i) BigLEN-mediated activation of GPR171 in heterologous cells, (ii) BigLEN-mediated hyperpolarization of BLA pyramidal neurons, and (iii) feeding induced by DREADD-mediated activation of BigLEN containing AgRP neurons in the arcuate nucleus. The role of GPR171 in anxiety-like behavior or fear conditioning was evaluated following systemic or intra-BLA administration of MS0021570_1, as well as following lentiviral-mediated knockdown of GPR171 in the BLA. We find that systemic administration of MS0021570_1 attenuates anxiety-like behavior while intra-BLA administration or knockdown of GPR171 in the BLA reduces anxiety-like behavior and fear conditioning. These results indicate that the BigLEN-GPR171 system plays an important role in these behaviors and could be a novel target to develop therapeutics to treat psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin N Bobeck
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA,Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L Levy Place, Annenberg 19-84, New York, NY 10029, USA. Tel: +1 212 2418345, Fax: +1 212 9967214, E-mail: or
| | - Ivone Gomes
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Darlene Pena
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Kirstie A Cummings
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Roger L Clem
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mihaly Mezei
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lakshmi A Devi
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA,Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L Levy Place, Annenberg 19-84, New York, NY 10029, USA. Tel: +1 212 2418345, Fax: +1 212 9967214, E-mail: or
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15
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Nätt D, Barchiesi R, Murad J, Feng J, Nestler EJ, Champagne FA, Thorsell A. Perinatal Malnutrition Leads to Sexually Dimorphic Behavioral Responses with Associated Epigenetic Changes in the Mouse Brain. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11082. [PMID: 28894112 PMCID: PMC5593991 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-10803-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Childhood malnutrition is a risk factor for mental disorders, such as major depression and anxiety. Evidence shows that similar early life adversities induce sex-dependent epigenetic reprogramming. However, little is known about how genes are specifically affected by early malnutrition and the implications for males and females respectively. One relevant target is neuropeptide Y (NPY), which regulates both stress and food-intake. We studied maternal low protein diet (LPD) during pregnancy/lactation in mice. Male, but not female, offspring of LPD mothers consistently displayed anxiety- and depression-like behaviors under acute stress. Transcriptome-wide analysis of the effects of acute stress in the amygdala, revealed a list of transcription factors affected by either sex or perinatal LPD. Among these immediate early genes (IEG), members of the Early growth response family (Egr1/2/4) were consistently upregulated by perinatal LPD in both sexes. EGR1 also bound the NPY receptor Y1 gene (Npy1r), which co-occurred with sex-specific effects of perinatal LPD on both Npy1r DNA-methylation and gene transcription. Our proposed pathway connecting early malnutrition, sex-independent regulatory changes in Egr1, and sex-specific epigenetic reprogramming of its effector gene, Npy1r, represents the first molecular evidence of how early life risk factors may generate sex-specific epigenetic effects relevant for mental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Nätt
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Riccardo Barchiesi
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Josef Murad
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Jian Feng
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Eric J Nestler
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Annika Thorsell
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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16
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Murase SI, Shiiya T, Higuchi H. Neuropeptide Y Y 5 receptor localization in mouse central nervous system. Brain Res 2017; 1655:216-232. [PMID: 27984021 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2016] [Revised: 10/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and its receptors affect blood pressure, feeding behavior, and neurogenesis. In this study, the distribution of neurons expressing NPY Y5 receptor (Y5) was examined in adult mouse central nervous system by immunohistochemistry. Y5 protein localization was investigated using polyclonal anti-Y5 antibody, which was successfully preabsorbed with Y5 knockout brain tissues. The preabsorbed anti-Y5 antibody did not react with Y5 knockout brain tissues, thus meeting the "hard specificity criterion," which is the absence of staining in tissues genetically deficient for the antigen (Pradidarcheep et al., 2008). Y5-positive neurons were found in most brain areas. Most Y5 immunoreactivities were observed as dot-like structures adjacent to the plasma membrane, as expected for a cell membrane receptor. In situ hybridization showed that the Y5 mRNA expression was correlated with the Y5 protein level in each case and that it was probably controlled by the transcriptional regulation of the Y5 gene. In the nuclei where Y5 was expressed, Y5 immunoreactivities were found mainly in the somatic and dendritic areas. The distribution patterns of the Y5-positive cells that were broader than previously expected suggest important biological activities of the Y5 in many brain areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Ichi Murase
- Division of Pharmacology, Niigata University, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata 951-8510, Japan.
| | - Tomohiro Shiiya
- Division of Pharmacology, Niigata University, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata 951-8510, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Higuchi
- Division of Pharmacology, Niigata University, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata 951-8510, Japan.
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17
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Saha R, Knapp S, Chakraborty D, Horovitz O, Albrecht A, Kriebel M, Kaphzan H, Ehrlich I, Volkmer H, Richter-Levin G. GABAergic Synapses at the Axon Initial Segment of Basolateral Amygdala Projection Neurons Modulate Fear Extinction. Neuropsychopharmacology 2017; 42:473-484. [PMID: 27634356 PMCID: PMC5399240 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2016.205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Inhibitory synaptic transmission in the amygdala has a pivotal role in fear learning and its extinction. However, the local circuits formed by GABAergic inhibitory interneurons within the amygdala and their detailed function in shaping these behaviors are not well understood. Here we used lentiviral-mediated knockdown of the cell adhesion molecule neurofascin in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) to specifically remove inhibitory synapses at the axon initial segment (AIS) of BLA projection neurons. Quantitative analysis of GABAergic synapse markers and measurement of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents in BLA projection neurons after neurofascin knockdown ex vivo confirmed the loss of GABAergic input. We then studied the impact of this manipulation on anxiety-like behavior and auditory cued fear conditioning and its extinction as BLA related behavioral paradigms, as well as on long-term potentiation (LTP) in the ventral subiculum-BLA pathway in vivo. BLA knockdown of neurofascin impaired ventral subiculum-BLA-LTP. While this manipulation did not affect anxiety-like behavior and fear memory acquisition and consolidation, it specifically impaired extinction. Our findings indicate that modification of inhibitory synapses at the AIS of BLA projection neurons is sufficient to selectively impair extinction behavior. A better understanding of the role of distinct GABAergic synapses may provide novel and more specific targets for therapeutic interventions in extinction-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rinki Saha
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Stephanie Knapp
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany,Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany,Graduate School for Neural and Behavioral Science, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Omer Horovitz
- Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Anne Albrecht
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel,The Institute for the Study of Affective Neuroscience, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Martin Kriebel
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute, University of Tübingen, Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Hanoch Kaphzan
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ingrid Ehrlich
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany,Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Hansjürgen Volkmer
- NMI Natural and Medical Sciences Institute, University of Tübingen, Reutlingen, Germany
| | - Gal Richter-Levin
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel,Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel,The Institute for the Study of Affective Neuroscience, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel,Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Abba Khoushy Avenue 199, Haifa 31905, Israel, Tel: +972 48240962, Fax: +972 48288578, E-mail:
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