Evaluation of a 5-Tier Scheme Proposed for Classification of Sequence Variants Using Bioinformatic and Splicing Assay Data: Inter-Reviewer Variability and Promotion of Minimum Reporting Guidelines

Functional Characterization of Two Novel Intron 4 SERPING1 Gene Splice Site Pathogenic Variants in Families with Hereditary Angioedema

Variants that affect splice sites comprise 14.3% of all pathogenic variants in the SERPING1 gene; more than half of them are located outside the canonical sites. To make a clinical decision concerning patients with such variants, it is essential to know the exact way in which the effect of the variant would be realized. The optimal approach to determine the consequences is considered to be mRNA analysis. In the current study, we present the results of functional analysis of two previously non-described variants in the SERPING1 gene (NM_000062.3) affecting intron 4: c.686-1G>A and c.685+4dup, which were detected in members of two Russian families with autosomal dominant inheritance of angioedema type 1. Analysis of the patients' mRNA (extracted from whole blood) showed that the SERPING1(NM_000062.3):c.685+4dup variant leads to the loss of the donor splice site and the activation of the cryptic site in exon 4: r.710_745del (p.Gly217_Pro228del), while the SERPING1(NM_000062.3):c.686-1G>A variant leads to the skipping of exon 5: r.746_949del (p.Asp229_Ser296del).

BRCA1 and Breast Cancer: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Strategies

Breast cancer susceptibility gene 1 (BRCA1) is a tumor suppressor gene, which is mainly involved in the repair of DNA damage, cell cycle regulation, maintenance of genome stability, and other important physiological processes. Mutations or defects in the BRCA1 gene significantly increase the risk of breast, ovarian, prostate, and other cancers in carriers. In this review, we summarized the molecular functions and regulation of BRCA1 and discussed recent insights into the detection and treatment of BRCA1 mutated breast cancer.

Improving Genetic Testing in Hereditary Cancer by RNA Analysis: Tools to Prioritize Splicing Studies and Challenges in Applying American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics Guidelines

RNA analyses are a potent tool to identify spliceogenic effects of DNA variants, although they are time-consuming and cannot always be performed. We present splicing assays of 20 variants that represent a variety of mutation types in 10 hereditary cancer genes and attempt to incorporate these results into American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) classification guidelines. Sixteen single-nucleotide variants, 3 exon duplications, and 1 single-exon deletion were selected and prioritized by in silico algorithms. RNA was extracted from short-term lymphocyte cultures to perform RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing, and allele-specific expression was assessed whenever possible. Aberrant transcripts were detected in 14 variants (70%). Variant interpretation was difficult, especially comparing old classification standards to generic ACMG guidelines and a proposal was devised to weigh functional analyses at RNA level. According to the ACMG guidelines, only 12 variants were reclassified as pathogenic/likely pathogenic because the other two variants did not gather enough evidence. This study highlights the importance of RNA studies to improve variant classification. However, it also indicates the challenge of incorporating these results into generic ACMG guidelines and the need to refine these criteria gene specifically. Nevertheless, 60% of variants were reclassified, thus improving genetic counseling and surveillance for carriers of these variants.

Implementing NGS-based BRCA tumour tissue testing in FFPE ovarian carcinoma specimens: hints from a real-life experience within the framework of expert recommendations

AIMS

Next Generation Sequencing (NGS)-based BRCA tumour tissue testing poses several challenges. As a first step of its implementation within a regional health service network, an in-house validation study was compared with published recommendations.

METHODS

Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded specimens stored in the archives of the eight regional pathology units were selected from a consecutive series of patients with known BRCA germline status. Two expert pathologists evaluated tumour cell content for manual macrodissection. DNA extraction, library preparation and NGS analyses were performed blinded to the germinal status. Parameters used in the study were confronted with guidelines for the validation of NGS-based oncology panels and for BRCA tumour tissue testing.

RESULTS

NGS analyses were successful in 66 of 67 EOC specimens, with good quality metrics and high reproducibility among different runs. In all, 19 BRCA pathogenic variants were identified: 12 were germline and 7 were somatic. A 100% concordance with blood tests was detected for germline variants. A BRCA1 variant showed a controversial classification. In different areas of two early stage EOCs showing somatic variants, intratumour heterogeneity not relevant for test results (variant allele frequency >5%) was observed. Compared with expert recommendations, main limitations of the study were absence of controls with known somatic BRCA status and exclusion from the validation of BRCA copy number variations (CNV).

CONCLUSIONS

A close collaboration between pathology and genetics units provides advantages in the implementation of BRCA tumour tissue testing. The development of tools for designing and interpreting complex testing in-house validation could improve process quality.

Criteria of the German Consortium for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer for the Classification of Germline Sequence Variants in Risk Genes for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer

More than ten years ago, the German Consortium for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (GC-HBOC) set up a panel of experts (VUS Task Force) which was tasked with reviewing the classifications of genetic variants reported by individual centres of the GC-HBOC to the central database in Leipzig and reclassifying them, where necessary, based on the most recent data. When it evaluates variants, the VUS Task Force must arrive at a consensus. The resulting classifications are recorded in a central database where they serve as a basis for ensuring the consistent evaluation of previously known and newly identified variants in the different centres of the GC-HBOC. The standardised VUS evaluation by the VUS Task Force is a key element of the recall system which has also been set up by the GC-HBOC. The system will be used to pass on information to families monitored and managed by GC-HBOC centres in the event that previously classified variants are reclassified based on new information. The evaluation algorithm of the VUS Task Force was compiled using internationally established assessment methods (IARC, ACMG, ENIGMA) and is presented here together with the underlying evaluation criteria used to arrive at the classification decision using a flow chart. In addition, the characteristics and special features of specific individual risk genes associated with breast and/or ovarian cancer are discussed in separate subsections. The URLs of relevant databases have also been included together with extensive literature references to provide additional information and cover the scope and dynamism of the current state of knowledge on the evaluation of genetic variants. In future, if criteria are updated based on new information, the update will be published on the website of the GC-HBOC ( https://www.konsortium-familiaerer-brustkrebs.de/ ).

The intronic BRCA1 c.5407-25T>A variant causing partly skipping of exon 23-a likely pathogenic variant with reduced penetrance?

Rare sequence variants in the non-coding part of the BRCA genes are often reported as variants of uncertain significance (VUS), which leave patients and doctors in a challenging position. The aim of this study was to determine the pathogenicity of the BRCA1 c.5407-25T>A variant found in 20 families from Norway, France and United States with suspected hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. This was done by combining clinical and family information with allele frequency data, and assessment of the variant’s effect on mRNA splicing. Mean age at breast (n = 12) and ovarian (n = 11) cancer diagnosis in female carriers was 49.9 and 60.4 years, respectively. The mean Manchester score in the 20 families was 16.4. The allele frequency of BRCA1 c.5407-25T>A was 1/64,566 in non-Finnish Europeans (gnomAD database v2.1.1). We found the variant in 1/400 anonymous Norwegian blood donors and 0/784 in-house exomes. Sequencing of patient-derived cDNA from blood, normal breast and ovarian tissue showed that BRCA1 c.5407-25T>A leads to skipping of exon 23, resulting in frameshift and protein truncation: p.(Gly1803GlnfsTer11). Western blot analysis of transiently expressed BRCA1 proteins in HeLa cells showed a reduced amount of the truncated protein compared with wild type. Noteworthily, we found that a small amount of full-length transcript was also generated from the c.5407-25T>A allele, potentially explaining the intermediate cancer burden in families carrying this variant. In summary, our results show that BRCA1 c.5407-25T>A leads to partial skipping of exon 23, and could represent a likely pathogenic variant with reduced penetrance.

Effect of BRCA1 missense variants on gene reversion in DNA double-strand break repair mutants and cell cycle-arrested cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Evaluation of the functional impact of germline BRCA1 variants that are likely to be associated to breast and ovarian cancer could help to investigate the mechanism of BRCA1 tumorigenesis. Expression of pathogenic BRCA1 missense variants increased homologous recombination (HR) and gene reversion (GR) in yeast. We thought to exploit yeast genetics to shed light on BRCA1-induced genome instability and tumorigenesis. We determined the effect on GR of several neutral and pathogenic BRCA1 variants in the yeast strain RSY6wt and its isogenic DSB repair mutants, such as mre11∆, rad50∆ and rad51∆. In the RSY6wt, four out of five pathogenic and two out of six neutral variants significantly increased GR; rad51∆ strain, the pathogenic variants C61G and A1708E induced a weak but significant increase in GR. On the other hand, in rad50∆ mutant expressing the pathogenic variants localised at the BRCT domain, a further GR increase was seen. The neutral variant N132K and the VUS A1789T induced a weak GR increase in mre11∆ mutant. Thus, BRCA1 missense variants require specific genetic functions and presumably induced GR by different mechanisms. As DNA repair is regulated by cell cycle, we determined the effect on GR of BRCA1 variants in cell cycle-arrested RSYwt cells. GR is highly BRCA1-inducible in S-phase-arrested cells as compared to G1 or G2. Sequence analysis of genomic DNA from ILV1 revertant clones showed that BRCA1-induced ilv1-92 reversion by base substitution when GR is at least 6-fold over the control. Our study demonstrated that BRCA1 may interfere with yeast DNA repair functions that are active in S-phase causing high level of GR. In addition, we confirmed here that yeast could be a reliable model to investigate the mechanism and genetic requirements of BRCA1-induced genome instability. Finally, developing yeast-based assays to characterise BRCA1 missense variants could be useful to design more precise therapies.

Comprehensive Assessment of BARD1 Messenger Ribonucleic Acid Splicing With Implications for Variant Classification

Introduction: Case-control analyses have shown BARD1 variants to be associated with up to >2-fold increase in risk of breast cancer, and potentially greater risk of triple negative breast cancer. BARD1 is included in several gene sequencing panels currently marketed for the prediction of risk of cancer, however there are no gene-specific guidelines for the classification of BARD1 variants. We present the most comprehensive assessment of BARD1 messenger RNA splicing, and demonstrate the application of these data for the classification of truncating and splice site variants according to American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the Association for Molecular Pathology (ACMG/AMP) guidelines. Methods: Nanopore sequencing, short-read RNA-seq (whole transcriptome and targeted), and capillary electrophoresis analysis were performed by four laboratories to investigate alternative BARD1 splicing in blood, breast, and fimbriae/ovary related specimens from non-cancer affected tissues. Splicing data were also collated from published studies of nine different tissues. The impact of the findings for PVS1 annotation was assessed for truncating and splice site variants. Results: We identified 62 naturally occurring alternative spliced BARD1 splicing events, including 19 novel events found by next generation sequencing and/or reverse transcription PCR analysis performed for this study. Quantitative analysis showed that naturally occurring splicing events causing loss of clinically relevant domains or nonsense mediated decay can constitute up to 11.9% of overlapping natural junctions, suggesting that aberrant splicing can be tolerated up to this level. Nanopore sequencing of whole BARD1 transcripts characterized 16 alternative isoforms from healthy controls, revealing that the most complex transcripts combined only two alternative splicing events. Bioinformatic analysis of ClinVar submitted variants at or near BARD1 splice sites suggest that all consensus splice site variants in BARD1 should be considered likely pathogenic, with the possible exception of variants at the donor site of exon 5. Conclusions: No BARD1 candidate rescue transcripts were identified in this study, indicating that all premature translation-termination codons variants can be annotated as PVS1. Furthermore, our analysis suggests that all donor and acceptor (IVS+/-1,2) variants can be considered PVS1 or PVS1_strong, with the exception of variants targeting the exon 5 donor site, that we recommend considering as PVS1_moderate.

Large scale multifactorial likelihood quantitative analysis of BRCA1 and BRCA2 variants: An ENIGMA resource to support clinical variant classification

The multifactorial likelihood analysis method has demonstrated utility for quantitative assessment of variant pathogenicity for multiple cancer syndrome genes. Independent data types currently incorporated in the model for assessing BRCA1 and BRCA2 variants include clinically calibrated prior probability of pathogenicity based on variant location and bioinformatic prediction of variant effect, co-segregation, family cancer history profile, co-occurrence with a pathogenic variant in the same gene, breast tumor pathology, and case-control information. Research and clinical data for multifactorial likelihood analysis were collated for 1,395 BRCA1/2 predominantly intronic and missense variants, enabling classification based on posterior probability of pathogenicity for 734 variants: 447 variants were classified as (likely) benign, and 94 as (likely) pathogenic; and 248 classifications were new or considerably altered relative to ClinVar submissions. Classifications were compared with information not yet included in the likelihood model, and evidence strengths aligned to those recommended for ACMG/AMP classification codes. Altered mRNA splicing or function relative to known nonpathogenic variant controls were moderately to strongly predictive of variant pathogenicity. Variant absence in population datasets provided supporting evidence for variant pathogenicity. These findings have direct relevance for BRCA1 and BRCA2 variant evaluation, and justify the need for gene-specific calibration of evidence types used for variant classification.

Novel diagnostic tool for prediction of variant spliceogenicity derived from a set of 395 combined in silico/in vitro studies: an international collaborative effort

Variant interpretation is the key issue in molecular diagnosis. Spliceogenic variants exemplify this issue as each nucleotide variant can be deleterious via disruption or creation of splice site consensus sequences. Consequently, reliable in silico prediction of variant spliceogenicity would be a major improvement. Thanks to an international effort, a set of 395 variants studied at the mRNA level and occurring in 5′ and 3′ consensus regions (defined as the 11 and 14 bases surrounding the exon/intron junction, respectively) was collected for 11 different genes, including BRCA1, BRCA2, CFTR and RHD, and used to train and validate a new prediction protocol named Splicing Prediction in Consensus Elements (SPiCE). SPiCE combines in silico predictions from SpliceSiteFinder-like and MaxEntScan and uses logistic regression to define optimal decision thresholds. It revealed an unprecedented sensitivity and specificity of 99.5 and 95.2%, respectively, and the impact on splicing was correctly predicted for 98.8% of variants. We therefore propose SPiCE as the new tool for predicting variant spliceogenicity. It could be easily implemented in any diagnostic laboratory as a routine decision making tool to help geneticists to face the deluge of variants in the next-generation sequencing era. SPiCE is accessible at (https://sourceforge.net/projects/spicev2-1/).

Incorporation of semi-quantitative analysis of splicing alterations for the clinical interpretation of variants in BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes

BRCA1 and BRCA2 (BRCA1/2) genetic variants that disrupt messenger RNA splicing are commonly associated with increased risks of developing breast/ovarian cancer. The majority of splicing studies published to date rely on qualitative methodologies (i.e., Sanger sequencing), but it is necessary to incorporate semi-quantitative or quantitative approaches to accurately interpret the clinical significance of spliceogenic variants. Here, we characterize the splicing impact of 31 BRCA1/2 variants using semi-quantitative capillary electrophoresis of fluorescent amplicons (CE), Sanger sequencing and allele-specific assays. A total of 14 variants were found to disrupt splicing. Allelic-specific assays could be performed for BRCA1 c.302-1G>A and BRCA2 c.516+2T>A, c.1909+1G>A, c.8332-13T>G, c.8332-2A>G, c.8954-2A>T variants, showing a monoallelic contribution to full-length transcript expression that was concordant with semi-quantitative data. The splicing fraction of alternative and aberrant transcripts was also measured by CE, facilitating variant interpretation. Following Evidence-based Network for the Interpretation of Germline Mutant Alleles criteria, we successfully classified eight variants as pathogenic (Class 5), five variants as likely pathogenic (Class 4), and 14 variants as benign (Class 1). We also provide splicing data for four variants classified as uncertain (Class 3), which produced a "leaky" splicing effect or introduced a missense change in the protein sequence, that will require further assessment to determine their clinical significance.

Diagnostic mRNA splicing assay for variants in BRCA1 and BRCA2 identified two novel pathogenic splicing aberrations

Background

Pathogenic variants in BRCA1 and BRCA2 cause hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. Screening of these genes has become easily accessible in diagnostic laboratories. Sequencing and copy number analyses are used to detect pathogenic variants, but also lead to identification of variants of unknown clinical significance (VUS). If the effect of a VUS can be clarified, it has direct consequence for the clinical management of the patient and family members. A splicing assay is one of several tools that might help in the classification of VUS. We therefore established mRNA analyses for BRCA1 and BRCA2 in the diagnostic laboratory in 2015. We hereby report the results of mRNA analysis variants in BRCA1 and BRCA2 after three years.

Methods

Variants predicted to alter splicing and variants within the canonical splice sites were selected for splicing analyses. Splicing assays were performed by reverse transcription-PCR of patient RNA. A biallalic expression analysis was carried out whenever possible.

Results

Twenty-five variants in BRCA1 and BRCA2 were analyzed by splicing assays; nine showed altered transcripts and 16 showed normal splicing patterns. The two novel pathogenic variants in BRCA1 c.4484 + 3 A > C and c.5407–10G > A were characterized.

Conclusions

We conclude that mRNA analyses are useful in characterization of variants that may affect splicing. The results can guide classification of variants from unknown clinical significance to pathogenic or benign in a diagnostic laboratory, and thus be of direct clinical importance.

Usefulness and Limitations of Comprehensive Characterization of mRNA Splicing Profiles in the Definition of the Clinical Relevance of BRCA1/2 Variants of Uncertain Significance

Highly penetrant variants of BRCA1/2 genes are involved in hereditary predisposition to breast and ovarian cancer. The detection of pathogenic BRCA variants has a considerable clinical impact, allowing appropriate cancer-risk management. However, a major drawback is represented by the identification of variants of uncertain significance (VUS). Many VUS potentially affect mRNA splicing, making transcript analysis an essential step for the definition of their pathogenicity. Here, we characterize the impact on splicing of ten BRCA1/2 variants. Aberrant splicing patterns were demonstrated for eight variants whose alternative transcripts were fully characterized. Different events were observed, including exon skipping, intron retention, and usage of de novo and cryptic splice sites. Transcripts with premature stop codons or in-frame loss of functionally important residues were generated. Partial/complete splicing effect and quantitative contribution of different isoforms were assessed, leading to variant classification according to Evidence-based Network for the Interpretation of Mutant Alleles (ENIGMA) consortium guidelines. Two variants could be classified as pathogenic and two as likely benign, while due to a partial splicing effect, six variants remained of uncertain significance. The association with an undefined tumor risk justifies caution in recommending aggressive risk-reduction treatments, but prevents the possibility of receiving personalized therapies with potential beneficial effect. This indicates the need for applying additional approaches for the analysis of variants resistant to classification by gene transcript analyses.

Functional Interaction Between BRCA1 and DNA Repair in Yeast May Uncover a Role of RAD50, RAD51, MRE11A, and MSH6 Somatic Variants in Cancer Development

In this study, we determined if BRCA1 partners involved in DNA double-strand break (DSB) and mismatch repair (MMR) may contribute to breast and ovarian cancer development. Taking advantage the functional conservation of DNA repair pathways between yeast and human, we expressed several BRCA1 missense variants in DNA repair yeast mutants to identify functional interaction between BRCA1 and DNA repair in BRCA1-induced genome instability. The pathogenic p.C61G, pA1708E, p.M775R, and p.I1766S, and the neutral pS1512I BRCA1 variants increased intra-chromosomal recombination in the DNA-repair proficient strain RSY6. In the mre11, rad50, rad51, and msh6 deletion strains, the BRCA1 variants p.C61G, pA1708E, p.M775R, p.I1766S, and pS1215I did not increase intra-chromosomal recombination suggesting that a functional DNA repair pathway is necessary for BRCA1 variants to determine genome instability. The pathogenic p.C61G and p.I1766S and the neutral p.N132K, p.Y179C, and p.N550H variants induced a significant increase of reversion in the msh2Δ strain; the neutral p.Y179C and the pathogenic p.I1766S variant induced gene reversion also, in the msh6Δ strain. These results imply a functional interaction between MMR and BRCA1 in modulating genome instability. We also performed a somatic mutational screening of MSH6, RAD50, MRE11A, and RAD51 genes in tumor samples from 34 patients and identified eight pathogenic or predicted pathogenic rare missense variants: four in MSH6, one in RAD50, one in MRE11A, and two in RAD51. Although we found no correlation between BRCA1 status and these somatic DNA repair variants, this study suggests that somatic missense variants in DNA repair genes may contribute to breast and ovarian tumor development.

Investigation of Experimental Factors That Underlie BRCA1/2 mRNA Isoform Expression Variation: Recommendations for Utilizing Targeted RNA Sequencing to Evaluate Potential Spliceogenic Variants

PCR-based RNA splicing assays are commonly used in diagnostic and research settings to assess the potential effects of variants of uncertain clinical significance in BRCA1 and BRCA2. The Evidence-based Network for the Interpretation of Germline Mutant Alleles (ENIGMA) consortium completed a multicentre investigation to evaluate differences in assay design and the integrity of published data, raising a number of methodological questions associated with cell culture conditions and PCR-based protocols. We utilized targeted RNA-seq to re-assess BRCA1 and BRCA2 mRNA isoform expression patterns in lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) previously used in the multicentre ENIGMA study. Capture of the targeted cDNA sequences was carried out using 34 BRCA1 and 28 BRCA2 oligonucleotides from the Illumina Truseq Targeted RNA Expression platform. Our results show that targeted RNA-seq analysis of LCLs overcomes many of the methodology limitations associated with PCR-based assays leading us to make the following observations and recommendations: (1) technical replicates (n > 2) of variant carriers to capture methodology induced variability associated with RNA-seq assays, (2) LCLs can undergo multiple freeze/thaw cycles and can be cultured up to 2 weeks without noticeably influencing isoform expression levels, (3) nonsense-mediated decay inhibitors are essential prior to splicing assays for comprehensive mRNA isoform detection, (4) quantitative assessment of exon:exon junction levels across BRCA1 and BRCA2 can help distinguish between normal and aberrant isoform expression patterns. Experimentally derived recommendations from this study will facilitate the application of targeted RNA-seq platforms for the quantitation of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mRNA aberrations associated with sequence variants of uncertain clinical significance.

Nanopore sequencing of full-length BRCA1 mRNA transcripts reveals co-occurrence of known exon skipping events

Background

Laboratory assays evaluating the effect of DNA sequence variants on BRCA1 mRNA splicing may contribute to classification by providing molecular evidence. However, our knowledge of normal and aberrant BRCA1 splicing events to date has been limited to data derived from assays targeting partial transcript sequences. This study explored the utility of nanopore sequencing to examine whole BRCA1 mRNA transcripts and to provide accurate categorisation of in-frame and out-of-frame splicing events.

Methods

The exon structure of BRCA1 transcripts from a previously studied control lymphoblastoid cell line were assessed using MinION nanopore sequencing of long-range reverse transcriptase-PCR amplicons.

Results

Our study identified and characterised 32 complete BRCA1 isoforms, including 18 novel isoforms which showed skipping of multiple contiguous and/or non-contiguous exons. Furthermore, we show that known BRCA1 exon skipping events, such as Δ(9,10) and Δ21, can co-occur in a single transcript, with some isoforms containing four or more alternative splice junctions. Fourteen novel isoforms were formed entirely from a combination of previously identified alternative splice junctions, suggesting that the total number of BRCA1 isoforms might be lower than the number of splicing events reported previously.

Conclusions

Our results highlight complexity in BRCA1 transcript structure that has not been described previously. This finding has key implications for predicting the translation frame of splicing transcripts, important for interpreting the clinical significance of spliceogenic variants. Future research is warranted to quantitatively assess full-length BRCA1 transcript levels, and to assess the application of nanopore sequencing for routine evaluation of potential spliceogenic variants.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13058-017-0919-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Mutations of Pre-mRNA Splicing Regulatory Elements: Are Predictions Moving Forward to Clinical Diagnostics?

For more than three decades, researchers have known that consensus splice sites alone are not sufficient regulatory elements to provide complex splicing regulation. Other regulators, so-called splicing regulatory elements (SREs) are needed. Most importantly, their sequence variants often underlie the development of various human disorders. However, due to their variable location and high degeneracy, these regulatory sequences are also very difficult to recognize and predict. Many different approaches aiming to identify SREs have been tried, often leading to the development of in silico prediction tools. While these tools were initially expected to be helpful to identify splicing-affecting mutations in genetic diagnostics, we are still quite far from meeting this goal. In fact, most of these tools are not able to accurately discern the SRE-affecting pathological variants from those not affecting splicing. Nonetheless, several recent evaluations have given appealing results (namely for EX-SKIP, ESRseq and Hexplorer predictors). In this review, we aim to summarize the history of the different approaches to SRE prediction, and provide additional validation of these tools based on patients' clinical data. Finally, we evaluate their usefulness for diagnostic settings and discuss the challenges that have yet to be met.

Classification of the spliceogenic BRCA1 c.4096+3A>G variant as likely benign based on cosegregation data and identification of a healthy homozygous carrier

BRCA1, c.4096+3A>G was identified in a consanguineous Danish family with several cases of breast/ovarian cancer. In silico analysis and splicing assays indicated that the variant caused aberrant splicing. However, based on segregation data and the finding of a healthy homozygous carrier, we classify the BRCA1 c.4096+3A>G variant as likely benign.

In silico, in vitro and case-control analyses as an effective combination for analyzing BRCA1 and BRCA2 unclassified variants in a population-based sample

Ascertaining the clinical consequences of BRCA1 and BRCA2 variants of uncertain significance (VUS) is currently indispensable for providing effective genetic counseling and preventive actions for families with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC). To this end, we conducted a combination of in silico prediction and cDNA splicing analyses of 13 BRCA1 and 10 BRCA2 VUS identified in our cohort as well as a case-control analysis in a population-based sample of 10 recurrent VUS. We observed consistent results between the in silico predictions and sequencing analyses for all analyzed VUS. An abnormal cDNA pattern was observed for variants c.212+1G>A and c.5278-1G>A in BRCA1 and c.516+2T>A and c.8168A>G in BRCA2 according to in silico splicing prediction. A case-control study of VUS confirmed the polymorphisms of the c.67+62A>G, c.7008-62A>G and c.8851G>A BRCA2 variants previously published. c.4068G>A in the BRCA2 gene can also be considered a polymorphism due to its occurrence at a frequency greater than 1% in our population. Our study shows that employing population-based analysis and a combination of several in silico methods yields highly accurate information, resulting in a reliable tool for selecting variants for cDNA sequencing analysis in routine cancer genetic counseling units.

Combined genetic and splicing analysis of BRCA1 c.[594-2A>C; 641A>G] highlights the relevance of naturally occurring in-frame transcripts for developing disease gene variant classification algorithms

A recent analysis using family history weighting and co-observation classification modeling indicated that BRCA1 c.594-2A > C (IVS9-2A > C), previously described to cause exon 10 skipping (a truncating alteration), displays characteristics inconsistent with those of a high risk pathogenic BRCA1 variant. We used large-scale genetic and clinical resources from the ENIGMA, CIMBA and BCAC consortia to assess pathogenicity of c.594-2A > C. The combined odds for causality considering case-control, segregation and breast tumor pathology information was 3.23 × 10-8 Our data indicate that c.594-2A > C is always in cis with c.641A > G. The spliceogenic effect of c.[594-2A > C;641A > G] was characterized using RNA analysis of human samples and splicing minigenes. As expected, c.[594-2A > C; 641A > G] caused exon 10 skipping, albeit not due to c.594-2A > C impairing the acceptor site but rather by c.641A > G modifying exon 10 splicing regulatory element(s). Multiple blood-based RNA assays indicated that the variant allele did not produce detectable levels of full-length transcripts, with a per allele BRCA1 expression profile composed of ≈70-80% truncating transcripts, and ≈20-30% of in-frame Δ9,10 transcripts predicted to encode a BRCA1 protein with tumor suppression function.We confirm that BRCA1c.[594-2A > C;641A > G] should not be considered a high-risk pathogenic variant. Importantly, results from our detailed mRNA analysis suggest that BRCA-associated cancer risk is likely not markedly increased for individuals who carry a truncating variant in BRCA1 exons 9 or 10, or any other BRCA1 allele that permits 20-30% of tumor suppressor function. More generally, our findings highlight the importance of assessing naturally occurring alternative splicing for clinical evaluation of variants in disease-causing genes.

Naturally occurring BRCA2 alternative mRNA splicing events in clinically relevant samples

BACKGROUND

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are the two principal tumour suppressor genes associated with inherited high risk of breast and ovarian cancer. Genetic testing of BRCA1/2 will often reveal one or more sequence variants of uncertain clinical significance, some of which may affect normal splicing patterns and thereby disrupt gene function. mRNA analyses are therefore among the tests used to interpret the clinical significance of some genetic variants. However, these could be confounded by the appearance of naturally occurring alternative transcripts unrelated to germline sequence variation or defects in gene function. To understand which novel splicing events are associated with splicing mutations and which are part of the normal BRCA2 splicing repertoire, a study was undertaken by members of the Evidence-based Network for the Interpretation of Germline Mutant Alleles (ENIGMA) consortium to characterise the spectrum of naturally occurring BRCA2 mRNA alternate-splicing events.

METHODS

mRNA was prepared from several blood and breast tissue-derived cells and cell lines by contributing ENIGMA laboratories. cDNA representing BRCA2 alternate splice sites was amplified and visualised using capillary or agarose gel electrophoresis, followed by sequencing.

RESULTS

We demonstrate the existence of 24 different BRCA2 mRNA alternate-splicing events in lymphoblastoid cell lines and both breast cancer and non-cancerous breast cell lines.

CONCLUSIONS

These naturally occurring alternate-splicing events contribute to the array of cDNA fragments that may be seen in assays for mutation-associated splicing defects. Caution must be observed in assigning alternate-splicing events to potential splicing mutations.

Investigating the effect of 28 BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations on their related transcribed mRNA

Germline inactivating mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are responsible for hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome (HBOCS). Genetic testing of these genes identifies a significant proportion of variants of uncertain significance (VUS). Elucidation of the clinical impact of these variants is an important challenge in genetic diagnostics and counseling. In this study, we assess the RNA effect of 28 BRCA1 and BRCA2 VUS identified in our set of HBOCS families with the aim of gaining insight into their clinical relevance. mRNA was extracted from VUS carriers and controls lymphocytes cultured for 5-6 days and treated with puromycin. RNA was reverse transcribed to perform transcriptional analysis for the study of splicing aberrations. In silico prediction tools were used to select those variants most likely to affect the RNA splicing process. Six out of the 28 variants analyzed showed an aberrant splicing pattern and could therefore be classified as probably pathogenic mutations. Reclassification of VUS improves the genetic counseling and clinical surveillance of carriers of these mutations and highlights the importance of RNA studies in routine diagnostic laboratories.

Splicing analysis for exonic and intronic mismatch repair gene variants associated with Lynch syndrome confirms high concordance between minigene assays and patient RNA analyses

A subset of DNA variants causes genetic disease through aberrant splicing. Experimental splicing assays, either RT-PCR analyses of patient RNA or functional splicing reporter minigene assays, are required to evaluate the molecular nature of the splice defect. Here, we present minigene assays performed for 17 variants in the consensus splice site regions, 14 exonic variants outside these regions, and two deep intronic variants, all in the DNA mismatch-repair (MMR) genes MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2, associated with Lynch syndrome. We also included two deep intronic variants in APC and PKD2. For one variant (MLH1 c.122A>G), our minigene assay and patient RNA analysis could not confirm the previously reported aberrant splicing. The aim of our study was to further investigate the concordance between minigene splicing assays and patient RNA analyses. For 30 variants results from patient RNA analyses were available, either performed by our laboratory or presented in literature. Some variants were deliberately included in this study because they resulted in multiple aberrant transcripts in patient RNA analysis, or caused a splice effect other than the prevalent exon skip. While both methods were completely concordant in the assessment of splice effects, four variants exhibited major differences in aberrant splice patterns. Based on the present and earlier studies, together showing an almost 100% concordance of minigene assays with patient RNA analyses, we discuss the weight given to minigene splicing assays in the current criteria proposed by InSiGHT for clinical classification of MMR variants.

Splicing analysis of 14 BRCA1 missense variants classifies nine variants as pathogenic

Pathogenic germline mutations in the BRCA1 gene predispose carriers to early onset breast and ovarian cancer. Clinical genetic screening of BRCA1 often reveals variants with uncertain clinical significance, complicating patient and family management. Therefore, functional examinations are urgently needed to classify whether these uncertain variants are pathogenic or benign. In this study, we investigated 14 BRCA1 variants by in silico splicing analysis and mini-gene splicing assay. All 14 alterations were missense variants located within the BRCT domain of BRCA1 and had previously been examined by functional analysis at the protein level. Results from a validated mini-gene splicing assay indicated that nine BRCA1 variants resulted in splicing aberrations leading to truncated transcripts and thus can be considered pathogenic (c.4987A>T/p.Met1663Leu, c.4988T>A/p.Met1663Lys, c.5072C>T/p.Thr1691Ile, c.5074G>C/p.Asp1692His, c.5074G>A/p.Asp1692Asn, c.5074G>T/p.Asp1692Tyr, c.5332G>A/p.Asp1778Asn, c.5332G>T/p.Asp1778Tyr, and c.5408G>C/p.Gly1803Ala), whereas five BRCA1 variants had no effect on splicing (c.4985T>C/p.Phe1662Ser, c.5072C>A/p.Thr1691Lys, c.5153G>C/p.Trp1718Ser, c.5154G>T/p.Trp1718Cys, and c.5333A>G/p.Asp1778Gly). Eight of the variants having an effect on splicing (c.4987A>T/p.Met1663Leu, c.4988T>A/p.Met1663Lys, c.5074G>C/p.Asp1692His, c.5074G>A/p.Asp1692Asn, c.5074G>T/p.Asp1692Tyr, c.5332G>A/p.Asp1778Asn, c.5332G>T/p.Asp1778Tyr, and c.5408G>C/p.Gly1803Ala) were previously determined to have no or an uncertain effect on the protein level, whereas one variant (c.5072C>T/p.Thr1691Ile) were shown to have a strong effect on the protein level as well. In conclusion, our study emphasizes that in silico splicing prediction and mini-gene splicing analysis are important for the classification of BRCA1 missense variants located close to exon/intron boundaries.

Functional characterization of BRCA1 gene variants by mini-gene splicing assay

Mutational screening of the breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA1 leads to the identification of numerous pathogenic variants such as frameshift and nonsense variants, as well as large genomic rearrangements. The screening moreover identifies a large number of variants, for example, missense, silent, and intron variants, which are classified as variants of unknown clinical significance owing to the lack of causal evidence. Variants of unknown clinical significance can potentially have an impact on splicing and therefore functional examinations are warranted to classify whether these variants are pathogenic or benign. Here we validate a mini-gene splicing assay by comparing the results of 24 variants with previously published data from RT-PCR analysis on RNA from blood samples/lymphoblastoid cell lines. The analysis showed an overall concordance of 100%. In addition, we investigated 13 BRCA1 variants of unknown clinical significance or putative variants affecting splicing by in silico analysis and mini-gene splicing assay. Both the in silico analysis and mini-gene splicing assay classified six BRCA1 variants as pathogenic (c.80+1G>A, c.132C>T (p.=), c.213-1G>A, c.670+1delG, c.4185+1G>A, and c.5075-1G>C), whereas six BRCA1 variants were classified as neutral (c.-19-22_-19-21dupAT, c.302-15C>G, c.547+14delG, c.4676-20A>G, c.4987-21G>T, and c.5278-14C>G) and one BRCA1 variant remained unclassified (c.670+16G>A). In conclusion, our study emphasizes that in silico analysis and mini-gene splicing assays are important for the classification of variants, especially if no RNA is available from the patient. This knowledge is crucial for proper genetic counseling of patients and their family members.

Multifactorial likelihood assessment of BRCA1 and BRCA2 missense variants confirms that BRCA1:c.122A>G(p.His41Arg) is a pathogenic mutation

Rare exonic, non-truncating variants in known cancer susceptibility genes such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 are problematic for genetic counseling and clinical management of relevant families. This study used multifactorial likelihood analysis and/or bioinformatically-directed mRNA assays to assess pathogenicity of 19 BRCA1 or BRCA2 variants identified following patient referral to clinical genetic services. Two variants were considered to be pathogenic (Class 5). BRCA1:c.4484G> C(p.Arg1495Thr) was shown to result in aberrant mRNA transcripts predicted to encode truncated proteins. The BRCA1:c.122A>G(p.His41Arg) RING-domain variant was found from multifactorial likelihood analysis to have a posterior probability of pathogenicity of 0.995, a result consistent with existing protein functional assay data indicating lost BARD1 binding and ubiquitin ligase activity. Of the remaining variants, seven were determined to be not clinically significant (Class 1), nine were likely not pathogenic (Class 2), and one was uncertain (Class 3).These results have implications for genetic counseling and medical management of families carrying these specific variants. They also provide additional multifactorial likelihood variant classifications as reference to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of bioinformatic prediction tools and/or functional assay data in future studies.

Comparison of mRNA splicing assay protocols across multiple laboratories: recommendations for best practice in standardized clinical testing

BACKGROUND

Accurate evaluation of unclassified sequence variants in cancer predisposition genes is essential for clinical management and depends on a multifactorial analysis of clinical, genetic, pathologic, and bioinformatic variables and assays of transcript length and abundance. The integrity of assay data in turn relies on appropriate assay design, interpretation, and reporting.

METHODS

We conducted a multicenter investigation to compare mRNA splicing assay protocols used by members of the ENIGMA (Evidence-Based Network for the Interpretation of Germline Mutant Alleles) consortium. We compared similarities and differences in results derived from analysis of a panel of breast cancer 1, early onset (BRCA1) and breast cancer 2, early onset (BRCA2) gene variants known to alter splicing (BRCA1: c.135-1G>T, c.591C>T, c.594-2A>C, c.671-2A>G, and c.5467+5G>C and BRCA2: c.426-12_8delGTTTT, c.7988A>T, c.8632+1G>A, and c.9501+3A>T). Differences in protocols were then assessed to determine which elements were critical in reliable assay design.

RESULTS

PCR primer design strategies, PCR conditions, and product detection methods, combined with a prior knowledge of expected alternative transcripts, were the key factors for accurate splicing assay results. For example, because of the position of primers and PCR extension times, several isoforms associated with BRCA1, c.594-2A>C and c.671-2A>G, were not detected by many sites. Variation was most evident for the detection of low-abundance transcripts (e.g., BRCA2 c.8632+1G>A Δ19,20 and BRCA1 c.135-1G>T Δ5q and Δ3). Detection of low-abundance transcripts was sometimes addressed by using more analytically sensitive detection methods (e.g., BRCA2 c.426-12_8delGTTTT ins18bp).

CONCLUSIONS

We provide recommendations for best practice and raise key issues to consider when designing mRNA assays for evaluation of unclassified sequence variants.

Capillary electrophoresis analysis of conventional splicing assays: IARC analytical and clinical classification of 31 BRCA2 genetic variants

Rare sequence variants in "high-risk" disease genes, often referred as unclassified variants (UVs), pose a serious challenge to genetic testing. However, UVs resulting in splicing alterations can be readily assessed by in vitro assays. Unfortunately, analytical and clinical interpretation of these assays is often challenging. Here, we explore this issue by conducting splicing assays in 31 BRCA2 genetic variants. All variants were assessed by RT-PCR followed by capillary electrophoresis and direct sequencing. If assays did not produce clear-cut outputs (Class-2 or Class-5 according to analytical International Agency for Research on Cancer guidelines), we performed qPCR and/or minigene assays. The latter were performed with a new splicing vector (pSAD) developed by authors of the present manuscript (patent #P201231427 CSIC). We have identified three clinically relevant Class-5 variants (c.682-2A>G, c.7617+1G>A, and c.8954-5A>G), and 27 analytical Class-2 variants (not inducing splicing alterations). In addition, we demonstrate that rs9534262 (c.7806-14T>C) is a BRCA2 splicing quantitative trait locus.