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Rakhymzhan A, Fiedler AF, Günther R, Domingue SR, Wooldridge L, Leben R, Cao Y, Bias A, Roodselaar J, Köhler R, Ulbricht C, Heidelin J, Andresen V, Beckers I, Haibel A, Duda G, Hauser AE, Niesner RA. Optimized intravital three-photon imaging of intact mouse tibia links plasma cell motility to functional states. iScience 2024; 27:110985. [PMID: 39391739 PMCID: PMC11466647 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.110985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2024] [Accepted: 09/16/2024] [Indexed: 10/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Intravital deep bone marrow imaging is crucial to studying cellular dynamics and functions but remains challenging, and minimally invasive methods are needed. We employed a high pulse-energy 1650 nm laser to perform three-photon microscopy in vivo, reaching ≈400 μm depth in intact mouse tibia. Repetition rates of 3 and 4 MHz allowed us to analyze motility patterns of fast and rare cells within unperturbed marrow and to identify a bi-modal migratory behavior for plasma cells. Third harmonic generation (THG) was identified as a label-free marker for cellular organelles, particularly endoplasmic reticulum, indicating protein synthesis capacity. We found a strong THG signal, suggesting high antibody secretion, in one-third of plasma cells while the rest showed low signals. We discovered an inverse relationship between migratory behavior and THG signal, linking motility to functional plasma cell states. This method may enhance our understanding of marrow microenvironment effects on cellular functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asylkhan Rakhymzhan
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Biophysical Analytics, Berlin, Germany
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Immune Dynamics, Berlin, Germany
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Clinics for Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexander F. Fiedler
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Biophysical Analytics, Berlin, Germany
- Freie Universität Berlin, Dynamic and Functional in vivo Imaging, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Günther
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Biophysical Analytics, Berlin, Germany
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Immune Dynamics, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | - Ruth Leben
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Biophysical Analytics, Berlin, Germany
- Freie Universität Berlin, Dynamic and Functional in vivo Imaging, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yu Cao
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Immune Dynamics, Berlin, Germany
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Clinics for Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anne Bias
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Biophysical Analytics, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin University of Applied Sciences and Technology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jay Roodselaar
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Immune Dynamics, Berlin, Germany
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Clinics for Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ralf Köhler
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Biophysical Analytics, Berlin, Germany
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Immune Dynamics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carolin Ulbricht
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Immune Dynamics, Berlin, Germany
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Clinics for Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | - Ingeborg Beckers
- Berlin University of Applied Sciences and Technology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Astrid Haibel
- Berlin University of Applied Sciences and Technology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Georg Duda
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Julius Wolff Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anja E. Hauser
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Immune Dynamics, Berlin, Germany
- Charité – Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Clinics for Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Raluca A. Niesner
- German Rheumatism Research Center – a Leibniz Institute, Biophysical Analytics, Berlin, Germany
- Freie Universität Berlin, Dynamic and Functional in vivo Imaging, Berlin, Germany
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Wang J, Zhu F, Jiao D, Yang C, Wang J, Wang F, Zhao H, Wei HJ, Zhao HY. Generation of RAG2 Knockout Immune-Deficient Miniature Pigs. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:2597. [PMID: 39272382 PMCID: PMC11393836 DOI: 10.3390/ani14172597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2024] [Revised: 09/02/2024] [Accepted: 09/04/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Recombination-activating genes (RAGs) play a crucial role in the V(D)J recombination process and the development of immune cells. The development of the immune system and its mechanisms in pigs exhibit greater similarity to those of humans compared to other animals, thus rendering pigs a valuable tool for biomedical research. In this study, we utilized CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing and somatic cell nuclear transfer technology to generate RAG2 knockout (KO) pigs. Furthermore, we evaluated the impact of RAG2 KO on the immune organs and immune cell development through morphological observations, blood analysis and flow cytometry technology. RAG2 KO cell lines were used as donors for cloning. The reconstructed embryos were transplanted into 4 surrogate sows, and after 116 days of gestation, 2 sows gave birth to 12 live piglets, all of which were confirmed to be RAG2 KO. The thymus and spleen sizes of RAG2 KO pigs were significantly smaller than those of wild-type (WT) pigs. Hematoxylin-eosin staining results revealed that the thymus and spleen tissue structures of RAG2 KO pigs were disorganized and lacked the characteristic structures, indicating that RAG2 KO leads to dysplasia of the thymus and spleen. Hematological analysis demonstrated that the total number of white blood cells and lymphocytes in the circulation of RAG2 KO pigs was significantly lower, while the number of eosinophils was higher. Flow cytometry results indicated that the proportions of mature T and B lymphocytes were significantly reduced compared to WT pigs. These findings successfully verified the immunodeficiency phenotype of RAG2 KO pigs. This study may provide experimental animals for the development of tumor models and humanized animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wang
- Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Porcine Gene Editing and Xenotransplantation, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Yunnan Province Xenotransplantation Research Engineering Centre, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Feiyan Zhu
- Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Porcine Gene Editing and Xenotransplantation, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Yunnan Province Xenotransplantation Research Engineering Centre, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Deling Jiao
- Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Porcine Gene Editing and Xenotransplantation, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Yunnan Province Xenotransplantation Research Engineering Centre, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Chang Yang
- Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Porcine Gene Editing and Xenotransplantation, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Yunnan Province Xenotransplantation Research Engineering Centre, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Junqi Wang
- Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Porcine Gene Editing and Xenotransplantation, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Yunnan Province Xenotransplantation Research Engineering Centre, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Fengchong Wang
- Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Porcine Gene Editing and Xenotransplantation, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Yunnan Province Xenotransplantation Research Engineering Centre, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Heng Zhao
- Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Porcine Gene Editing and Xenotransplantation, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Yunnan Province Xenotransplantation Research Engineering Centre, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Hong-Jiang Wei
- Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Porcine Gene Editing and Xenotransplantation, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Yunnan Province Xenotransplantation Research Engineering Centre, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
| | - Hong-Ye Zhao
- Yunnan Province Key Laboratory for Porcine Gene Editing and Xenotransplantation, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- Yunnan Province Xenotransplantation Research Engineering Centre, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming 650201, China
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Allam M, Hu T, Fang Z, Pi M, Singh A, Coskun AF. Spatial immunophenotyping using multiplexed imaging of immune follicles in secondary lymphoid tissues. PNAS NEXUS 2024; 3:pgae285. [PMID: 39108301 PMCID: PMC11299982 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
Secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs), including tonsils (TS), lymph nodes (LN), and Peyer's Patches, exhibit complementary immune functions. However, little is known about the spatial organization of immune cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) in the SLOs. Traditional imaging is limited to a few markers, confining our understanding of the differences between the SLOs. Herein, imaging mass cytometry addressed this gap by simultaneously profiling 25-plex proteins in SLO tissues at subcellular resolution. The antibody panel targeted immune, stromal, chemokine, epigenetic, and functional markers. For robust cell identification, a computational workflow SpatialVizPheno was developed to spatially phenotype 999,970 cells using two approaches, including manual gating and semi-supervised gating, iterative clustering, and annotation. LN exhibited the highest density of B cells while the intestinal tissues contained the highest proportion of regulatory and follicular helper T cells. SpatialVizPheno identified the most prevalent interaction between follicular dendritic cells and stromal cells (SCs), plasmablasts/plasma cells, and the SCs across the lymphoid tissues. Collagen-enriched regions were associated with the spatial orientation of B cell follicles in both TS and LN tissues, but not in intestinal lymphoid tissues. Such spatial differences of immunophenotypes and ECM in different SLO tissues can be used to quantify the relationship between cellular organization and ultimate immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayar Allam
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Thomas Hu
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Zhou Fang
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Michelle Pi
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Ankur Singh
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
- Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30318, USA
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Ahmet F Coskun
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
- Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Interdisciplinary Bioengineering Graduate Program, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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Alaterre E, Ovejero S, Bret C, Dutrieux L, Sika D, Fernandez Perez R, Espéli M, Fest T, Cogné M, Martin-Subero JI, Milpied P, Cavalli G, Moreaux J. Integrative single-cell chromatin and transcriptome analysis of human plasma cell differentiation. Blood 2024; 144:496-509. [PMID: 38643512 PMCID: PMC11406183 DOI: 10.1182/blood.2023023237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Plasma cells (PCs) are highly specialized cells representing the end stage of B-cell differentiation. We have shown that PC differentiation can be reproduced in vitro using elaborate culture systems. The molecular changes occurring during PC differentiation are recapitulated in this in vitro differentiation model. However, a major challenge exists to decipher the spatiotemporal epigenetic and transcriptional programs that drive the early stages of PC differentiation. We combined single cell (sc) RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and assay for transposase-accessible chromatin with high throughput sequencing (scATAC-seq) to decipher the trajectories involved in PC differentiation. ScRNA-seq experiments revealed a strong heterogeneity of the preplasmablastic and plasmablastic stages. Among genes that were commonly identified using scATAC-seq and scRNA-seq, we identified several transcription factors with significant stage specific potential importance in PC differentiation. Interestingly, differentially accessible peaks characterizing the preplasmablastic stage were enriched in motifs of BATF3, FOS and BATF, belonging to activating protein 1 (AP-1) transcription factor family that may represent key transcriptional nodes involved in PC differentiation. Integration of transcriptomic and epigenetic data at the single cell level revealed that a population of preplasmablasts had already undergone epigenetic remodeling related to PC profile together with unfolded protein response activation and are committed to differentiate in PC. These results and the supporting data generated with our in vitro PC differentiation model provide a unique resource for the identification of molecular circuits that are crucial for early and mature PC maturation and biological functions. These data thus provide critical insights into epigenetic- and transcription-mediated reprogramming events that sustain PC differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina Alaterre
- Institute of Human Genetics, Unité Mixte de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Sara Ovejero
- Institute of Human Genetics, Unité Mixte de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Department of Biological Hematology, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Caroline Bret
- Institute of Human Genetics, Unité Mixte de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Department of Biological Hematology, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Laure Dutrieux
- Institute of Human Genetics, Unité Mixte de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Dassou Sika
- Institute of Human Genetics, Unité Mixte de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Marion Espéli
- INSERM U1160 EMiLy, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Université Paris-Cité, Paris, France
| | - Thierry Fest
- Université de Rennes 1, INSERM, Établissement Français du Sang de Bretagne, Team B_DEVIL, UMR_S1236, Rennes, France
- Laboratoire d'Hématologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Rennes, France
| | - Michel Cogné
- Institut National de La Santé et de La Recherche Médicale, Unité Mixte de Recherche U1236, Université de Rennes, Etablissement Français Du Sang Bretagne, Rennes, France
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Rennes, Suivi Immunologique des Thérapies Innovantes, Pôle Biologie, Rennes, France
| | - José Ignacio Martin-Subero
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Fonaments Clínics, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pierre Milpied
- Aix Marseille Université, CNRS, INSERM, Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Marseille, France
| | - Giacomo Cavalli
- Institute of Human Genetics, Unité Mixte de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Jérôme Moreaux
- Institute of Human Genetics, Unité Mixte de Recherche, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Department of Biological Hematology, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- University of Montpellier, UFR Medicine, Montpellier, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
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Wang H, Lan L, Wang J, Chen J, Xiao L, Han F. Alterations of B-Cell subsets in Peripheral Blood from Adult Patients with Idiopathic Membranous Nephropathy. Immunol Lett 2024; 266:106838. [PMID: 38278305 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2024.106838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Idiopathic membranous nephropathy (MN) is an autoimmune disease characterized by specific antibodies. However, the underlying mechanisms by which lymphocytes promote the development of MN remain poorly understood. This study aims to determine the changes of B-cell subsets and their clinical significance in MN patients. METHODS We included a cohort of 21 idiopathic MN patients with new onset or a relapse, 19 healthy controls (HCs) and 10 patients with minimal change disease (MCD). Immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry were performed to assess the B-cell infiltration in renal biopsy tissues and peripheral blood, respectively. RESULTS Idiopathic MN patients (including new-onset and relapse groups) had lower percentages of marginal-zone B (MZB) and non-switched memory B cells, and higher percentages of plasmablasts than HCs (P < 0.01). Particularly, the new-onset group had lower percentages of switched memory B cells and MZB cells, and higher percentages of Naïve B cells than HCs (P<0.05). Interestingly, the percentage of plasmablasts was significantly correlated with urine protein to creatinine ratio, serum albumin, IgG, anti-M-type phospholipase A2 receptor antibody level and age in MN patients (P < 0.05). MN with Ehrenreich-Churg stage Ⅱ-Ⅳ had a lower median percentage of MZB and non-switched memory B cells, while a higher median percentage of plasmablasts than those in MN patients with stage Ehrenreich-Churg I (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Idiopathic MN patients had specific changes in B-cell subsets proportions in peripheral blood. Further studies are needed to precisely determine the roles of B-cell subsets in MN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huijing Wang
- Kidney Disease Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; Zhejiang Clinical Research Center of Kidney and Urinary System Disease, China; Institute of Nephrology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Department of Rheumatology, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lan Lan
- Kidney Disease Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; Key Laboratory of Kidney Disease Prevention and Control Technology, Zhejiang Province, China; Zhejiang Clinical Research Center of Kidney and Urinary System Disease, China; Institute of Nephrology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jiahui Wang
- Kidney Disease Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; Key Laboratory of Kidney Disease Prevention and Control Technology, Zhejiang Province, China; Zhejiang Clinical Research Center of Kidney and Urinary System Disease, China; Institute of Nephrology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jianghua Chen
- Kidney Disease Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; Key Laboratory of Kidney Disease Prevention and Control Technology, Zhejiang Province, China; Zhejiang Clinical Research Center of Kidney and Urinary System Disease, China; Institute of Nephrology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Liang Xiao
- Kidney Disease Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; Key Laboratory of Kidney Disease Prevention and Control Technology, Zhejiang Province, China; Zhejiang Clinical Research Center of Kidney and Urinary System Disease, China; Institute of Nephrology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Fei Han
- Kidney Disease Center, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China; Key Laboratory of Kidney Disease Prevention and Control Technology, Zhejiang Province, China; Zhejiang Clinical Research Center of Kidney and Urinary System Disease, China; Institute of Nephrology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
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Feng F, Yuen R, Wang Y, Hua A, Kepler TB, Wetzler LM. Characterizing adjuvants' effects at murine immunoglobulin repertoire level. iScience 2024; 27:108749. [PMID: 38269092 PMCID: PMC10805652 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Generating large-scale, high-fidelity sequencing data is challenging and, furthermore, not much has been done to characterize adjuvants' effects at the repertoire level. Thus, we introduced an IgSeq pipeline that standardized library prep protocols and data analysis functions for accurate repertoire profiling. We then studied systemically effects of CpG and Alum on the Ig heavy chain repertoire using the ovalbumin (OVA) murine model. Ig repertoires of different tissues (spleen and bone marrow) and isotypes (IgG and IgM) were examined and compared in IGHV mutation, gene usage, CDR3 length, clonal diversity, and clonal selection. We found Ig repertoires of different compartments exhibited distinguishable profiles at the non-immunized steady state, and distinctions became more pronounced upon adjuvanted immunizations. Notably, Alum and CpG effects exhibited different tissue- and isotype-preferences. The former led to increased diversity of abundant clones in bone marrow, and the latter promoted the selection of IgG clones in both tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Feng
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Rachel Yuen
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Yumei Wang
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Axin Hua
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Thomas B. Kepler
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Lee M. Wetzler
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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Kättström M, Uggla B, Tina E, Kimby E, Norén T, Athlin S. Improved plasmablast response after repeated pneumococcal revaccinations following primary immunization with 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine or 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Vaccine 2023; 41:3128-3136. [PMID: 37061372 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) show an immune dysfunction with increased risk of infections and poor response to vaccination. Streptococcus pneumoniae is a common cause of morbidity and mortality in CLL patients. In a previous randomized clinical trial, we found a superior immune response in CLL patients receiving conjugated pneumococcal vaccine compared to non-conjugated vaccine. The response to revaccination in CLL patients is scarcely studied. In this study, early humoral response to repeated revaccinations with pneumococcal vaccines was evaluated, by determination of B cell subsets and plasmablast dynamics in peripheral blood. METHOD CLL patients (n = 14) and immunocompetent controls (n = 31) were revaccinated with a 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) after previous primary immunization (3-6 years ago) with PCV13 or a 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23). Eight weeks after the first revaccination, all CLL patients received a second revaccination with PCV13 or PPSV23. B cell subsets including plasmablasts were analyzed in peripheral blood by flow cytometry, before and after the first and the second revaccination. RESULTS None of the CLL patients, but all controls, had detectable plasmablasts at baseline (p < 0.001). After the first revaccination with PCV13, the plasmablast proportions did not increase in CLL patients (p = 0.13), while increases were seen in controls (p < 0.001). However, after a second revaccination with PCV13 or PPSV23, plasmablasts increased compared to baseline also in CLL patients (p < 0.01). If no response was evident after first revaccination, only a second revaccination with PCV13 increased plasmablasts in contrast to PPSV23 revaccination. Patients with hypogammaglobulinemia and ongoing/previous CLL specific treatment responded poorly, also to a second revaccination. CONCLUSION In CLL patients, pneumococcal revaccination induced minor early plasmablast response compared to controls, but the response improved using a strategy of repeated doses with of conjugated T cell dependent pneumococcal vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Kättström
- Section of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE 70185 Örebro, Sweden.
| | - Bertil Uggla
- Section of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE 70185 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Elisabet Tina
- Department of Clinical Research Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Eva Kimby
- Unit of Hematology, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Torbjörn Norén
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden
| | - Simon Athlin
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, SE 70185 Örebro, Sweden
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Abstract
Access to kidney transplantation is limited by HLA-specific sensitization. Desensitization strategies enable crossmatch-positive kidney transplantation. In this review, we describe clinical experience gained over the last 20 y using desensitization strategies before kidney transplantation and describe the different tools used (both drugs and apheresis options), including IVIg, rituximab, apheresis techniques, interleukin-6 interference, proteasome inhibition, enzymatic degradation of HLA antibodies, complement inhibition, and B cytokine interference. Although access to transplantation for highly sensitized kidney transplantation candidates has been vastly improved by desensitization strategies, it remains, however, limited by the recurrence of HLA antibodies after transplantation and the occurrence of antibody-mediated rejection.
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9
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Schäfer AL, Ruiz-Aparicio PF, Kraemer AN, Chevalier N. Crosstalk in the diseased plasma cell niche - the force of inflammation. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1120398. [PMID: 36895566 PMCID: PMC9989665 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1120398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Lena Schäfer
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Paola Fernanda Ruiz-Aparicio
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine (SGBM), University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Antoine N Kraemer
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nina Chevalier
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Chronic Immunodeficiency (CCI), Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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10
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Robinson E, Care MA, Walker K, Campbell M, Tooze RM, Doody GM. A System for In Vitro Generation of Mature Murine Plasma Cells Uncovers Differential Blimp-1/ Prdm1 Promoter Usage. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2022; 208:514-525. [PMID: 34911772 PMCID: PMC7612223 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2100004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Upon encounter with Ag, B cells undergo a sequential process of differentiation to become Ab-secreting plasma cells. Although the key drivers of differentiation have been identified, research has been limited by the lack of in vitro models recapitulating the full process for murine B cells. In this study, we describe methodology using BCR or TLR ligation to obtain plasma cells that are phenotypically mature, have exited cell cycle and express a gene signature concordant with long-lived plasma cells. Dependent on the initial stimuli, the transcriptomes also show variation including the enhanced expression of matrisome components after BCR stimulation, suggestive of unique functional properties for the resultant plasma cells. Moreover, using the new culture conditions we demonstrate that alternative promoter choice regulating the expression of the master transcription factor Blimp-1/Prdm1 can be observed; when the canonical B cell promoter for Prdm1 is deleted, differentiating B cells exhibit flexibility in the choice of promoter, dictated by the initiating stimulus, with preferential maintenance of expression following exposure to TLR ligation. Thus our system provides a readily tractable model for furthering our understanding of plasma cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Robinson
- Division of Haematology and Immunology, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, United Kingdom; and
| | - Matthew A Care
- Division of Haematology and Immunology, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, United Kingdom; and
| | - Kieran Walker
- Division of Haematology and Immunology, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, United Kingdom; and
| | - Michelle Campbell
- Division of Haematology and Immunology, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, United Kingdom; and
| | - Reuben M Tooze
- Division of Haematology and Immunology, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, United Kingdom; and
- Haematological Malignancy Diagnostic Service, St James's Institute of Oncology, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Gina M Doody
- Division of Haematology and Immunology, Leeds Institute of Medical Research, University of Leeds, United Kingdom; and
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11
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Giannotta G, Giannotta N. mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines and Long-Lived Plasma Cells: A Complicated Relationship. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:1503. [PMID: 34960249 PMCID: PMC8703557 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9121503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
mRNA COVID-19 vaccines have hegemonized the world market, and their administration to the population promises to stop the pandemic. However, the waning of the humoral immune response, which does not seem to last so many months after the completion of the vaccination program, has led us to study the molecular immunological mechanisms of waning immunity in the case of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines. We consulted the published scientific literature and from the few articles we found, we were convinced that there is an immunological memory problem after vaccination. Although mRNA vaccines have been demonstrated to induce antigen-specific memory B cells (MBCs) in the human population, there is no evidence that these vaccines induce the production of long-lived plasma cells (LLPCs), in a SARS-CoV-2 virus naïve population. This obstacle, in our point of view, is caused by the presence, in almost all subjects, of a cellular T and B cross-reactive memory produced during past exposures to the common cold coronaviruses. Due to this interference, it is difficult for a vaccination with the Spike protein alone, without adjuvants capable of prolonging the late phase of the generation of the immunological memory, to be able to determine the production of protective LLPCs. This would explain the possibility of previously and completely vaccinated subjects to become infected, already 4-6 months after the completion of the vaccination cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicola Giannotta
- Medical and Surgery Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Magna Græcia University, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy;
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12
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Stoycheva D, Simsek H, Weber W, Hauser AE, Klotzsch E. External cues to drive B cell function towards immunotherapy. Acta Biomater 2021; 133:222-230. [PMID: 33636402 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy stands out as a powerful and promising therapeutic strategy in the treatment of cancer, infections, and autoimmune diseases. Adoptive immune therapies are usually centered on modified T cells and their specific expansion towards antigen-specific T cells against cancer and other diseases. However, despite their unmatched features, the potential of B cells in immunotherapy is just beginning to be explored. The main role of B cells in the immune response is to secrete antigen-specific antibodies and provide long-term protection against foreign pathogens. They further function as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and secrete pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and thus exert positive and negative regulatory stimuli on other cells involved in the immune response such as T cells. Therefore, while hyperactivation of B cells can cause autoimmunity, their dysfunctions lead to severe immunodeficiencies. Only suitably activated B cells can play an active role in the treatment of cancers, infections, and autoimmune diseases. As a result, studies have focused on B cell-targeted immunotherapies in recent years. For this, the development, functions, interactions with the microenvironment, and clinical importance of B cells should be well understood. In this review, we summarize the main events during B cell activation. From the viewpoint of mechanobiology we discuss the translation of external cues such as surface topology, substrate stiffness, and biochemical signaling into B cell functions. We further dive into current B cell-targeted therapy strategies and their clinical applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: B cells are proving as a promising tool in the field of immunotherapy. B cells exhibit various functions such as antibody production, antigen presentation or secretion of immune-regulatory factors which can be utilized in the fight against oncological or immunological disorders. In this review we discuss the importance of external mechanobiological cues such as surface topology, substrate stiffness, and biochemical signaling on B cell function. We further summarize B cell-targeted therapy strategies and their clinical applications, as in the context of anti-tumor responses and autoimmune diseases.
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13
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Pointner LN, Ferreira F, Aglas L. B Cell Functions in the Development of Type I Allergy and Induction of Immune Tolerance. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2021; 268:249-264. [PMID: 34196808 DOI: 10.1007/164_2021_479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
B cells are key players in the mechanisms underlying allergic sensitization, allergic reactions, and tolerance to allergens. Allergen-specific immune responses are initiated when peptide:MHCII complexes on dendritic cells are recognized by antigen-specific receptors on T cells followed by interactions between costimulatory molecules on the surfaces of B and T cells. In the presence of IL-4, such T-B cell interactions result in clonal expansion and isotype class-switching to IgE in B cells, which will further differentiate into either memory B cells or PCs. Allergic reactions are then triggered upon cross-linking of IgE-FcɛRI complexes on basophils and mast cells, leading to cell degranulation and the release of pro-inflammatory mediators.Mechanisms underlying effective allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) involve the induction of Tregs and the secretion of blocking IgG4 antibodies, which together mediate the onset and maintenance of immune tolerance towards non-hazardous environmental antigens. However, the importance of regulatory B cells (Breg) for tolerance induction during AIT has gained more attention lately. Studies in grass pollen- and house dust mite-allergic patients undergoing SCIT reported increased frequencies of IL-10+ Breg cells and a positive correlation between their number and the improvement of clinical symptoms. Thus, Breg are emerging as biomarkers for monitoring tolerance to allergens under natural exposure conditions and during AIT. Further research on the role of other anti-inflammatory cytokines secreted by Breg will help to understand their role in disease development and tolerance induction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fatima Ferreira
- Biosciences Department, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Lorenz Aglas
- Biosciences Department, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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14
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Robust Plasma Cell Response to Skin-Inoculated Dengue Virus in Mice. J Immunol Res 2021; 2021:5511841. [PMID: 33997054 PMCID: PMC8096554 DOI: 10.1155/2021/5511841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue is a worldwide expanding threat caused by dengue virus (DENV) infection. To date, no specific treatment or effective vaccine is available. Antibodies produced by plasma cells (PCs) might be involved concomitantly in protection and severe dengue immunopathology. Although a massive appearance of PCs has been reported during acute DENV infection in humans, this response has been poorly characterized. Here, we show the dynamic of PC generation in immune-competent mice cutaneously inoculated with DENV compared with two control experimental groups: mice inoculated with inactivated DENV or with PBS. We found that PC numbers increased significantly in the skin-draining lymph node (DLN), peaking at day 10 and abruptly decreasing by day 14 after DENV inoculation. Class-switched IgG+ PCs appeared from day 7 and dominated the response, while in contrast, the frequency of IgM+ PCs decreased from day 7 onwards. Even though the kinetic of the response was similar between DENV- and iDENV-inoculated mice, the intensity of the response was significantly different. Interestingly, we demonstrated a similar PC response to virus antigens (E and prM) by ELISPOT. In situ characterization showed that PCs were distributed in the medullary cords and in close proximity to germinal centers (GCs), suggesting both an extrafollicular and a GC origin. Proliferating PCs (Ki-67+) were found as early as 3-day postinoculation, and in-depth analysis showed that these PCs were in active phases of cell cycle during the kinetic. Finally, we found a progressive appearance of high-affinity neutralizing DENV-specific IgG further supporting GC involvement. Of note, these antibodies seem to be highly cross-reactive, as a large proportion recognizes Zika virus (ZIKV). The strong PC response to skin-inoculated DENV in this work resembles the findings already described in humans. We consider that this study contributes to the understanding of the in vivo biology of the humoral immune response to DENV in an immunocompetent murine model.
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15
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Lebeau G, Vagner D, Frumence É, Ah-Pine F, Guillot X, Nobécourt E, Raffray L, Gasque P. Deciphering SARS-CoV-2 Virologic and Immunologic Features. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E5932. [PMID: 32824753 PMCID: PMC7460647 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21165932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV)-2 and its associated pathology, COVID-19, have been of particular concerns these last months due to the worldwide burden they represent. The number of cases requiring intensive care being the critical point in this epidemic, a better understanding of the pathophysiology leading to these severe cases is urgently needed. Tissue lesions can be caused by the pathogen or can be driven by an overwhelmed immune response. Focusing on SARS-CoV-2, we and others have observed that this virus can trigger indeed an immune response that can be dysregulated in severe patients and leading to further injury to multiple organs. The purpose of the review is to bring to light the current knowledge about SARS-CoV-2 virologic and immunologic features. Thus, we address virus biology, life cycle, tropism for many organs and how ultimately it will affect several host biological and physiological functions, notably the immune response. Given that therapeutic avenues are now highly warranted, we also discuss the immunotherapies available to manage the infection and the clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grégorie Lebeau
- Unité de Recherche Études Pharmaco-Immunologiques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France; (D.V.); (É.F.); (X.G.); (P.G.)
- Laboratoire de Biologie, Secteur Laboratoire d’immunologie Clinique et Expérimentale de la Zone de l’océan Indien (LICE-OI), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France
| | - Damien Vagner
- Unité de Recherche Études Pharmaco-Immunologiques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France; (D.V.); (É.F.); (X.G.); (P.G.)
- Unité Mixte de Recherche Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (PIMIT), Université de La Réunion, INSERM UMR 1187, CNRS 9192, IRD 249, Platform CYROI, 2 rue Maxime Rivière, 97491 Sainte Clotilde, La Réunion, France
| | - Étienne Frumence
- Unité de Recherche Études Pharmaco-Immunologiques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France; (D.V.); (É.F.); (X.G.); (P.G.)
- Laboratoire de Biologie, Secteur Laboratoire d’immunologie Clinique et Expérimentale de la Zone de l’océan Indien (LICE-OI), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France
| | - Franck Ah-Pine
- Service d’anatomo-Pathologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, 97410 Saint Pierre, France;
| | - Xavier Guillot
- Unité de Recherche Études Pharmaco-Immunologiques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France; (D.V.); (É.F.); (X.G.); (P.G.)
- Service de Rhumatologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France
| | - Estelle Nobécourt
- Service d’endocrinologie Diabétologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Sud Réunion, 97410 Saint Pierre, France;
- Université de Formation et de Recherche Santé, Université de la Réunion, 97400 Saint-Denis, France
| | - Loïc Raffray
- Service de Médecine Interne, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France;
| | - Philippe Gasque
- Unité de Recherche Études Pharmaco-Immunologiques, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France; (D.V.); (É.F.); (X.G.); (P.G.)
- Laboratoire de Biologie, Secteur Laboratoire d’immunologie Clinique et Expérimentale de la Zone de l’océan Indien (LICE-OI), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire La Réunion Site Félix Guyon, CS11021, 97400 Saint Denis de La Réunion, France
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16
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Haberman AM, Gonzalez DG, Wong P, Zhang TT, Kerfoot SM. Germinal center B cell initiation, GC maturation, and the coevolution of its stromal cell niches. Immunol Rev 2019; 288:10-27. [PMID: 30874342 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Throughout the developing GC response, B cell survival and fate choices made at the single cell level are dependent on signals received largely through interactions with other cells, often with cognate T cells. The type of signals that a given B cell can encounter is dictated by its location within tissue microarchitecture. The focus of this review is on the initiation and evolution of the GC response at the earliest time points. Here, we review the key factors influencing the progression of GC B cell differentiation that are both stage and context dependent. Finally, we describe the coevolution of niches within and surrounding the GC that influence the outcome of the GC response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Haberman
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - David G Gonzalez
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.,Department of Genetics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Patrick Wong
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Ting-Ting Zhang
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Steven M Kerfoot
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Western University, London, ON, Canada
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17
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Lindquist RL, Niesner RA, Hauser AE. In the Right Place, at the Right Time: Spatiotemporal Conditions Determining Plasma Cell Survival and Function. Front Immunol 2019; 10:788. [PMID: 31068930 PMCID: PMC6491733 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasma cells (PCs), the B lineage cells responsible for producing and secreting antibodies (Abs), are critical cellular components of the humoral immune system. While most of the antibody-secreting cells in the body have a rather short lifetime of a few days, some of them can become long-lived and persist in the body over the entire life span of an individual. The majority of these long-lived plasma cells secretes protective antibodies against pathogens, and are thereby crucial for the humoral component of immunological memory. The generation of these protective antibody-secreting cells can be triggered by an exposure to pathogens, and also by vaccination. Although the majority of plasma cells are protective, sometimes long-lived plasma cells produce autoreactive antibodies, which contribute to the pathogenesis and perpetuation of chronic autoimmune diseases, including lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, or multiple sclerosis. In order to promote the formation of protective antibody-secreting cells and to target pathogenic plasma cells, it is crucial to understand the signals which promote their longevity and allow them to exert their function. In recent years, it has become clear that plasma cells depend on extrinsic factors for their survival, leading to the concept that certain tissue microenvironments promote plasma cell retention and longevity. However, these niches are not static structures, but also have dynamic features with respect to their cellular composition. Here, we review what is known about the molecular and cellular composition of the niches, and discuss the impact of dynamic changes within these microenvironments on plasma cell function. As plasma cell metabolism is tightly linked to their function, we present new tools, which will allow us to analyze metabolic parameters in the plasma cell niches in vivo over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall L Lindquist
- Immunodynamics, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum Berlin, A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Raluca A Niesner
- Biophysical Analysis, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum Berlin, A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Fachbereich Veterinärmedizin, Institute of Veterinary Physiology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anja E Hauser
- Immunodynamics, Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum Berlin, A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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18
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Khodadadi L, Cheng Q, Radbruch A, Hiepe F. The Maintenance of Memory Plasma Cells. Front Immunol 2019; 10:721. [PMID: 31024553 PMCID: PMC6464033 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It is now well accepted that plasma cells can become long-lived (memory) plasma cells and secrete antibodies for months, years or a lifetime. However, the mechanisms involved in this process of humoral memory, which is crucial for both protective immunity and autoimmunity, still are not fully understood. This article will address a number of open questions. For example: Is longevity of plasma cells due to their intrinsic competence, extrinsic factors, or a combination of both? Which internal signals are involved in this process? What factors provide external support? What survival factors play a part in inflammation and autoreactive disease? Internal and external factors that contribute to the maintenance of memory long-lived plasma cells will be discussed. The aim is to provide useful additional information about the maintenance of protective and autoreactive memory plasma cells that will help researchers design effective vaccines for the induction of life-long protection against infectious diseases and to efficiently target pathogenic memory plasma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laleh Khodadadi
- Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum Berlin-A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Charité Mitte, Medizinische Klinik mit Schwerpunkt Rheumatologie und Klinische Immunologie, Berlin, Germany
| | - Qingyu Cheng
- Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum Berlin-A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Charité Mitte, Medizinische Klinik mit Schwerpunkt Rheumatologie und Klinische Immunologie, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Radbruch
- Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum Berlin-A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Falk Hiepe
- Deutsches Rheuma-Forschungszentrum Berlin-A Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Campus Charité Mitte, Medizinische Klinik mit Schwerpunkt Rheumatologie und Klinische Immunologie, Berlin, Germany
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19
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Wang X, Hao GL, Wang BY, Gao CC, Wang YX, Li LS, Xu JD. Function and dysfunction of plasma cells in intestine. Cell Biosci 2019; 9:26. [PMID: 30911371 PMCID: PMC6417281 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-019-0288-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
As the main player in humoral immunity, antibodies play indispensable roles in the body's immune system. Plasma cells (PCs), as antibody factories, are important contributors to humoral immunity. PCs, recognized by their unique marker CD138, are always discovered in the medullary cords of spleen and lymph nodes and in bone marrow and mucosal lymphoid tissue. This article will review the origin and differentiation of PCs, characteristics of short- and long-lived PCs, and the secretion of antibodies, such as IgA, IgM, and IgG. PCs play a crucial role in the maintenance of intestinal homeostasis using immunomodulation though complex mechanisms. Clearly, PCs play functional roles in maintaining intestinal health, but more details are needed to fully understand all the other effects of intestinal PCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xuanwu Hospital, Beijing Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069 China
| | - Gui-liang Hao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Xuanwu Hospital, Beijing Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069 China
| | - Bo-ya Wang
- Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, 100081 China
| | - Chen-chen Gao
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Capital Medical University, No. 10, Xitoutiao, Youanmenwai, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100069 China
| | - Yue-xiu Wang
- Department of Teaching Office, International School, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069 China
| | - Li-sheng Li
- Function Platform Center, School of Basic Medical Science, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100069 China
| | - Jing-dong Xu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Science, Capital Medical University, No. 10, Xitoutiao, Youanmenwai, Fengtai District, Beijing, 100069 China
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20
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Immunoproteasome inhibition induces plasma cell apoptosis and preserves kidney allografts by activating the unfolded protein response and suppressing plasma cell survival factors. Kidney Int 2019; 95:611-623. [PMID: 30685098 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2018.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Chronic antibody-mediated rejection is the leading cause of allograft dysfunction and loss after kidney transplantation, and current immunosuppressive regimens fail to target the plasma cells that produce alloantibodies. We previously showed that treatment with the immunoproteasome inhibitor ONX 0914 prevented the expansion of plasma cells and prevented chronic allograft nephropathy and organ failure after kidney transplantation in rats, but the mechanism has remained elusive. In the current study, we confirmed a long-term reduction in alloantibody production and improvements in allograft histology in rats treated with ONX 0914 or with the broad-spectrum proteasome inhibitor bortezomib. Plasma cells from allotransplanted rats expressed immunoproteasomes at high levels. Immunoproteasome inhibition with ONX 0914 led to ubiquitin-conjugate accumulation, activation of the unfolded protein response, and induction of apoptosis in plasma cells. In addition, ONX 0914 suppressed the expression of adhesion molecules (VLA-4 and LFA-1), plasma cell survival factors (APRIL and IL-6), and IFN-γ-inducible chemokines in bone marrow, while the APRIL receptor BCMA, the IL-6 receptor, and the chemokine receptors CXCR4 and CXCR3 were down-regulated on plasma cells. Taken together, immunoproteasome inhibition blocked alloantibody production by inducing apoptosis of plasma cells through activating the unfolded protein response and suppressing plasma cell survival factors in the bone marrow.
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21
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Cen SY, Moreau JM, Furlonger C, Berger A, Paige CJ. Differential regulation of IgA + B cells in vitro by stromal cells from distinctive anatomical compartments. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 105:507-518. [PMID: 30576006 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1a0517-172rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
B cell development is regulated by stromal cells (SCs) that form a supportive microenvironment. These SCs along with other cell types produce cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules that guide B cell commitment and differentiation. BM, spleen (Sp), and the gut lamina propria (LP) constitute distinctive anatomical compartments that support B cell differentiation. In order to characterize and compare the signals necessary to generate IgA+ B cells, we developed an in vitro system to co-culture gut LP, BM, or Sp-derived SCs with B lineage cells. Using this co-culture system, we found that gut LP SCs promote IgA+ B cell accumulation through the production of soluble stimulatory factors. In contrast to gut LP SCs, BM and splenic SCs were found to impair IgA+ B cell accumulation in vitro. Taken together, these observations provide new insights into how SCs derived from different anatomical locations shape IgA+ B cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selena Y Cen
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Ontario Cancer Institute, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joshua M Moreau
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Ontario Cancer Institute, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Caren Furlonger
- Ontario Cancer Institute, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alexandra Berger
- Ontario Cancer Institute, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christopher J Paige
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Ontario Cancer Institute, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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22
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Romero-Ramírez S, Navarro-Hernandez IC, Cervantes-Díaz R, Sosa-Hernández VA, Acevedo-Ochoa E, Kleinberg-Bild A, Valle-Rios R, Meza-Sánchez DE, Hernández-Hernández JM, Maravillas-Montero JL. Innate-like B cell subsets during immune responses: Beyond antibody production. J Leukoc Biol 2018; 105:843-856. [PMID: 30457676 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.mr0618-227r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Revised: 10/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
B lymphocytes are recognized for their crucial role in the adaptive immunity since they represent the only leukocyte lineage capable of differentiating into Ab-secreting cells. However, it has been demonstrated that these lymphocytes can exert several Ab-independent functions, including engulfing and processing Ags for presentation to T cells, secreting soluble mediators, providing co-stimulatory signals, and even participating in lymphoid tissues development. Beyond that, several reports claiming the existence of multiple B cell subsets contributing directly to innate immune responses have appeared. These "innate-like" B lymphocytes, whose phenotype, development pathways, tissue distribution, and functions are in most cases notoriously different from those of conventional B cells, are crucial to early protective responses against pathogens by exerting "crossover" defensive strategies that blur the established boundaries of innate and adaptive branches of immunity. Examples of these mechanisms include the rapid secretion of the polyspecific natural Abs, increased susceptibility to innate receptors-mediated activation, cytokine secretion, downstream priming of other innate cells, usage of specific variable immunoglobulin gene-segments, and other features. As these new insights emerge, it is becoming preponderant to redefine the functionality of B cells beyond their classical adaptive-immune tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Romero-Ramírez
- Red de Apoyo a la Investigación, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México e Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico.,Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Itze C Navarro-Hernandez
- Red de Apoyo a la Investigación, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México e Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico.,Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rodrigo Cervantes-Díaz
- Red de Apoyo a la Investigación, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México e Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico.,Departamento de Inmunología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Víctor A Sosa-Hernández
- Red de Apoyo a la Investigación, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México e Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico.,Departamento de Biomedicina Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Ernesto Acevedo-Ochoa
- Red de Apoyo a la Investigación, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México e Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico.,Unidad de Investigación Médica en Inmunoquímica, Hospital de Especialidades Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Ari Kleinberg-Bild
- Red de Apoyo a la Investigación, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México e Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Ricardo Valle-Rios
- División de Investigación de la Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México y Laboratorio de Investigación en Inmunología y Proteómica, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - David E Meza-Sánchez
- Red de Apoyo a la Investigación, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México e Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - José M Hernández-Hernández
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - José L Maravillas-Montero
- Red de Apoyo a la Investigación, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México e Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
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23
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Anand S, Mande SS. Diet, Microbiota and Gut-Lung Connection. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2147. [PMID: 30283410 PMCID: PMC6156521 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 248] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The gut microbial community (Gut microbiota) is known to impact metabolic functions as well as immune responses in our body. Diet plays an important role in determining the composition of the gut microbiota. Gut microbes help in assimilating dietary nutrients which are indigestible by humans. The metabolites produced by them not only modulate gastro-intestinal immunity, but also impact distal organs like lung and brain. Micro-aspiration of gut bacteria or movement of sensitized immune cells through lymph or bloodstream can also influence immune response of other organs. Dysbiosis in gut microbiota has been implicated in several lung diseases, including allergy, asthma and cystic fibrosis. The bi-directional cross-talk between gut and lung (termed as Gut-Lung axis) is best exemplified by intestinal disturbances observed in lung diseases. Some of the existing probiotics show beneficial effects on lung health. A deeper understanding of the gut microbiome which comprises of all the genetic material within the gut microbiota and its role in respiratory disorders is likely to help in designing appropriate probiotic cocktails for therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swadha Anand
- Bio-Sciences R&D Division, TCS Research, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd., Pune, India
| | - Sharmila S Mande
- Bio-Sciences R&D Division, TCS Research, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd., Pune, India
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24
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B cells and antibody production in melanoma. Mamm Genome 2018; 29:790-805. [DOI: 10.1007/s00335-018-9778-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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25
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Holzwarth K, Köhler R, Philipsen L, Tokoyoda K, Ladyhina V, Wählby C, Niesner RA, Hauser AE. Multiplexed fluorescence microscopy reveals heterogeneity among stromal cells in mouse bone marrow sections. Cytometry A 2018; 93:876-888. [DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.23526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ralf Köhler
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Lars Philipsen
- Institute of Molecular and Clinical Immunology, Medical Faculty; Otto von Guericke University; Magdeburg Germany
| | - Koji Tokoyoda
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Valeriia Ladyhina
- Centre for Image Analysis, Department of Information Technology, Division of Visual Information and Interaction; Uppsala University; Uppsala Sweden
| | - Carolina Wählby
- Centre for Image Analysis, Department of Information Technology, Division of Visual Information and Interaction; Uppsala University; Uppsala Sweden
| | - Raluca A. Niesner
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
| | - Anja E. Hauser
- Immune Dynamics; Charité - Universitätsmedizin; Berlin Germany
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute; Berlin Germany
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26
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Phasor-Based Endogenous NAD(P)H Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Unravels Specific Enzymatic Activity of Neutrophil Granulocytes Preceding NETosis. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19041018. [PMID: 29596303 PMCID: PMC5979388 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19041018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Time-correlated single-photon counting combined with multi-photon laser scanning microscopy has proven to be a versatile tool to perform fluorescence lifetime imaging in biological samples and, thus, shed light on cellular functions, both in vitro and in vivo. Here, by means of phasor-analyzed endogenous NAD(P)H (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate)) fluorescence lifetime imaging, we visualize the shift in the cellular metabolism of healthy human neutrophil granulocytes during phagocytosis of Staphylococcus aureus pHrodo™ beads. We correlate this with the process of NETosis, i.e., trapping of pathogens by DNA networks. Hence, we are able to directly show the dynamics of NADPH oxidase activation and its requirement in triggering NETosis in contrast to other pathways of cell death and to decipher the dedicated spatio-temporal sequence between NADPH oxidase activation, nuclear membrane disintegration and DNA network formation. The endogenous FLIM approach presented here uniquely meets the increasing need in the field of immunology to monitor cellular metabolism as a basic mechanism of cellular and tissue functions.
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27
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Abstract
Due to the multitude of cell types involved in the differentiation of plasma cells during the germinal center reaction, and due to a lack of in vitro systems, which recapitulate germinal centers, the most suitable way to study plasma cell generation in germinal centers is in vivo. In this chapter we describe how to induce humoral immune responses to defined model antigens and how to visualize and track plasma cells and their interactions with other cells in the lymph nodes of living mice.
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28
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Longitudinal intravital imaging of the femoral bone marrow reveals plasticity within marrow vasculature. Nat Commun 2017; 8:2153. [PMID: 29255233 PMCID: PMC5735140 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01538-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The bone marrow is a central organ of the immune system, which hosts complex interactions of bone and immune compartments critical for hematopoiesis, immunological memory, and bone regeneration. Although these processes take place over months, most existing imaging techniques allow us to follow snapshots of only a few hours, at subcellular resolution. Here, we develop a microendoscopic multi-photon imaging approach called LIMB (longitudinal intravital imaging of the bone marrow) to analyze cellular dynamics within the deep marrow. The approach consists of a biocompatible plate surgically fixated to the mouse femur containing a gradient refractive index lens. This microendoscope allows highly resolved imaging, repeatedly at the same regions within marrow tissue, over months. LIMB reveals extensive vascular plasticity during bone healing and steady-state homeostasis. To our knowledge, this vascular plasticity is unique among mammalian tissues, and we expect this insight will decisively change our understanding of essential phenomena occurring within the bone marrow. Longitudinal imaging of bone marrow would shed insight into long-term cellular dynamics within this compartment. Here, the authors develop a multi-photon imaging approach for the mouse femur and reveal extensive vascular plasticity within the bone marrow during bone healing and steady-state homeostasis.
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29
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Pollok K, Mothes R, Ulbricht C, Liebheit A, Gerken JD, Uhlmann S, Paul F, Niesner R, Radbruch H, Hauser AE. The chronically inflamed central nervous system provides niches for long-lived plasma cells. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2017; 5:88. [PMID: 29178933 PMCID: PMC5702095 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-017-0487-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Although oligoclonal bands in the cerebrospinal fluid have been a hallmark of multiple sclerosis diagnosis for over three decades, the role of antibody-secreting cells in multiple sclerosis remains unclear. T and B cells are critical for multiple sclerosis pathogenesis, but increasing evidence suggests that plasma cells also contribute, through secretion of autoantibodies. Long-lived plasma cells are known to drive various chronic inflammatory conditions as e.g. systemic lupus erythematosus, however, to what extent they are present in autoimmune central nervous system inflammation has not yet been investigated. In brain biopsies from multiple sclerosis patients and other neurological diseases, we could detect non-proliferating plasma cells (CD138+Ki67−) in the parenchyma. Based on this finding, we hypothesized that long-lived plasma cells can persist in the central nervous system (CNS). In order to test this hypothesis, we adapted the multiple sclerosis mouse model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis to generate a B cell memory response. Plasma cells were found in the meninges and the parenchyma of the inflamed spinal cord, surrounded by tissue areas resembling survival niches for these cells, characterized by an up-regulation of chemokines (CXCL12), adhesion molecules (VCAM-1) and survival factors (APRIL and BAFF). In order to determine the lifetime of plasma cells in the chronically inflamed CNS, we labeled the DNA of proliferating cells with 5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine (EdU). Up to five weeks later, we could detect EdU+ long-lived plasma cells in the murine CNS. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing non-proliferating plasma cells directly in the target tissue of a chronic inflammation in humans, as well as the first evidence demonstrating the ability of plasma cells to persist in the CNS, and the ability of the chronically inflamed CNS tissue to promote this persistence. Hence, our results suggest that the CNS provides survival niches for long-lived plasma cells, similar to the niches found in other organs. Targeting these cells in the CNS offers new perspectives for treatment of chronic autoimmune neuroinflammatory diseases, especially in patients who do not respond to conventional therapies.
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30
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Rakhymzhan A, Leben R, Zimmermann H, Günther R, Mex P, Reismann D, Ulbricht C, Acs A, Brandt AU, Lindquist RL, Winkler TH, Hauser AE, Niesner RA. Synergistic Strategy for Multicolor Two-photon Microscopy: Application to the Analysis of Germinal Center Reactions In Vivo. Sci Rep 2017; 7:7101. [PMID: 28769068 PMCID: PMC5540998 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07165-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Simultaneous detection of multiple cellular and molecular players in their native environment, one of the keys to a full understanding of immune processes, remains challenging for in vivo microscopy. Here, we present a synergistic strategy for spectrally multiplexed in vivo imaging composed of (i) triple two-photon excitation using spatiotemporal synchronization of two femtosecond lasers, (ii) a broad set of fluorophores with emission ranging from blue to near infrared, (iii) an effective spectral unmixing algorithm. Using our approach, we simultaneously excite and detect seven fluorophores expressed in distinct cellular and tissue compartments, plus second harmonics generation from collagen fibers in lymph nodes. This enables us to visualize the dynamic interplay of all the central cellular players during germinal center reactions. While current in vivo imaging typically enables recording the dynamics of 4 tissue components at a time, our strategy allows a more comprehensive analysis of cellular dynamics involving 8 single-labeled compartments. It enables to investigate the orchestration of multiple cellular subsets determining tissue function, thus, opening the way for a mechanistic understanding of complex pathophysiologic processes in vivo. In the future, the design of transgenic mice combining a larger spectrum of fluorescent proteins will reveal the full potential of our method.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ruth Leben
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hanna Zimmermann
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
- NeuroCure Clinical Research Center, Clinical and Experimental Multiple Sclerosis Research Center, Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Günther
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Peggy Mex
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - David Reismann
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carolin Ulbricht
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
- Immundynamics, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Acs
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Zentrum, Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Alexander U Brandt
- NeuroCure Clinical Research Center, Clinical and Experimental Multiple Sclerosis Research Center, Department of Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Thomas H Winkler
- Nikolaus-Fiebiger-Zentrum, Division of Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Anja E Hauser
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
- Immundynamics, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Raluca A Niesner
- Deutsches Rheumaforschungszentrum, a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany.
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31
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Karlsson MC, Gonzalez SF, Welin J, Fuxe J. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition in cancer metastasis through the lymphatic system. Mol Oncol 2017; 11:781-791. [PMID: 28590032 PMCID: PMC5496496 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.12092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
It was already in the 18th century when the French surgeon LeDran first noted that breast cancer patients with spread of tumor cells to their axillary lymph nodes had a drastically worse prognosis than patients without spread (LeDran et al., ). Since then, metastatic spread of cancer cells to regional lymph nodes has been established as the most important prognostic factor in many types of cancer (Carter et al., ; Elston and Ellis, ). However, despite its clinical importance, lymph metastasis remains an underexplored area of tumor biology. Fundamental questions, such as when, how, and perhaps most importantly, why tumor cells disseminate through the lymphatic system, remain largely unanswered. Accordingly, no treatment strategies exist that specifically target lymph metastasis. The identification of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as a mechanism, which allows cancer cells to dedifferentiate and acquire enhanced migratory and invasive properties, has been a game changer in cancer research. Conceptually, EMT provides an explanation for why epithelial cancers with poor differentiation status are generally more aggressive and prone to metastasize than more differentiated cancers. Inflammatory cytokines, such as TGF-β, which are produced and secreted by tumor-infiltrating immune cells, are potent inducers of EMT. Thus, reactivation of EMT also links cancer-related inflammation to invasive and metastatic disease. Recently, we found that breast cancer cells undergoing TGF-β-induced EMT acquire properties of immune cells allowing them to disseminate in a targeted fashion through the lymphatic system similar to activated dendritic cells during inflammation. Here, we review our current understanding of the mechanisms by which cancer cells spread through the lymphatic system and the links to inflammation and the immune system. We also emphasize how imaging techniques have the potential to further expand our knowledge of the mechanisms of lymph metastasis, and how lymph nodes serve as an interface between cancer and the immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikael C. Karlsson
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor Biology and Cell Biology (MTC)Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | | | - Josefin Welin
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor Biology and Cell Biology (MTC)Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| | - Jonas Fuxe
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor Biology and Cell Biology (MTC)Karolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
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32
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Glatman Zaretsky A, Konradt C, Dépis F, Wing JB, Goenka R, Atria DG, Silver JS, Cho S, Wolf AI, Quinn WJ, Engiles JB, Brown DC, Beiting D, Erikson J, Allman D, Cancro MP, Sakaguchi S, Lu LF, Benoist CO, Hunter CA. T Regulatory Cells Support Plasma Cell Populations in the Bone Marrow. Cell Rep 2017; 18:1906-1916. [PMID: 28228257 PMCID: PMC5361408 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.01.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Revised: 11/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Long-lived plasma cells (PCs) in the bone marrow (BM) are a critical source of antibodies after infection or vaccination, but questions remain about the factors that control PCs. We found that systemic infection alters the BM, greatly reducing PCs and regulatory T (Treg) cells, a population that contributes to immune privilege in the BM. The use of intravital imaging revealed that BM Treg cells display a distinct behavior characterized by sustained co-localization with PCs and CD11c-YFP+ cells. Gene expression profiling indicated that BM Treg cells express high levels of Treg effector molecules, and CTLA-4 deletion in these cells resulted in elevated PCs. Furthermore, preservation of Treg cells during systemic infection prevents PC loss, while Treg cell depletion in uninfected mice reduced PC populations. These studies suggest a role for Treg cells in PC biology and provide a potential target for the modulation of PCs during vaccine-induced humoral responses or autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christoph Konradt
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Fabien Dépis
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - James B Wing
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan
| | - Radhika Goenka
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Daniela Gomez Atria
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jonathan S Silver
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Sunglim Cho
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Amaya I Wolf
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - William J Quinn
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Julie B Engiles
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Dorothy C Brown
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Daniel Beiting
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jan Erikson
- The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - David Allman
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Michael P Cancro
- Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Shimon Sakaguchi
- Laboratory of Experimental Immunology, Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan
| | - Li-Fan Lu
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Christophe O Benoist
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Christopher A Hunter
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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33
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Circulating (CD3(-)CD19(+)CD20(-)IgD(-)CD27(high)CD38(high)) Plasmablasts: A Promising Cellular Biomarker for Immune Activity for Anti-PLA2R1 Related Membranous Nephropathy? Mediators Inflamm 2016; 2016:7651024. [PMID: 27493452 PMCID: PMC4963584 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7651024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Membranous nephropathy (MN) is a kidney specific autoimmune disease mainly mediated by anti-phospholipase A2 receptor 1 autoantibody (PLA2R1 Ab). The adequate assessment of chimeric anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody, rituximab (RTX), efficacy is still needed to improve clinical outcome of patient with MN. We evaluated the modification of plasmablasts (CD3−CD19+CD20−IgD−CD27highCD38high), a useful biomarker of RTX response in other autoimmune diseases, and memory (CD3−CD19+CD20+IgD−CD27+CD38−) and naive (CD3−CD19+CD20+IgD+CD27−CD38low) B cells by fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis in PLA2R1 related MN in one patient during the 4 years of follow-up after RTX. RTX induced complete disappearance of CD19+ B cells, plasmablasts, and memory B cells as soon as day 15. Despite severe CD19+ lymphopenia, plasmablasts and memory B cells reemerged early before naive B cells (days 45, 90, and 120, resp.). During the follow-up, plasmablasts decreased more rapidly than memory B cells but still remained elevated as compared to day 0 of RTX. Concomitantly, anti-PLA2R1 Ab increased progressively. Our single case report suggests that, besides monitoring of serum anti-PLA2R1 Ab level, enumeration of circulating plasmablasts and memory B cells represents an attractive and complementary tool to assess immunological activity and efficacy of RTX induced B cells depletion in anti-PLA2R1 Ab related MN.
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34
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Lemke A, Kraft M, Roth K, Riedel R, Lammerding D, Hauser AE. Long-lived plasma cells are generated in mucosal immune responses and contribute to the bone marrow plasma cell pool in mice. Mucosal Immunol 2016; 9:83-97. [PMID: 25943272 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2015.38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
During systemic immune responses, plasma blasts are generated in secondary lymphoid organs and migrate to the bone marrow, where they can become long-lived, being responsible for the maintenance of long-term antibody titers. Plasma blasts generated in mucosal immune responses of the small intestine home to the lamina propria (LP), producing mainly immunoglobulin A. The migration of these antibody-secreting cells is well characterized during acute immune responses. Less is known about their lifetime and contribution to the long-lived bone marrow compartment. Here we investigate the lifetime of plasma cells (PCs) and the relationship between the PC compartments of the gut and bone marrow after oral immunization. Our findings indicate that PCs in the LP can survive for extended time periods. PCs specific for orally administered antigens can be detected in the bone marrow for at least 9 months after immunization, indicating that the mucosal PC compartment can contribute to the long-lived PC pool in this organ, independent of the participation of splenic B cells. Our findings suggest that the compartmentalization between mucosal and systemic PC pools is less strict than previously thought. This may have implications for the development of vaccines as well as for autoantibody-mediated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lemke
- Deutsches Rheuma Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - M Kraft
- Deutsches Rheuma Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Charité Universitätsmedizin, Charitéplatz 1, Berlin, Germany
| | - K Roth
- Deutsches Rheuma Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - R Riedel
- Deutsches Rheuma Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - D Lammerding
- Deutsches Rheuma Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Charité Universitätsmedizin, Charitéplatz 1, Berlin, Germany
| | - A E Hauser
- Deutsches Rheuma Forschungszentrum (DRFZ), a Leibniz Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Charité Universitätsmedizin, Charitéplatz 1, Berlin, Germany
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35
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Rundberg Nilsson A, Pronk CJH, Bryder D. Probing hematopoietic stem cell function using serial transplantation: Seeding characteristics and the impact of stem cell purification. Exp Hematol 2015; 43:812-7.e1. [PMID: 26027791 DOI: 10.1016/j.exphem.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Revised: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Appropriate regulation of hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) numbers and function is a requisite for life-long blood cell replenishment. Knowledge of factors that regulate HSC activity is derived largely from murine model systems, with serial transplantation often considered a "gold standard" to assess longevity and self-renewal of HSCs. In the literature, we noted inconsistencies in how serial transplantations are conducted and decided to assess a set of parameters at play in such experiments. We found that HSCs distribute and expand unevenly among individual bones following transplantation, suggesting that isolation of a limited number of bone marrow cells for serial transplantation and/or analysis can influence experimental outcomes. Comparing donor cell output from transplanted unfractionated bone marrow cells, as opposed to fluorescence-activated cell-sorted HSCs, revealed distinct differences in the output of mature blood cells. Specifically, we found that long-lived progenitor and/or mature co-transplanted cells can severely affect the interpretation of ongoing HSC activity in secondary hosts. The implications of these data for the design and execution of serial transplantation experiments are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Rundberg Nilsson
- Medical Faculty, Division of Molecular Hematology, Institution for Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Lund Stem Cell Center, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Cornelis J H Pronk
- Medical Faculty, Division of Molecular Hematology, Institution for Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Lund Stem Cell Center, Lund, Sweden; Department of Pediatric Oncology/Hematology, Skåne University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
| | - David Bryder
- Medical Faculty, Division of Molecular Hematology, Institution for Laboratory Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Lund Stem Cell Center, Lund, Sweden
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Sánchez-Cordón PJ, Pérez de Diego AC, Gómez-Villamandos JC, Sánchez-Vizcaíno JM, Pleguezuelos FJ, Garfia B, del Carmen P, Pedrera M. Comparative analysis of cellular immune responses and cytokine levels in sheep experimentally infected with bluetongue virus serotype 1 and 8. Vet Microbiol 2015; 177:95-105. [PMID: 25769647 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Protective immunity in sheep with bluetongue virus (BTV) infection as well as the role of BTV-induced cytokines during immune response remains unclear. Understanding the basis immunological mechanisms in sheep experimentally infected with serotypes 1 and 8 (BTV-1 and -8) was the aim of this study. A time-course study was carried out in order to evaluate cell-mediated immune response and serum concentrations of cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα, IL-12, IFNγ, IL-4 and IL-10) with inflammatory and immunological functions. Depletion of T cell subsets (mainly CD4(+), γδ and CD25(+)) together with the absence of cytokines (IFNγ and IL-12) involved in the regulation of cell-mediated antiviral immunity at the first stage of the disease suggested that both BTV-1 and BTV-8 might impair host's capability against primary infections which would favor viral replication and spreading. However, cellular immune response and cytokines elicited an immune response in sheep that efficiently reduced viremia in the final stage of the experiment. Recovery of T cell subsets (CD4(+) and CD25(+)) together with a significant increase of CD8(+) T lymphocytes in both infected groups were observed in parallel with the decrease of viremia. Additionally, the recovery of CD4(+) T lymphocytes together with the significant increase of IL-4 serum levels at the final stage of the experiment might contribute to humoral immune response activation and neutralizing antibodies production against BTV previously described in the course of this experiment. These results suggested that both cellular and humoral immune response may contribute to protective immunity against BTV-1 and BTV-8 in sheep. The possible role played by IL-10 and CD25(+) cells in controlling inflammatory and immune response in the final stage of the experiment has also been suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Sánchez-Cordón
- Department of Comparative Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Córdoba-Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), Edificio Sanidad Animal, Campus de Rabanales, 14014 Córdoba, Spain.
| | - A C Pérez de Diego
- VISAVET Center and Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University Complutense of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - J C Gómez-Villamandos
- Department of Comparative Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Córdoba-Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), Edificio Sanidad Animal, Campus de Rabanales, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - J M Sánchez-Vizcaíno
- VISAVET Center and Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University Complutense of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - F J Pleguezuelos
- Department of Comparative Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Córdoba-Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), Edificio Sanidad Animal, Campus de Rabanales, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - B Garfia
- Garfia Veterinary Medicine Laboratory S.L., Polígono Industrial Tecnocórdoba, C/Varsovia, 53, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - P del Carmen
- VISAVET Center and Animal Health Department, Veterinary Faculty, University Complutense of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - M Pedrera
- Department of Comparative Pathology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Córdoba-Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), Edificio Sanidad Animal, Campus de Rabanales, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
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