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Salari N, Fattah A, Hosseinian-Far A, Larti M, Sharifi S, Mohammadi M. Prevalence of Workplace Microaggressions and Racial Discrimination: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Saf Health Work 2024; 15:245-254. [PMID: 39309277 PMCID: PMC11410492 DOI: 10.1016/j.shaw.2024.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 09/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Background In recent years, the rise of workplace racial discrimination and microaggressions has decreased the efficiency and productivity of organizations and institutions, and realization of organizational goals globally. Accordingly, it was decided to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis in the present study with the aim of investigating the prevalence of microaggression and racial discrimination in the workplace. Methods The PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar databases were systematically searched for studies that had reported the effects of work stress among managers. The search did include a lower time limit and was conducted in June 2023. The heterogeneity of the studies was investigated using the I 2 index, and accordingly random effects method was adopted for meta-analysis. Data analysis was conducted with the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (v.2) software. Results In the review of seven studies with a sample size of 2998 people, the overall prevalence of microaggression and racial discrimination in the workplace was found to be 73.6% and 18.8%, respectively. Publication bias within the selected studies was examined with the Egger's test, which indicated the absence of publication bias for the pooled prevalence of workplace microaggression (p: 0.264) and for the pooled prevalence of workplace racial discrimination (p: 0.061). Conclusion The results obtained from this report indicate the high impact of micro-aggression and racial discrimination in the workplace. Considering the negative effects of such behaviours, the findings from this study will be helpful to managers and health policymakers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nader Salari
- Department of Biostatistics, School of Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
- Sleep Disorders Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Ahoura Fattah
- Medical Biology Research Centre, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Amin Hosseinian-Far
- Department of Business Analytics & Systems, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, AL10 9EU, UK
| | - Mojdeh Larti
- Sleep Disorders Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Sina Sharifi
- Student Research Committee, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Masoud Mohammadi
- Research Center for NonCommunicable Diseases, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran
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Goldstein SC, Forkus SR, Fenn NQ, Thomas ED, Suazo NC, Weiss NH. Racial Microaggressions Mediate the Association Between Posttraumatic Stress and Alcohol Use Among Women of Color Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence. J Dual Diagn 2024:1-15. [PMID: 38615676 DOI: 10.1080/15504263.2024.2336629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Objective: Women of Color (WoC) experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) have elevated rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use and related harm (e.g., increased alcohol use and negative consequences). This secondary data analysis assessed the role of racial microaggressions in the association between PTSD and alcohol use and related harm among WoC experiencing IPV. Methods: Participants were 103 WoC currently experiencing IPV and using substances (Mage=40.39, 51.5% Black) who were recruited from the community and completed assessments of PTSD, racial microaggressions, and alcohol use and related harm. Results: Assumptions of Inferiority (e.g., intelligence; B = 1.44, SE = 0.90, 95% CI [0.10, 3.54]) and Environmental Microaggressions (e.g., portrayal in media; B = 1.88, SE = 1.03, 95% CI [0.28, 4.30]) explained the association between PTSD and alcohol use and related harm. Conclusions: Findings underscore the influence of specific microaggressions in the relation between PTSD and alcohol use and related harm among WoC experiencing IPV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvi C Goldstein
- Department of Psychology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA
- Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Shannon R Forkus
- Department of Psychology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA
- Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Natalie Q Fenn
- Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Emmanuel D Thomas
- Department of Psychology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Nazaret C Suazo
- Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Nicole H Weiss
- Department of Psychology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA
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Decker H, Combs RM, Noonan EJ, Black C, Weingartner LA. LGBTQ+ Microaggressions in Health Care: Piloting an Observation Framework in a Standardized Patient Assessment. JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY 2024; 71:528-544. [PMID: 36190747 DOI: 10.1080/00918369.2022.2122367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Microaggressions are subtle derogatory behaviors that unintentionally communicate hostility toward marginalized social groups. This article describes the preliminarily validation of a framework for observing LGBTQ+ microaggressions in health care, which can lead to distrust and disengagement from the healthcare system. Coders used the framework to observe microaggressions in video-recorded clinical-skills assessments with medical students who elicited health histories from standardized patients. Microaggression classifications were reviewed to determine construct reliability and the presence/absence among eight framework categories. Among 177 encounters with sexual and gender minority standardized patients, heteronormative/cisnormative language and assumptions occurred in the largest proportion of encounters (85.3%). Only identity-based referrals decreased significantly after a clinical skills intervention (20.0% to 4.9%, p = .01). These outcomes show that LGBTQ+ healthcare microaggressions are pervasive and will likely require nuanced training to address them. This groundwork can also be used to develop scales for patients and observers to identify microaggressions and assess perceived impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hallie Decker
- Health Promotion and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Public Health and Information Sciences, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
| | - Ryan M Combs
- Health Promotion and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Public Health and Information Sciences, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
| | - Emily J Noonan
- Undergraduate Medical Education, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
| | - Caison Black
- Health Promotion and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Public Health and Information Sciences, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
| | - Laura A Weingartner
- Undergraduate Medical Education, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
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Bakouetila-Martin M, Duke B, Pantoja-Aming A, Alfaro S, Williams S, Mbah N, Marie Lucero-Schoenfeld A, Ossai U, Hale J. The Experiences of Black Students in Physical Therapy Education in Texas: A Qualitative Study. JOURNAL, PHYSICAL THERAPY EDUCATION 2023; 37:278-283. [PMID: 38478782 DOI: 10.1097/jte.0000000000000301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/25/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Racial or ethnic minorities are underrepresented in many health care professions, including physical therapy. Understanding the experiences of minority students in graduate education provides insight into how physical therapy educational programs can promote diversity, equity, and inclusion, which are factors that have been shown to improve patient outcomes. The purpose of this study is to qualitatively analyze and describe the lived experiences of Black student physical therapists (PT) in Texas. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Currently, there is a lack of qualitative research that investigates the experiences of Black students in physical therapy education in the United States. SUBJECTS Nineteen Doctor of Physical Therapy students from 8 different physical therapy educational programs in Texas. METHODS This qualitative study was conducted using a phenomenological approach. All participants took part in a focus group regarding their academic experiences. Students' dialogues were recorded and transcribed, and the researchers identified recurrent themes. RESULTS After the analysis of focus group content, it was determined that the following 5 themes characterized the students' experiences: 1) Barriers to enrollment, 2) underrepresentation, 3) implicit and explicit racism, 4) code-switching, and 5) desired image. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION There is evidence to suggest that Black or African American students are subject to unique pressures that negatively affect their experiences during their PT education. Efforts need to be made by higher education institutions and individuals to provide a more inclusive environment to best support those students. By gaining awareness of the results of this study, educators and students can begin dialogues on how to foster inclusivity and cultural understanding in physical therapy education. Ultimately, understanding the experiences of others can improve how individuals coexist in an increasingly diverse society, and how clinicians provide patient-centered, culturally aware care to patients and clients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin is a physical therapist and outreach coordinator at Spero Rehab, 10902 Shettleston Dr, Richmond TX 77407 ( ). Please address all correspondence to Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Brittney Duke is a physical therapist at the New Braunfels Regional Rehabilitation Hospital
- Andrea Pantoja-Aming is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Sarah Alfaro is a physical therapist at the Houston Methodist Hospital
- Stephanie Williams is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Nkechi Mbah is an itinerant physical therapist at Nova Medical Center
- Amy Marie-Lucero Schoenfeld is a physical therapist at Endeavor Physical Therapy and Wellness
- Uchenna Ossai is an assistant professor in the Department of Women's Health at The University of Texas Dell Medical School
- Jennifer Hale is an associate professor at the Department of Physical Therapy at the University of Utah
| | - Brittney Duke
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin is a physical therapist and outreach coordinator at Spero Rehab, 10902 Shettleston Dr, Richmond TX 77407 ( ). Please address all correspondence to Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Brittney Duke is a physical therapist at the New Braunfels Regional Rehabilitation Hospital
- Andrea Pantoja-Aming is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Sarah Alfaro is a physical therapist at the Houston Methodist Hospital
- Stephanie Williams is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Nkechi Mbah is an itinerant physical therapist at Nova Medical Center
- Amy Marie-Lucero Schoenfeld is a physical therapist at Endeavor Physical Therapy and Wellness
- Uchenna Ossai is an assistant professor in the Department of Women's Health at The University of Texas Dell Medical School
- Jennifer Hale is an associate professor at the Department of Physical Therapy at the University of Utah
| | - Andrea Pantoja-Aming
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin is a physical therapist and outreach coordinator at Spero Rehab, 10902 Shettleston Dr, Richmond TX 77407 ( ). Please address all correspondence to Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Brittney Duke is a physical therapist at the New Braunfels Regional Rehabilitation Hospital
- Andrea Pantoja-Aming is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Sarah Alfaro is a physical therapist at the Houston Methodist Hospital
- Stephanie Williams is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Nkechi Mbah is an itinerant physical therapist at Nova Medical Center
- Amy Marie-Lucero Schoenfeld is a physical therapist at Endeavor Physical Therapy and Wellness
- Uchenna Ossai is an assistant professor in the Department of Women's Health at The University of Texas Dell Medical School
- Jennifer Hale is an associate professor at the Department of Physical Therapy at the University of Utah
| | - Sarah Alfaro
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin is a physical therapist and outreach coordinator at Spero Rehab, 10902 Shettleston Dr, Richmond TX 77407 ( ). Please address all correspondence to Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Brittney Duke is a physical therapist at the New Braunfels Regional Rehabilitation Hospital
- Andrea Pantoja-Aming is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Sarah Alfaro is a physical therapist at the Houston Methodist Hospital
- Stephanie Williams is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Nkechi Mbah is an itinerant physical therapist at Nova Medical Center
- Amy Marie-Lucero Schoenfeld is a physical therapist at Endeavor Physical Therapy and Wellness
- Uchenna Ossai is an assistant professor in the Department of Women's Health at The University of Texas Dell Medical School
- Jennifer Hale is an associate professor at the Department of Physical Therapy at the University of Utah
| | - Stephanie Williams
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin is a physical therapist and outreach coordinator at Spero Rehab, 10902 Shettleston Dr, Richmond TX 77407 ( ). Please address all correspondence to Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Brittney Duke is a physical therapist at the New Braunfels Regional Rehabilitation Hospital
- Andrea Pantoja-Aming is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Sarah Alfaro is a physical therapist at the Houston Methodist Hospital
- Stephanie Williams is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Nkechi Mbah is an itinerant physical therapist at Nova Medical Center
- Amy Marie-Lucero Schoenfeld is a physical therapist at Endeavor Physical Therapy and Wellness
- Uchenna Ossai is an assistant professor in the Department of Women's Health at The University of Texas Dell Medical School
- Jennifer Hale is an associate professor at the Department of Physical Therapy at the University of Utah
| | - Nkechi Mbah
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin is a physical therapist and outreach coordinator at Spero Rehab, 10902 Shettleston Dr, Richmond TX 77407 ( ). Please address all correspondence to Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Brittney Duke is a physical therapist at the New Braunfels Regional Rehabilitation Hospital
- Andrea Pantoja-Aming is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Sarah Alfaro is a physical therapist at the Houston Methodist Hospital
- Stephanie Williams is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Nkechi Mbah is an itinerant physical therapist at Nova Medical Center
- Amy Marie-Lucero Schoenfeld is a physical therapist at Endeavor Physical Therapy and Wellness
- Uchenna Ossai is an assistant professor in the Department of Women's Health at The University of Texas Dell Medical School
- Jennifer Hale is an associate professor at the Department of Physical Therapy at the University of Utah
| | - Amy Marie Lucero-Schoenfeld
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin is a physical therapist and outreach coordinator at Spero Rehab, 10902 Shettleston Dr, Richmond TX 77407 ( ). Please address all correspondence to Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Brittney Duke is a physical therapist at the New Braunfels Regional Rehabilitation Hospital
- Andrea Pantoja-Aming is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Sarah Alfaro is a physical therapist at the Houston Methodist Hospital
- Stephanie Williams is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Nkechi Mbah is an itinerant physical therapist at Nova Medical Center
- Amy Marie-Lucero Schoenfeld is a physical therapist at Endeavor Physical Therapy and Wellness
- Uchenna Ossai is an assistant professor in the Department of Women's Health at The University of Texas Dell Medical School
- Jennifer Hale is an associate professor at the Department of Physical Therapy at the University of Utah
| | - Uchenna Ossai
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin is a physical therapist and outreach coordinator at Spero Rehab, 10902 Shettleston Dr, Richmond TX 77407 ( ). Please address all correspondence to Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Brittney Duke is a physical therapist at the New Braunfels Regional Rehabilitation Hospital
- Andrea Pantoja-Aming is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Sarah Alfaro is a physical therapist at the Houston Methodist Hospital
- Stephanie Williams is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Nkechi Mbah is an itinerant physical therapist at Nova Medical Center
- Amy Marie-Lucero Schoenfeld is a physical therapist at Endeavor Physical Therapy and Wellness
- Uchenna Ossai is an assistant professor in the Department of Women's Health at The University of Texas Dell Medical School
- Jennifer Hale is an associate professor at the Department of Physical Therapy at the University of Utah
| | - Jennifer Hale
- Mercia Bakouetila-Martin is a physical therapist and outreach coordinator at Spero Rehab, 10902 Shettleston Dr, Richmond TX 77407 ( ). Please address all correspondence to Mercia Bakouetila-Martin
- Brittney Duke is a physical therapist at the New Braunfels Regional Rehabilitation Hospital
- Andrea Pantoja-Aming is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Sarah Alfaro is a physical therapist at the Houston Methodist Hospital
- Stephanie Williams is a physical therapist and clinical director at Spero Rehab
- Nkechi Mbah is an itinerant physical therapist at Nova Medical Center
- Amy Marie-Lucero Schoenfeld is a physical therapist at Endeavor Physical Therapy and Wellness
- Uchenna Ossai is an assistant professor in the Department of Women's Health at The University of Texas Dell Medical School
- Jennifer Hale is an associate professor at the Department of Physical Therapy at the University of Utah
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5
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Zajac LK, Benton-Lee J. Microaggressions: Experiences of Diverse Graduate Nursing Students in Online Education. J Transcult Nurs 2023; 34:301-309. [PMID: 37129281 DOI: 10.1177/10436596231166043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Racial microaggressions are offensive and intimidating actions toward people of color and occur everywhere, including academia. Select studies report 40% to 98% of students of color report experiences with microaggressions on campuses. The purpose of this study was to describe the experience of microaggressions for diverse graduate nursing students in the online educational environment and to identify faculty strategies to create an inclusive learning milieu. METHOD This descriptive qualitative study employed 12 diverse graduate nursing students who participated in individual interviews about racial microaggressions. Two researchers used thematic analysis to evaluate the qualitative data. RESULTS Five relevant themes were (a) online classroom is a barrier for microaggressions, (b) requirement of profile pictures is a risk factor for microaggressions, (c) experiences of past microaggressions carries over to the present, (d) diverse online students are resourceful, and (e) the reality of microaggressions online. DISCUSSION Participants' suggestions, literature evidence, and research findings informed decision/action modes to assist the nurse educator with culturally competent methods to improve online learning spaces and decrease microaggressions for diverse students.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynne K Zajac
- Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY USA
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6
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Qi C, Wang Y, Lai J, Jiao Y. Hidden hurt: A qualitative study of the microaggressions experienced by disabled children in education in China. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 2023; 141:106200. [PMID: 37088010 DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microaggressions are brief, commonplace indignities expressed through verbal or behavioral means. In China, microaggressions have proliferated with the wide implementation of education protection policies for disabled children (including learning in regular classes (LRC), special school education (SSE), and home-delivery education (HDE)), resulting in severe consequences. However, related issues have not been discussed yet. OBJECTIVE This study explores concrete forms of microaggressions that disabled children have experienced under three educational policies. METHODS We took a qualitative phenomenological approach and used semi-structured interviews to collect data. 22 disabled children, their guardians, and eight educators from three compulsory education schools in Jinan, China, were included in this study. RESULTS Microaggressions are categorized into three types: microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations. In LRC, typical microaggressions include the microassaults of refusal, extra requirements, avoiding needs, and accusations; the microinsults of labeling, differential patronization, and over-protection; and the microinvalidation of suspicion. In SSE, typical microaggressions include the microassaults of refusal, belittling, hiding, and ignoring; the microinsults of assumptions of low intelligence, ignoring, and distancing; and the microinvalidation of suspicion. In HDE, typical microaggressions include the microassaults of denial of privacy and denial of expression; and the microinsults of infantilization and blame. CONCLUSIONS The microaggressions that disabled children experience under educational policies produce serious disciplinary effects. To eliminate microaggressions, it is necessary to publicize the new disability rights paradigm, engage disabled children and their families in participation in the political process, develop demand-oriented assessment criteria, and standardize educators' discretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caiyun Qi
- Department of Social Work, Shandong University, Shanda Nanlu 27, Jinan, China.
| | - Yuan Wang
- Department of Labor and Social Security, Jilin University, Qianjin Street 2699, Changchun, China.
| | - Jinhui Lai
- Department of Labor and Social Security, Jilin University, Qianjin Street 2699, Changchun, China.
| | - Yunhe Jiao
- Department of Labor and Social Security, Jilin University, Qianjin Street 2699, Changchun, China.
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Gómez JM, Freyd JJ, Delva J, Tracy B, Mackenzie LN, Ray V, Weathington B. Institutional Courage in Action: Racism, Sexual Violence, & Concrete Institutional Change. J Trauma Dissociation 2023; 24:157-170. [PMID: 36744639 DOI: 10.1080/15299732.2023.2168245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Gómez
- School of Social Work and Center for Innovation in Social Work & Health (CISWH), Boston University, Boston, MA, USA.,Center Institutional Courage, 501(c)(3), Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer J Freyd
- Center Institutional Courage, 501(c)(3), Palo Alto, CA, USA.,Clayman Institute for Gender Research and Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jorge Delva
- School of Social Work and Center for Innovation in Social Work & Health (CISWH), Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Brenda Tracy
- Center Institutional Courage, 501(c)(3), Palo Alto, CA, USA.,Set The Expectation, 501(c)(3), Tualatin, OR, USA
| | - Lori Nishiura Mackenzie
- Center Institutional Courage, 501(c)(3), Palo Alto, CA, USA.,Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.,VMware Women's Leadership Innovation Lab, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Victor Ray
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Beverly Weathington
- Center Institutional Courage, 501(c)(3), Palo Alto, CA, USA.,Merrill Palmer Skillman Institute for Child & Family Development (MPSI), Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
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Kalinowski J, Wurtz H, Baird M, Willen S. Shouldering the load yet again: Black women's experiences of stress during COVID-19. SSM - MENTAL HEALTH 2022; 2:100140. [PMID: 35974954 PMCID: PMC9371978 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Black women in the United States experience considerable amounts of stress, which has been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Prior studies have linked stress to adverse mental and physical outcomes for Black women and, moreover, shown that Black women are more susceptible to maladaptive coping, which compounds these risks. Research on the Superwoman Schema and Sojourner's Syndrome, for instance, shows how Black women are compelled to portray strength and resilience while suffering internally and experiencing poor health outcomes. These phenomena can be attributed to the historical expectations of Black women to be pillars of their families and sources of strength despite adversity and persistent institutional discrimination. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Black women's greater likelihood of holding "essential worker" roles has further increased their risk of both COVID-19 exposure and heightened stress. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic has aggravated long standing structural inequities and disparities between Black women and other racial/ethnic groups. Drawing on journal entries submitted by Black women participating in the Pandemic Journaling Project (PJP), a combined online journaling platform and interdisciplinary research study, this paper illuminates the voices of Black women during the COVID-19 pandemic. Seventy-two Black women created journal entries using the PJP platform. We analyze the stories, idioms, and feelings they recorded during a global pandemic. We identify three prominent domains of stress: work and school, caregiving, and social (dis)connectedness. In addition to exploring manifestations of stress across these domains, we, discuss some of the mental health implications of COVID-19 and explore the potential for regular journaling as a possible mode of stress management among Black women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolaade Kalinowski
- Department of Human Development and Family Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Heather Wurtz
- The Pandemic Journaling Project, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Population Studies Training Center, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Madeline Baird
- Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Sarah Willen
- The Pandemic Journaling Project, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
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Cénat JM, Hajizadeh S, Dalexis RD, Ndengeyingoma A, Guerrier M, Kogan C. Prevalence and Effects of Daily and Major Experiences of Racial Discrimination and Microaggressions among Black Individuals in Canada. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2022; 37:NP16750-NP16778. [PMID: 34120505 DOI: 10.1177/08862605211023493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The prevalence and correlates of different forms of racial discrimination among Black Canadians are unknown. This article aims to examine the prevalence of different forms of racial discrimination (daily, major and microaggressions) and their association with self-esteem and satisfaction with life among Black Canadians. A convenience sample of 845 Black Canadians aged 15-40 was recruited. We assessed frequencies of everyday and major racial discrimination, and racial microaggressions against Black Canadians and their association with self-esteem and satisfaction with life, controlling for gender, age, job status, education, and matrimonial status. At least 4 out of 10 participants declared having being victims of everyday racial discrimination at least once per week. Between 46.3% and 64.2% of participants declared having been victims of major racial discrimination in various situations including education, job hiring, job dismissal, health services, housing, bank and loans, and police encounters. Significant gender differences were observed for everyday and major racial discrimination with higher frequencies among female participants. A total of 50.2% to 93.8% of participants declared having been victims of at least one episode of racial microaggressions. Results showed a significant negative association between racial discrimination and satisfaction with life (b = -0.26, p = .003), and self-esteem (b = -0.23, p = .009). This study highlights the need to stop colorblind policies in different sectors in Canada, and for a public commitment to combat racism at the municipal, provincial and federal levels. Implications are discussed for prevention, research and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Saba Hajizadeh
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rose Darly Dalexis
- Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | - Cary Kogan
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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Alagaraja M, Hooper LM. Wellbeing among Black American adults living in low-resourced communities. JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 50:2058-2071. [PMID: 34862616 DOI: 10.1002/jcop.22754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Very little is known about how Black Americans living in low-resourced communities define and maintain wellbeing. Utilizing a culturally tailored research design, we explored the phenomenon of wellbeing as it resonated with the lived experiences of our informants (N = 35). Using a thematic analysis, we found that existing conceptualizations and theorizing of wellbeing did not consistently emerge from our data. First, we noted paradoxical tensions between descriptions of wellbeing as indicated by the participants (e.g., being alive and having a pain-free life) and the Western, Eurocentric views evidenced in the wellbeing literature. Second, participants identified intergenerational family ties and community networks as ways that foster wellbeing. These findings suggest that we can no longer delimit and apply existing views in theorizing and measuring wellbeing. Our findings elucidated the mindsets, relationships, activities, and practices that define and foster wellbeing among Black Americans living in low-resourced communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meera Alagaraja
- Department of Educational Leadership, Evaluation and Organizational Development, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
| | - Lisa M Hooper
- Department of Educational Leadership, Evaluation and Organizational Development, University of Louisville, Louisville, Kentucky, USA
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11
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Lee LCB. Shifting Ethics of Care in Hong Kong. ARTS IN PSYCHOTHERAPY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aip.2022.101916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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12
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Dunn M, Chambersr C, Cho J, Cheng M. Future counselors’ voices: A qualitative investigation of microaggression training. JOURNAL OF MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING AND DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/jmcd.12260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jihee Cho
- Private Practice Long Island City New York USA
| | - Min Cheng
- The Community Health Center of Franklin County Greenfield Massachusetts USA
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13
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Galán CA, Auguste EE, Smith NA, Meza JI. An Intersectional-Contextual Approach to Racial Trauma Exposure Risk and Coping Among Black Youth. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE 2022; 32:583-595. [PMID: 35441500 PMCID: PMC9324932 DOI: 10.1111/jora.12757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Black youth experience racial discrimination at higher rates than other racial/ethnic groups in the United States. To identify how racism can simultaneously serve as a risk factor for adverse childhood experience (ACE) exposure, a discrete type of ACE, and a post-ACE mental health risk factor among Black youth, Bernard and colleagues (2021) proposed the culturally informed ACEs (C-ACE) model. While an important addition to the literature, the C-ACE model is framed around a single axis of race-based oppression. This paper extends the model by incorporating an intersectional and ecodevelopmental lens that elucidates how gendered racism framed by historical trauma, as well as gender-based socialization experiences, may have implications for negative mental health outcomes among Black youth. Clinical and research implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chardée A. Galán
- University of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern CaliforniaLos AngelesUnited States
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14
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Reyes AG, Lindo NA, Allen N, Rodríguez Delgado M. Centralizing the voices of queer womxn of color in counseling. JOURNAL OF COUNSELING AND DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jcad.12417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ana G. Reyes
- Department of Counseling and Higher Education University of North Texas Denton Texas USA
| | - Natalya A. Lindo
- Department of Counseling and Higher Education University of North Texas Denton Texas USA
| | - Nicole Allen
- Department of Counseling and Higher Education University of North Texas Denton Texas USA
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15
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Young GN, Gamst G, Meyers LS, Der-Karabetian A, Grills CT. Does African American Women's Racial Identity Mediate Gendered Racism on Anticipated Relationship Threat? JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2021; 36:9749-9769. [PMID: 31455145 DOI: 10.1177/0886260519872300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The present study examined the question of whether racial identity among African American women mediated the relationship between gendered racism and anticipated relationship threat. Using the Multicultural Assessment Intervention Process (MAIP) framework, we examined the relationship of gendered racism, racial identity, and anticipated relationship threat among a convenience sample of 411 African American women. A structural model was configured with gendered racism directly predicting anticipated relationship threat and racial identity serving as a mediator. Results indicated that greater levels of perceived gendered racism were associated with greater perceptions of anticipated relationship threat. Racial identity was found to not mediate the association with anticipated relationship threat. Individuals with less education experienced higher levels of concern regarding physical safety and controlling behaviors than those with more education. Implications for future relationship threat research with African American women are discussed.
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16
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Shang Z, Kim JY, Cheng SO. Discrimination experienced by Asian Canadian and Asian American health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: a qualitative study. CMAJ Open 2021; 9:E998-E1004. [PMID: 34785529 PMCID: PMC8598237 DOI: 10.9778/cmajo.20210090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Asian Canadians and Asian Americans face COVID-19-related discrimination. The objective of this qualitative study was to explore the experiences of Asian health care workers dealing with discrimination, with a focus on racial micro-agressions, in Canada and the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS We adopted a qualitative descriptive approach. We used convenience and snowball sampling strategies to recruit participants. We conducted individual, in-depth semistructured interviews with Asian health care workers in Canada and the US via videoconferencing between May and September 2020. Eligible participants had to self-identify as Asian and be currently employed as a health care worker with at least 1 year of full-time employment. We used an inductive thematic approach to analyze the data. RESULTS Thirty participants were recruited. Fifteen (50%) were Canadians and 15 (50%) were Americans; there were 18 women (60%), 11 men (37%) and 1 nonbinary person. Most of the participants were aged 25-29 years (n = 16, 53%). More than half were nurses (n = 16, 53%); the other participants were attending physicians (n = 5), physiotherapists (n = 3), resident physicians (n = 2), a midwife, a paramedic, a pharmacist and a physician assistant. Two themes emerged from the data: a surge of racial microaggressions related to COVID-19 and a lack of institutional and public acknowledgement. Participants noted that they have experienced an increase in racial microaggressions during the COVID-19 pandemic. They have also experienced threats of violence and actual violence. The largely silent organizational response to the challenges being faced by people of Asian descent and the use of disparaging terms such as "China virus" in the early stages of the pandemic were a substantial source of frustration. INTERPRETATION Asian health care workers have experienced challenges in dealing with racial microaggressions related to COVID-19 in the US and Canada. More research should be done on the experiences of Asian Americans and Asian Canadians, both during and after the pandemic, and supportive measures should be put in place to protect Asian health care workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhida Shang
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences (Shang), McGill University, Montréal, Que.; Center for the Study of Drug Development (Kim), Tufts University, Boston, Mass.; University College London Medical School (Cheng), London, UK.
| | - Jennifer Y Kim
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences (Shang), McGill University, Montréal, Que.; Center for the Study of Drug Development (Kim), Tufts University, Boston, Mass.; University College London Medical School (Cheng), London, UK
| | - Shuliang O Cheng
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences (Shang), McGill University, Montréal, Que.; Center for the Study of Drug Development (Kim), Tufts University, Boston, Mass.; University College London Medical School (Cheng), London, UK
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17
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Benbow KL, Smith BL, Tolbert KJ, Deska JC, Kunstman JW. Race, social pain minimization, and mental health. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/13684302211040864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
People often believe Black individuals experience less social pain and require less social support to cope with distress than White individuals (e.g., Deska, Kunstman, Lloyd, et al., 2020). However, researchers have not tested whether biases in third-person pain judgments translate to first-person experiences with social pain minimization. For example, do Black individuals feel their social pain is underrecognized to a greater extent than White individuals? The current work tested whether Black individuals felt their social pain was minimized more than White individuals and if the experience of social pain minimization was related to worse mental health and greater life stress. Data from two cross-sectional, correlational studies provide initial support for these predictions ( Ntotal = 1,501). Black participants felt their social pain was minimized more than White participants and this race difference in social pain minimization was associated with worse mental health and greater life stress. These results suggest that Black individuals feel their pain is underrecognized and this experience of social pain minimization is related to worse mental health outcomes.
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18
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Marks LR, Stenersen M, Adams K, Lattimore D, Lee BC. Racial Microaggressions and Depression in Black College Students: The Role of Ethnic Identity. JOURNAL OF COLLEGE STUDENT PSYCHOTHERAPY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/87568225.2021.1976607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Reid Marks
- Florida State University, Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, Combined Counseling and School Psychology Doctoral Program, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
| | - Madeline Stenersen
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
- Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, Counseling Psychology Doctoral Program, University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Kimberly Adams
- Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, Counseling Psychology Doctoral Program, University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Daniel Lattimore
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Brittany C. Lee
- Tennessee Valley VA Healthcare System, Murfreesboro, Tennessee, USA
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19
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Williams MT, Skinta MD, Martin-Willett R. After Pierce and Sue: A Revised Racial Microaggressions Taxonomy. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 16:991-1007. [PMID: 34498518 DOI: 10.1177/1745691621994247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Harvard psychiatrist Chester Pierce's conception of "subtle and stunning" daily racial offenses, or microaggressions, remains salient even 50 years after it was introduced. Microaggressions were defined further by Sue and colleagues in 2007, and this construct has found growing utility as the deleterious effects of microaggressions on the health of people of color continues to mount. Many studies seek to frame microaggressions in terms of a taxonomic analysis of offender behavior to inform the assessment of and interventions for the reduction of racial microaggressions. This article proposes an expansion and refinement of Sue et al.'s taxonomy to better inform such efforts. We conducted a review of published articles that focused on qualitative and quantitative findings of microaggressions taxonomies (N = 32). Sixteen categories of racial microaggressions were identified, largely consistent with the original taxonomy of Sue et al. but expanded in several notable ways. Building on our prior research, other researchers supported such new categories as tokenism, connecting via stereotypes, exoticization and eroticization, and avoidance and distancing. The least studied categories included the denial of individual racism from Sue et al., and newer categories included reverse-racism hostility, connecting via stereotypes, and environmental attacks. A unified language of microaggressions may improve understanding and measurement of this important construct.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Renée Martin-Willett
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder.,Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Colorado Boulder
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20
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Spanierman LB, Clark DA, Kim Y. Reviewing Racial Microaggressions Research: Documenting Targets' Experiences, Harmful Sequelae, and Resistance Strategies. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 16:1037-1059. [PMID: 34498519 DOI: 10.1177/17456916211019944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we review the theoretical and empirical literature on racial microaggressions from 2007 to 2020 (N = 138 articles). First, we refine racial microaggressions theory and update the definition to address mischaracterizations in the literature and clarify the term (i.e., "micro" refers to microlevel interactions rather than degree of harm). Next, we used four superordinate categories (i.e., pathologizing differences, denigrating and pigeonholing, excluding or rendering invisible, and perpetuating color-blind racial attitudes) in which to situate racial microaggression themes from the extant literature. Moreover, we consolidated and renamed existing themes to privilege targets' perspectives (e.g., facing assumptions of inferior status and enduring exoticization). We then synthesized qualitative and quantitative research that shows harmful sequelae of racial microaggressions (i.e., psychological and physiological symptoms). Extending prior research on coping with gendered racial microaggressions, we describe empirical findings on collective, resistance, and self-protective strategies to mitigate the harmful impact of racial microaggressions. We conclude with directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - D Anthony Clark
- Interdisciplinary Humanities and Communication, Arizona State University
| | - Yeeun Kim
- Counseling and Counseling Psychology, Arizona State University
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21
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Overstreet AK, Pomerantz AM, Segrist DJ, Ro E. Should psychotherapists apologise after microaggressions? An empirical analogue study of perceptions of therapists. COUNSELLING & PSYCHOTHERAPY RESEARCH 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/capr.12315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Abigail K. Overstreet
- Department of Psychology Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Edwardsville Illinois
| | - Andrew M. Pomerantz
- Department of Psychology Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Edwardsville Illinois
| | - Daniel J. Segrist
- Department of Psychology Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Edwardsville Illinois
| | - Eunyoe Ro
- Department of Psychology Southern Illinois University Edwardsville Edwardsville Illinois
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22
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Dimberg SK, Clark DA, Spanierman LB, VanDaalen RA. "School Shouldn't Be Something You Have to Survive": Queer Women's Experiences with Microaggressions at a Canadian University. JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY 2021; 68:709-732. [PMID: 31509095 DOI: 10.1080/00918369.2019.1661729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The authors used an interpretative phenomenological analysis of focus-group data provided by eight research participants to investigate microaggressions that target queer women at an urban Canadian university. Four themes emerged from the data that support and extend prior sexual orientation microaggressions typologies research: (a) facing skepticism as response to sexual orientation, (b) living with surveillance as response to gender presentation, (c) encountering heteronormative assumptions, and (d) experiencing vulnerability. The authors discuss these findings in the context of previous research, outline future research directions, and provide implications for campus life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sierra K Dimberg
- Faculty of Counseling & Counseling Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - D Anthony Clark
- Faculty of Interdisciplinary Humanities and Communication, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Lisa B Spanierman
- Faculty of Counseling & Counseling Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Rachel A VanDaalen
- Faculty of Counseling & Counseling Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
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23
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Iheduru-Anderson K, Shingles RR, Akanegbu C. Discourse of race and racism in nursing: An integrative review of literature. Public Health Nurs 2020; 38:115-130. [PMID: 33155328 DOI: 10.1111/phn.12828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Race is a barrier and source of inequality affecting ethnic minorities in nursing practice and education. PURPOSE This integrative review study aimed to determine whether racism and institutionalized racism are explicitly named in the titles and abstracts of peer-reviewed publications on nursing education, leadership, and the nursing profession, and to explore the depth of discussion of racialized concepts in peer-reviewed nursing literature. METHOD Whittemore and Knafl's integrative review approach was used to review 23 studies published in nursing journals published from 2008 to 2020. FINDINGS Four themes were extracted: the context of racism discussions in the literature; consequences of experiences of racism; emotional and physical effects of racism on nurses and students of color; and scholars' recommendations. DISCUSSION Nursing must start to openly acknowledge the issue of racism within the profession, and to address it by providing safe spaces for authentic dialogue in academic and practice settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kechi Iheduru-Anderson
- School of Rehabilitation and Medical Sciences, The Herbert H. and Grace A. Dow College of Health Professions, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
| | - René Revis Shingles
- Representative Chair School of Rehabilitation and Medical Sciences, College of Health professions Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
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24
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Cheng P, Cuellar R, Johnson DA, Kalmbach DA, Joseph CL, Cuamatzi Castelan A, Sagong C, Casement MD, Drake CL. Racial discrimination as a mediator of racial disparities in insomnia disorder. Sleep Health 2020; 6:543-549. [PMID: 32928711 PMCID: PMC7485499 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleh.2020.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES Racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to suffer from insomnia that is more severe; however, few studies have examined mechanisms by which racial disparities in severity of insomnia disorder may arise. One potential mechanism for disparities in insomnia severity is perceived discrimination. This study tested discrimination as a mediator in the relationship between race and insomnia. METHODS Participants were recruited from communities in the Detroit metropolitan area and were diagnosed with insomnia disorder using the DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition). The final sample included 1,458 individuals. Insomnia symptom severity was assessed via the Insomnia Severity Index and self-reported racial discrimination was evaluated using a single item. Racial discrimination was tested as a mediator in the relationship between race and insomnia symptom severity. Individuals were categroized as either White or a racial minority (i.e., non White individuals), with sensitivity analyses examining Black individuals and non-Black racial minority groups. RESULTS Consistent with our hypothesis, racial discrimination was a significant mediator accounting for 57.3% of the relationship between race and insomnia symptom severity. Sensitivity analyses indicated that the indirect effect of racial discrimination was stronger in the non-Black racial minority group compared to Black individuals. CONCLUSIONS These results provide support that racial discrimination is likely an important mechanism by which racial and ethnic sleep disparities exist. Implications for prevention, intervention, and treatment of insomnia in racial minorities to reduce health disparities are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Cheng
- Thomas Roth Sleep Disorders and Research Center, Henry Ford Health System, Novi, MI USA.
| | - Ruby Cuellar
- Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA
| | - Dayna A Johnson
- Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - David A Kalmbach
- Thomas Roth Sleep Disorders and Research Center, Henry Ford Health System, Novi, MI USA
| | - Christine Lm Joseph
- Thomas Roth Sleep Disorders and Research Center, Henry Ford Health System, Novi, MI USA
| | | | - Chaewon Sagong
- Thomas Roth Sleep Disorders and Research Center, Henry Ford Health System, Novi, MI USA
| | | | - Christopher L Drake
- Thomas Roth Sleep Disorders and Research Center, Henry Ford Health System, Novi, MI USA
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25
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Deska JC, Kunstman JW, Bernstein MJ, Ogungbadero T, Hugenberg K. Black racial phenotypicality shapes social pain and support judgments. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2020.103998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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26
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Nam S, Dunton GF, Ordway MR, Ash GI, Jeon S, Vlahov D, Whittemore R, Nelson LE, Sinha R, Nunez-Smith M, Granger DA. Feasibility and acceptability of intensive, real-time biobehavioral data collection using ecological momentary assessment, salivary biomarkers, and accelerometers among middle-aged African Americans. Res Nurs Health 2020; 43:453-464. [PMID: 32856310 DOI: 10.1002/nur.22068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Perceived racial discrimination is linked to unhealthy behaviors and stress-related morbidities. A compelling body of research indicates that perceived racial discrimination may contribute to health disparities among African Americans (AAs). The purposes of this study were to describe the study protocol including data collection procedures and study measures and to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of intensive biobehavioral data collection using ecological momentary assessment (EMA), salivary biomarkers, and accelerometers over 7 days among middle-aged AAs with a goal of understanding the relationships between perceived racial discrimination and biobehavioral responses to stress. Twelve AA men and women participated in the feasibility/acceptability study. They completed surveys, anthropometrics, and received in-person training in EMA and saliva sample collection at baseline. Participants were asked to respond to the random prompt text message-based EMA five times a day, wear an accelerometer daily for 7 days, and to self-collect saliva samples four times a day for 4 consecutive days. The EMA surveys included perceived racial discrimination, affective states, lifestyle behaviors, and social and physical contexts. The mean EMA response rate was 82.8%. All participants collected saliva samples four times a day for 4 consecutive days. About 83% of participants wore the accelerometer on the hip 6 out of 7 days. Despite the perception that the intensive nature of assessments would result in high participant burden, the acceptability of the study procedures was uniformly favorable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soohyun Nam
- School of Nursing, Yale University, Orange, Connecticut
| | - Genevieve F Dunton
- Departments of Preventive Medicine and Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | | | - Garrett I Ash
- Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, Connecticut.,Center for Medical Informatics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - David Vlahov
- School of Nursing, Yale University, Orange, Connecticut
| | | | | | - Rajita Sinha
- Yale Stress Center, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | - Douglas A Granger
- School of Social Ecology, Institute for Interdisciplinary Salivary Bioscience Research, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California
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27
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Cheeks BL, Chavous TM, Sellers RM. A Daily Examination of African American Adolescents’ Racial Discrimination, Parental Racial Socialization, and Psychological Affect. Child Dev 2020; 91:2123-2140. [DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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28
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Johnson TD, Joshi A, Hogan T. On the front lines of disclosure: A conceptual framework of disclosure events. ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/2041386620919785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
An important yet understudied element of the stigma disclosure calculus is the response of individuals who are the recipients of stigmatizing information—individuals who are essentially on the front lines of disclosure. Stigma disclosure recipients (SDRs) have a profound influence on disclosers’ workplace experience, yet there is a minimal understanding of how SDRs manage their responses during disclosure encounters. This article contributes to stigma identity management and workplace diversity research by focusing on the antecedents and outcomes of SDRs’ responses in organizations. We apply a novel event systems perspective to disclosure events, which allows us to develop a generalizable framework to understand the psychological and behavioral responses of SDRs across different types of stigmas. Our framework offers a unique perspective on how disclosure events trigger stigma-induced identity threat, which underlies a range of SDRs’ hostile and supportive behaviors. Overall, we propose that these responses of SDRs have important implications for the perpetuation and dismantling of stigma in the workplace. We offer implications for research and practice.
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29
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Clark CR, Mercer SH, Zeigler-Hill V, Dufrene BA. Barriers to the Success of Ethnic Minority Students in School Psychology Graduate Programs. SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/02796015.2012.12087519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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30
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English D, Lambert SF, Tynes BM, Bowleg L, Zea MC, Howard LC. Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black U.S. American adolescents. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 66. [PMID: 33994610 DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This study examined frequencies and psychological effects of daily racial discrimination experienced individually, vicariously, online, offline, and through teasing. Participants were 101 Black U.S. American adolescents for this ecological momentary assessment study that measured daily racial discrimination and 14-day depressive symptoms slopes. Confirmatory factor analyses specified subscales, t-test analyses compared subscale means, and hierarchical linear analyses tested associations between subscales and depressive symptoms slopes. Results showed that six subscales fit the data well: individual general, vicarious general, individual online, vicarious online, individual teasing, and vicarious teasing. Participants reported 5606 experiences of racial discrimination during the study and averaged 5.21 experiences per day across the six subscales. The two online subscales were more frequent than the offline subscales. Aside from online vicarious experiences, all subscales were positively associated with depressive symptoms slopes. Findings underscore the multidimensional, quotidian, and impactful nature of racial discrimination in the lives of Black adolescents in the U.S.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devin English
- Rutgers School of Public Health, United States of America
| | | | - Brendesha M Tynes
- University of Southern California, Rossier School of Education, United States of America
| | - Lisa Bowleg
- The George Washington University, United States of America
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31
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Hicks MR, Kogan SM. Racial Discrimination, Protective Processes, and Sexual Risk Behaviors Among Black Young Males. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2019; 48:507-519. [PMID: 30671878 PMCID: PMC7931456 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-018-1341-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Racial discrimination is a documented risk factor for sexual risk behaviors among young Black men. Mechanisms of effect and protective processes remain to be investigated. This study examined the mediating effect of emotional distress, self-regulation, and substance use on the association between racial discrimination and sexual risk behaviors. Sexual risk behaviors included in this study were inconsistent condom use and sexual concurrency (sexual partnerships that overlap overtime). The protective effect of protective social ties was also investigated. A sample of 505 heterosexually active men aged 19-22 years were recruited and surveyed for 3 time points. Men answered questions on racial discrimination, sexual risk behaviors, emotional distress, self-regulation, and substance use. Mediation and moderation models were tested. Racial discrimination (T1) significantly and positively predicted emotional distress (T2). Emotional distress, substance use, and self-regulation partially mediated the association between racial discrimination and sexual risk behaviors. Protective social ties attenuated the effects of emotional distress on substance use and self-regulation. Racial discrimination is an important context for sexual risk behaviors. Minority stress may translate to sexual risk behavior through psychosocial mediators, such as emotional distress, self-regulation, and substance use. Protective social ties may buffer against emotional distress to reduce substance use and increase self-regulation. The findings of this study can provide new insights through the investigation of risk and protective processes that influence sexual risk behaviors among young Black men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan R Hicks
- School of Social Work, Wayne State University, 5447 Woodward Ave., Detroit, MI, 48202, USA.
| | - Steven M Kogan
- Human Development and Family Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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32
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Spalding B, Grove J, Rolfe A. An exploration of Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic counsellors' experiences of working with White clients. COUNSELLING & PSYCHOTHERAPY RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/capr.12194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jan Grove
- Health & Behavioural Sciences; Newman University; Birmingham UK
| | - Alison Rolfe
- Health & Behavioural Sciences; Newman University; Birmingham UK
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Affective reactivity to daily racial discrimination as a prospective predictor of depressive symptoms in African American graduate and postgraduate students. Dev Psychopathol 2018; 30:1649-1659. [DOI: 10.1017/s0954579418000950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThis study examined whether individual differences in affective reactivity, defined as changes in positive or negative affect in response to daily racial discrimination, predicted subsequent depressive symptoms. Participants were African American graduate and postgraduate students (N = 174; M age = 30 years) recruited for a measurement-burst study. Data on depressive symptoms were gathered at two assessment points 1 year apart. Affective reactivity data was obtained from participants via a 14-day diary study of daily racial discrimination and affect. Participants who experienced pronounced increases in negative affect on days when racial discrimination occurred had elevated depressive symptoms 1 year later. Heightened positive affect reactivity was also associated with more depressive symptoms at follow-up. The results suggest that affective reactivity (either greater increases in negative affect or greater decreases in positive affect in the context of racial discrimination) may be an underlying psychological mechanism that confers vulnerability to future depressive symptoms.
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Jones MK, Pritchett-Johnson B. “Invincible Black Women”: Group Therapy for Black College Women. JOURNAL FOR SPECIALISTS IN GROUP WORK 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/01933922.2018.1484536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Indigenous Canadian University Students’ Experiences of Microaggressions. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COUNSELLING 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10447-018-9345-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Jones MK, Sam TS. Cultural Connections: An Ethnocultural Counseling Intervention for Black Women in College. JOURNAL OF COLLEGE COUNSELING 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jocc.12088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martinque K. Jones
- Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teachers College; Columbia University
| | - Thomandra S Sam
- Forensic Treatment Mall, Eastern Louisiana Mental Health System-Forensic Division; Jackson Campus
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Hemmings C, Evans AM. Identifying and Treating Race-Based Trauma in Counseling. JOURNAL OF MULTICULTURAL COUNSELING AND DEVELOPMENT 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/jmcd.12090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carrie Hemmings
- Department of Counselor, Leadership, and Special Education; Auburn University Montgomery
| | - Amanda M. Evans
- Department of Special Education, Rehabilitation, and Counseling; Auburn University
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HANNON MICHAELD, VEREEN LINWOODG. Irreducibility of Black Male Clients: Considerations for Culturally Competent Counseling. THE JOURNAL OF HUMANISTIC COUNSELING 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/johc.12036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- MICHAEL D. HANNON
- Department of Counseling and Educational Leadership; Montclair State University
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Davis DE, DeBlaere C, Brubaker K, Owen J, Jordan TA, Hook JN, Van Tongeren DR. Microaggressions and Perceptions of Cultural Humility in Counseling. JOURNAL OF COUNSELING AND DEVELOPMENT 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/jcad.12107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Don E. Davis
- Department of Counseling and Psychological Services; Georgia State University
| | - Cirleen DeBlaere
- Department of Counseling and Psychological Services; Georgia State University
| | - Kacy Brubaker
- Department of Counseling and Psychological Services; Georgia State University
| | - Jesse Owen
- Department of Counseling Psychology; Denver University
| | - Terrence A. Jordan
- Department of Counseling and Psychological Services; Georgia State University
| | - Joshua N. Hook
- Department of Psychology; University of North Texas at Denton
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Peters HJ, Schwenk HN, Ahlstrom ZR, McIalwain LN. Microaggressions: The experience of individuals with mental illness. COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/09515070.2016.1164666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Heather J. Peters
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota-Morris, Morris, MN, USA
| | - Haley N. Schwenk
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota-Morris, Morris, MN, USA
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Elias T, Jaisle A, Morton-Padovano C. Ethnic Identity as a Predictor of Microaggressions Toward Blacks, Whites, and Hispanic LGBs by Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics. JOURNAL OF HOMOSEXUALITY 2016; 64:1-31. [PMID: 27046349 DOI: 10.1080/00918369.2016.1172888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Results of the study suggest racial differences still exist when it comes to attitudes toward homosexuality in the United States. Findings indicate Black individuals hold significantly less favorable attitudes toward lesbian/gay/bisexual (LGB) individuals than non-Hispanic White individuals but not Hispanics, after controlling for demographics. Hispanic individuals' attitudes toward LGBs were not significantly different from those of non-Hispanic Whites. Despite less favorable attitudes toward LGBs, however, Black Americans display a significantly lower likelihood of engaging in LGB-directed microaggressions than both non-Hispanic Whites and Hispanics. Finally, the results of the study indicate that as non-Hispanic White individuals' ethnic identity gets stronger, their likelihood of engaging in microaggressions toward LGBs increases, more so than Black or Hispanic individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Troy Elias
- a School of Journalism and Communications , University of Oregon , Eugene , Oregon , USA
| | - Alyssa Jaisle
- b Department of Advertising , University of Florida , Gainesville , Florida , USA
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Malott KM, Schaefle S. Addressing Clients' Experiences of Racism: A Model for Clinical Practice. JOURNAL OF COUNSELING AND DEVELOPMENT 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/jcad.12034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Scott Schaefle
- School of Education and Human Development; University of Colorado Denver
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Racial Microaggressions in Academic Libraries: Results of a Survey of Minority and Non-minority Librarians. JOURNAL OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANSHIP 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.acalib.2014.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Hayman LW, McIntyre RB, Abbey A. The bad taste of social ostracism: The effects of exclusion on the eating behaviors of African-American women. Psychol Health 2014; 30:518-33. [DOI: 10.1080/08870446.2014.983923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Awad GH, Norwood C, Taylor DS, Martinez M, McClain S, Jones B, Holman A, Chapman-Hilliard C. Beauty and Body Image Concerns Among African American College Women. JOURNAL OF BLACK PSYCHOLOGY 2014; 41:540-564. [PMID: 26778866 DOI: 10.1177/0095798414550864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The current study examined body image concerns among African American women. In recent years, there has been an attempt to include ethnic minority samples in body image studies (e.g., Grabe & Hyde, 2006; Hrabosky & Grilo, 2007; Lovejoy, 2001) but few specifically examine unique issues pertaining to beauty and body image for African American college age women. A total of 31 African American women participated in one of five focus groups on the campus of a large Southwestern University to examine beauty and body image. Data were analyzed using a thematic approach and several themes were identified. The majority of themes pertained to issues related to hair, skin tone, body type, and message sources. Themes included: sacrifice, ignorance/racial microaggressions, and validation and invalidation by others, thick/toned/curvy as optimal, hypersexualization, and being thin is for White women. Findings of the current study suggest a reconceptualization of body image for African American women where relevant characteristics such as hair and skin tone are given more priority over traditional body image concerns often associated with European American women.
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Anderson RE, Hussain SB, Wilson MN, Shaw DS, Dishion TJ, Williams JL. Pathways to Pain: Racial Discrimination and Relations Between Parental Functioning and Child Psychosocial Well-Being. JOURNAL OF BLACK PSYCHOLOGY 2014; 41:491-512. [PMID: 26594069 DOI: 10.1177/0095798414548511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between racial discrimination, parental functioning, and child adjustment is not well understood. The goal of the present study was to assess parental reports of discrimination in relation to depression and parenting practices, as well as on subsequent child internalizing and externalizing problems in low-income Black families. Data include a subsample of the Early Steps project, a multisite longitudinal study of financial and behaviorally at-risk families. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze our hypothesized model. Excellent model fit was established after removing externalizing problems from the model. As predicted, indirect associations were found from discrimination to parental depression, parenting, and child internalizing problems; and direct associations were found from discrimination to child internalizing problems. The results are consistent with findings suggesting that discrimination is negatively associated with adult well-being; moreover, contribute to the sparse literature on the effects of discrimination beyond the direct recipient. Finally, that parent discrimination was directly associated with child emotional problems suggests the continued need to address and treat discriminatory practices more generally.
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Torres-Harding S, Turner T. Assessing Racial Microaggression Distress in a Diverse Sample. Eval Health Prof 2014; 38:464-90. [PMID: 25237154 DOI: 10.1177/0163278714550860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Racial microaggressions are everyday subtle or ambiguous racially related insults, slights, mistreatment, or invalidations. Racial microaggressions are a type of perceived racism that may negatively impact the health and well-being of people of color in the United States. This study examined the reliability and validity of the Racial Microaggression Scale distress subscales, which measure the perceived stressfulness of six types of microaggression experiences in a racially and ethnically diverse sample. These subscales exhibited acceptable to good internal consistency. The distress subscales also evidenced good convergent validity; the distress subscales were positively correlated with additional measures of stressfulness due to experiencing microaggressions or everyday discrimination. When controlling for the frequency of one's exposure to microaggression incidents, some racial/ethnic group differences were found. Asian Americans reported comparatively lower distress and Latinos reporting comparatively higher distress in response to Foreigner, Low-Achieving, Invisibility, and Environmental microaggressions. African Americans reported higher distress than the other groups in response to Environmental microaggressions. Results suggest that the Racial Microaggressions Scale distress subscales may aid health professionals in assessing the distress elicited by different types of microaggressions. In turn, this may facilitate diagnosis and treatment planning in order to provide multiculturally competent care for African American, Latino, and Asian American clients.
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Estacio EV, Saidy-Khan S. Experiences of Racial Microaggression Among Migrant Nurses in the United Kingdom. Glob Qual Nurs Res 2014; 1:2333393614532618. [PMID: 28462288 PMCID: PMC5342848 DOI: 10.1177/2333393614532618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 04/01/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article, we explore the experiences of racial microaggression among migrant nurses in the United Kingdom. Eleven migrant nurses kept a reflective diary for 6 weeks to record and reflect on their experiences of living and working in the United Kingdom. The diary entries were then thematically analyzed. The results suggest that migrant nurses experienced racial microaggression from patients and colleagues through racial preferences and bullying. Institutional racism also hindered their opportunities for further training and promotion. As a result, some experienced feelings of anger, frustration, and even paranoia. Despite the negative consequences of racial microaggression on their emotional well-being, incidents were downplayed as trivial because of their vague and subtle nature. To encourage better multicultural interactions in the workplace, supportive organizational infrastructures need to be in place to enhance diversity awareness and to improve mechanisms for reporting and dealing with cases of racial microaggression.
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Wong G, Derthick AO, David EJR, Saw A, Okazaki S. The What, the Why, and the How: A Review of Racial Microaggressions Research in Psychology. RACE AND SOCIAL PROBLEMS 2014; 6:181-200. [PMID: 26913088 PMCID: PMC4762607 DOI: 10.1007/s12552-013-9107-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Since the publication of Sue et al. (Am Psychol 62:271-286, 2007a, b) seminal article, there has been an enormous scholarly interest in psychology on this construct of racial microaggressions-subtle everyday experiences of racism. In this paper, we provide a review of racial microaggressions research literature in psychology since 2007, following the publication of the first comprehensive taxonomy of racial microaggressions, which provided a conceptual framework and directions for research related to racial microaggressions. However, our review suggests that important conceptual and methodological issues remain to be addressed in the three domains: (1) what are racial microaggressions and who do they impact; (2) why are racial microaggressions important to examine; and (3) how are racial microaggressions currently studied and how might we improve the methodologies used to study racial microaggressions. We propose recommendations to further facilitate racial microaggressions research, improve the scientific rigor of racial microaggressions research, and contribute toward a more complete and sophisticated understanding of the concept and consequences of racial microaggressions-a construct that is undoubtedly salient and psychologically relevant among many members of racial minority groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Wong
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Oakland, CA, USA
| | - Annie O. Derthick
- Department of Psychology, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK, USA
| | - E. J. R. David
- Department of Psychology, University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage, AK, USA
| | - Anne Saw
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Oakland, CA, USA
| | - Sumie Okazaki
- Department of Applied Psychology, New York University, New York City, NY, USA
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