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Urmi UL, Vijay AK, Willcox MDP, Attard S, Enninful G, Kumar N, Islam S, Kuppusamy R. Exploring the Efficacy of Peptides and Mimics against Influenza A Virus, Adenovirus, and Murine Norovirus. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7030. [PMID: 39000138 PMCID: PMC11240954 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25137030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
The ongoing battle against viral pandemics continues, with the possibility of future outbreaks. The search for effective antiviral compounds that can combat a diverse range of viruses continues to be a focal point of research. This study investigated the efficacy of two natural antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) (lactoferricin and LL-37), two synthetic AMPs (melimine and Mel4), and nine AMP mimics (758, 1091, 1096, 1083, 610, NAPL, 3-BIPL, 4-BIPL, and Sau-22) against influenza A virus strains H1N1 and H3N2, human adenovirus 5 (HAdV-5), and murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1). These compounds were tested using virus pre-treatment, cell pre-treatment, or post-cell entry treatment assays, electron microscopy, and circular dichroism (CD), alongside evaluations of cytotoxicity against the host cells. After virus pre-treatment, the AMP mimics 610 and Sau-22 had relatively low IC50 values for influenza strains H1N1 (2.35 and 6.93 µM, respectively) and H3N2 (3.7 and 5.34 µM, respectively). Conversely, natural and synthetic AMPs were not active against these strains. For the non-enveloped viruses, the AMP Mel4 and mimic 1083 had moderate activity against HAdV-5 (Mel4 IC50 = 47.4 µM; 1083 IC50 = 47.2 µM), whereas all AMPs, but none of the mimics, were active against norovirus (LL-37 IC50 = 4.2 µM; lactoferricin IC50 = 23.18 µM; melimine IC50 = 4.8 µM; Mel4 IC50 = 8.6 µM). Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that the mimics targeted the outer envelope of influenza viruses, while the AMPs targeted the capsid of non-enveloped viruses. CD showed that Mel4 adopted an α-helical structure in a membrane mimetic environment, but mimic 758 remained unstructured. The diverse activity against different virus groups is probably influenced by charge, hydrophobicity, size, and, in the case of natural and synthetic AMPs, their secondary structure. These findings underscore the potential of peptides and mimics as promising candidates for antiviral therapeutics against both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umme Laila Urmi
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Ajay Kumar Vijay
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Mark D P Willcox
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Samuel Attard
- School of Chemistry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - George Enninful
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Naresh Kumar
- School of Chemistry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Salequl Islam
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- Department of Microbiology, Jahangirnagar University, Savar 1342, Bangladesh
| | - Rajesh Kuppusamy
- School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- School of Chemistry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- The Drug Discovery Initiative, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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Alves NS, Azevedo AS, Dias BM, Horbach IS, Setatino BP, Denani CB, Schwarcz WD, Lima SMB, Missailidis S, Ano Bom APD, Silva AMV, Barreto Vieira DF, Silva MAN, Barros CA, Carvalho CAM, Gonçalves RB. Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Vero Cells by Bovine Lactoferrin under Different Iron-Saturation States. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1352. [PMID: 37895823 PMCID: PMC10609673 DOI: 10.3390/ph16101352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the rapid mass vaccination against COVID-19, the emergence of new SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern, such as omicron, is still a great distress, and new therapeutic options are needed. Bovine lactoferrin (bLf), a multifunctional iron-binding glycoprotein available in unsaturated (apo-bLf) and saturated (holo-bLf) forms, has been shown to exert broad-spectrum antiviral activity against many viruses. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of both forms of bLf at 1 mg/mL against infection of Vero cells by SARS-CoV-2. As assessed with antiviral assays, an equivalent significant reduction in virus infection by about 70% was observed when either form of bLf was present throughout the infection procedure with the SARS-CoV-2 ancestral or omicron strain. This inhibitory effect seemed to be concentrated during the early steps of virus infection, since a significant reduction in its efficiency by about 60% was observed when apo- or holo-bLf were incubated with the cells before or during virus addition, with no significant difference between the antiviral effects of the distinct iron-saturation states of the protein. However, an ultrastructural analysis of bLf treatment during the early steps of virus infection revealed that holo-bLf was somewhat more effective than apo-bLf in inhibiting virus entry. Together, these data suggest that bLf mainly acts in the early events of SARS-CoV-2 infection and is effective against the ancestral virus as well as its omicron variant. Considering that there are no effective treatments to COVID-19 with tolerable toxicity yet, bLf shows up as a promising candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalia S. Alves
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Adriana S. Azevedo
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Brenda M. Dias
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Ingrid S. Horbach
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Bruno P. Setatino
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Caio B. Denani
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Waleska D. Schwarcz
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Sheila Maria B. Lima
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Sotiris Missailidis
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Ana Paula D. Ano Bom
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Andréa M. V. Silva
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (N.S.A.); (A.S.A.); (B.M.D.); (I.S.H.); (B.P.S.); (C.B.D.); (W.D.S.); (S.M.B.L.); (S.M.); (A.P.D.A.B.); (A.M.V.S.)
| | - Débora F. Barreto Vieira
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (D.F.B.V.); (M.A.N.S.)
| | - Marcos Alexandre N. Silva
- Laboratório de Morfologia e Morfogênese Viral, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, RJ, Brazil; (D.F.B.V.); (M.A.N.S.)
| | - Caroline A. Barros
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, RJ, Brazil;
- Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 20270-021, RJ, Brazil
| | - Carlos Alberto M. Carvalho
- Departamento de Patologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade do Estado do Pará, Belém 66095-662, PA, Brazil
| | - Rafael B. Gonçalves
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 20211-040, RJ, Brazil;
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Alhumam MN, Alhumam N, Kandeel M. The Antimicrobial Bifunctional Camel Lactoferrin: In Silico and Molecular Dynamic Perspective. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 2023:2322286. [PMID: 37260852 PMCID: PMC10229236 DOI: 10.1155/2023/2322286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Lactoferrin (LF) is a major natural antimicrobial agent secreted in body fluids as a natural innate immunity protein. The action and structure of LF are closely related to its iron-binding capacity with structural reporting in open and closed conformations. This study looked at how lactoferrin structures change in camel (cLF), bovine (bLF), and human (hLF) lactoferrin closed forms after iron is removed from their binding sites. Initially, the sequence comparison between cLF and the LFs of marine mammals, bats, and domestic animals was the most intriguing conclusion. Camel LF is revealed to be more closely related to marine animals (~80.36% identity) and bats (~79.3% identity) than to terrestrial mammal species (~75.5% identity). Results indicated that cLF was more dynamic in nature than bLF and hLF by showing higher RMSD values. The cLF is known to be half lactoferrin half transferrin; in this study, we show that there are different MD behavior of both iron-binding sites. While LF contains two lobes (C- and N-lobes), the C-lobe showed high fluctuations as N-lobe was more stable in the absence of ferric ions. The C-lobe and N-lobe of cLF react differently at physiological pH, revealing distinct molecular interactions between these components. In addition, cLF showed higher system flexibility derived from its larger RMSD, RMSF, lower intermolecular hydrogen bonds, and higher solvent accessible surface area (SASA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Maathir N. Alhumam
- College of Medicine, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
| | - Naser Alhumam
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mahmoud Kandeel
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
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Kaczyńska K, Jampolska M, Wojciechowski P, Sulejczak D, Andrzejewski K, Zając D. Potential of Lactoferrin in the Treatment of Lung Diseases. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:192. [PMID: 37259341 PMCID: PMC9960651 DOI: 10.3390/ph16020192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional iron-binding glycoprotein that exhibits a variety of properties, such as immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer, that can be used to treat numerous diseases. Lung diseases continue to be the leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Many of the therapies currently used to treat these diseases have limited efficacy or are associated with side effects. Therefore, there is a constant pursuit for new drugs and therapies, and LF is frequently considered a therapeutic agent and/or adjunct to drug-based therapies for the treatment of lung diseases. This article focuses on a review of the existing and most up-to-date literature on the contribution of the beneficial effects of LF on the treatment of lung diseases, including asthma, viral infections, cystic fibrosis, or lung cancer, among others. Although in vitro and in vivo studies indicate significant potency of LF in the treatment of the listed diseases, only in the case of respiratory tract infections do human studies seem to confirm them by demonstrating the effectiveness of LF in reducing episodes of illness and shortening the recovery period. For lung cancer, COVID-19 and sepsis, the reports are conflicting, and for other diseases, there is a paucity of human studies conclusively confirming the beneficial effects of LF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Kaczyńska
- Department of Respiration Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Monika Jampolska
- Department of Respiration Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Wojciechowski
- Department of Respiration Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Dorota Sulejczak
- Department of Experimental Pharmacology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Kryspin Andrzejewski
- Department of Respiration Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Dominika Zając
- Department of Respiration Physiology, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5 St., 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
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Bovine lactoferrin for the prevention of COVID-19 infection in health care personnel: a double-blinded randomized clinical trial (LF-COVID). Biometals 2022; 36:463-472. [PMID: 36474100 PMCID: PMC9735051 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-022-00477-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Lactoferrin (LF) has in vitro antiviral activity against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This study aimed to determine the effect of bovine lactoferrin (bLF) in the prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection in health care personnel. A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted in two tertiary hospitals that provide care to patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection in Lima, Peru. Daily supplementation with 600 mg of enteral bLF versus placebo for 90 days was compared. Participants were weekly screened for symptoms suggestive of SARS-CoV-2 infection and molecular testing was performed on suspected episodes. A serological test was obtained from all participants at the end of the intervention. The main outcome included symptomatic and asymptomatic cases. A sub-analysis explored the time to symptomatic infection. Secondary outcomes were the severity, frequency, and duration of symptomatic infection. The study was prematurely cancelled due to the availability of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 in Peru. 209 participants were enrolled and randomized, 104 received bLF and 105 placebo. SARS-CoV-2 infection occurred in 11 (10.6%) participants assigned to bLF and in 9 (8.6%) participants assigned to placebo without significant differences (Incidence Rate Ratio = 1.23, 95%CI 0.51-3.06, p-value = 0.64). There was no significant effect of bLF on time to symptomatic infection (Hazard Ratio = 1.61, 95%CI 0.62-4.19, p-value = 0.3). There were no significant differences in secondary outcomes. A significant effect of bLF in preventing SARS-CoV-2 infection was not proven. Further studies are needed to assess the effect of bLF supplementation on SARS-CoV-2 infection.Clinical trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04526821, https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04526821?term=LACTOFERRIN&cond=COVID-19&cntry=PE&city=Lima&draw=2&rank=1 .
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Bovine Lactoferrin Induces Cell Death in Human Prostate Cancer Cells. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:2187696. [PMID: 36092155 PMCID: PMC9463017 DOI: 10.1155/2022/2187696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Bovine lactoferrin (bLf) is a multifunctional protein widely associated with anticancer activity. Prostate cancer is the second most frequent type of cancer worldwide. This study was aimed at evaluating the influence of bLf on cell viability, cell cycle progression, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and rate of apoptosis in the human prostate cancer cell line (DU-145). MTT assay and trypan blue exclusion were used to analyze cell viability. Morphological changes were analyzed through optical microscopy after 24 h and 48 h of bLf treatment. FITC-bLf internalization and cellular damage were observed within 24 h by confocal fluorescence microscopy. Cell cycle analyses were performed by flow cytometry and propidium iodide. For caspases 3/7 activation and reactive oxygen species production evaluation, cells were live-imaged using the high-throughput system Operetta. The cell viability assays demonstrated that bLf induces cell death and morphological changes after 24 h and 48 h of treatment compared to control on DU-145 cells. The bLf internalization was detected in DU-145 cells, G1-phase arrest of the cell cycle, caspase 3/7 activation, and increased oxidative stress on bLf-treated cells. Our data support that bLf has an important anticancer activity, thus offering new perspectives in preventing and treating prostate cancer.
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Freitas ED, Bataglioli RA, Oshodi J, Beppu MM. Antimicrobial peptides and their potential application in antiviral coating agents. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2022; 217:112693. [PMID: 35853393 PMCID: PMC9262651 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Coronavirus pandemic has evidenced the importance of creating bioactive materials to mitigate viral infections, especially in healthcare settings and public places. Advances in antiviral coatings have led to materials with impressive antiviral performance; however, their application may face health and environmental challenges. Bio-inspired antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are suitable building blocks for antimicrobial coatings due to their versatile design, scalability, and environmentally friendly features. This review presents the advances and opportunities on the AMPs to create virucidal coatings. The review first describes the fundamental characteristics of peptide structure and synthesis, highlighting the recent findings on AMPs and the role of peptide structure (α-helix, β-sheet, random, and cyclic peptides) on the virucidal mechanism. The following section presents the advances in AMPs coating on medical devices with a detailed description of the materials coated and the targeted pathogens. The use of peptides in vaccine formulations is also reported, emphasizing the molecular interaction of peptides with different viruses and the current clinical stage of each formulation. The role of several materials (metallic particles, inorganic materials, and synthetic polymers) in the design of antiviral coatings is also presented, discussing the advantages and the drawbacks of each material. The final section offers future directions and opportunities for using AMPs on antiviral coatings to prevent viral outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuelle D Freitas
- School of Chemical Engineering, Department of Materials and Bioprocess Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-852, Brazil
| | - Rogério A Bataglioli
- School of Chemical Engineering, Department of Materials and Bioprocess Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-852, Brazil
| | - Josephine Oshodi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Marisa M Beppu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Department of Materials and Bioprocess Engineering, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-852, Brazil.
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Lee BC, Tsai JC, Hung CW, Lin CY, Sheu JC, Tsai HJ. High antimicrobial activity of lactoferricin-expressing Bacillus subtilis strains. Microb Biotechnol 2022; 15:1895-1909. [PMID: 35238157 PMCID: PMC9151346 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.14026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2021] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The lactoferricin expressed in Bacillus subtilis is relatively low in yield, making it hard to apply in industrial settings. We constructed a six tandem repeat of lactoferricin cDNA driven by promoter PtrnQ. After transformation, two transformants P245 and P263 possessing a stable inheritance of plasmid and high expression of lactoferricin were selected. The bactericidal activities, 1 μl of aliquot of a total 5.5 ml of solution extracted from 5 ml of cultured P245 and P263, were equivalent to the efficacy of 238.25 and 322.7 ng of Ampicillin against Escherichia coli, respectively, and 366.4 and 452.52 ng of Ampicillin against Staphylococcus epidermidis respectively. These extracts were able to kill an Ampicillin‐resistant E. coli strain. The bactericidal activities of P245 and P263 equivalent to the efficacy of Tetracycline against Vibrio parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus were also determined. Moreover, the bactericidal activities of P245 and P263 were 168.04 and 249.94 ng of Ampicillin against Edwardsiella tarda, respectively, and 219.7 and 252.43 ng of Tetracycline against Streptococcus iniae respectively. Interestingly, the survival rate of E. tarda‐infected tilapia fry fed the P263 extract displayed a significantly greater than that of the fry‐fed control strain. Collectively, these B. subtilis transgenic strains are highly promising for use in animal husbandry during a disease outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing-Chang Lee
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan.,Liver Disease Prevention and Treatment Research Foundation, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jui-Che Tsai
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Wei Hung
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Yung Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Jin-Chuan Sheu
- Liver Disease Prevention and Treatment Research Foundation, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Huai-Jen Tsai
- School of Medicine, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City, Taiwan.,Department of Life Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, New Taipei City, Taiwan
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Hu Y, Meng X, Zhang F, Xiang Y, Wang J. The in vitro antiviral activity of lactoferrin against common human coronaviruses and SARS-CoV-2 is mediated by targeting the heparan sulfate co-receptor. Emerg Microbes Infect 2021; 10:317-330. [PMID: 33560940 PMCID: PMC7919907 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2021.1888660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an ongoing pandemic that lacks effective therapeutic interventions. SARS-CoV-2 infects ACE2-expressing cells and gains cell entry through either direct plasma membrane fusion or endocytosis. Recent studies have shown that in addition to ACE2, heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) also play an important role in SARS-CoV-2 cell attachment by serving as an attachment factor. Binding of viral spike protein to HSPGs leads to the enrichment of local concentration for the subsequent specific binding with ACE2. We therefore hypothesize that blocking the interactions between viral spike protein and the HSPGs will lead to inhibition of viral replication. In this study, we report our findings of the broad-spectrum antiviral activity and the mechanism of action of lactoferrin (LF) against multiple common human coronaviruses as well as SARS-CoV-2. Our study has shown that LF has broad-spectrum antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63, and HCoV-229E in cell culture, and bovine lactoferrin (BLF) is more potent than human lactoferrin. Mechanistic studies revealed that BLF binds to HSPGs, thereby blocking viral attachment to the host cell. The antiviral activity of BLF can be antagonized by the HSPG mimetic heparin. Combination therapy experiment showed that the antiviral activity of LF is synergistic with remdesivir in cell culture. Molecular modelling suggests that the N-terminal positively charged region in BLF (residues 17-41) confers the binding to HSPGs. Overall, LF appears to be a promising drug candidate for COVID-19 that warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanmei Hu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Xiangzhi Meng
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Fushun Zhang
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Yan Xiang
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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10
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Gruden Š, Poklar Ulrih N. Diverse Mechanisms of Antimicrobial Activities of Lactoferrins, Lactoferricins, and Other Lactoferrin-Derived Peptides. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222011264. [PMID: 34681923 PMCID: PMC8541349 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222011264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Lactoferrins are an iron-binding glycoprotein that have important protective roles in the mammalian body through their numerous functions, which include antimicrobial, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant activities. Among these, their antimicrobial activity has been the most studied, although the mechanism behind antimicrobial activities remains to be elucidated. Thirty years ago, the first lactoferrin-derived peptide was isolated and showed higher antimicrobial activity than the native lactoferrin lactoferricin. Since then, numerous studies have investigated the antimicrobial potencies of lactoferrins, lactoferricins, and other lactoferrin-derived peptides to better understand their antimicrobial activities at the molecular level. This review defines the current antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, and antiparasitic activities of lactoferrins, lactoferricins, and lactoferrin-derived peptides. The primary focus is on their different mechanisms of activity against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. The role of their structure, amino-acid composition, conformation, charge, hydrophobicity, and other factors that affect their mechanisms of antimicrobial activity are also reviewed.
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11
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Zimecki M, Actor JK, Kruzel ML. The potential for Lactoferrin to reduce SARS-CoV-2 induced cytokine storm. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 95:107571. [PMID: 33765614 PMCID: PMC7953442 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic is a serious global health threat caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome of coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Symptoms of COVID-19 are highly variable with common hyperactivity of immune responses known as a "cytokine storm". In fact, this massive release of inflammatory cytokines into in the pulmonary alveolar structure is a main cause of mortality during COVID-19 infection. Current management of COVID-19 is supportive and there is no common clinical protocol applied to suppress this pathological state. Lactoferrin (LF), an iron binding protein, is a first line defense protein that is present in neutrophils and excretory fluids of all mammals, and is well recognized for its role in maturation and regulation of immune system function. Also, due to its ability to sequester free iron, LF is known to protect against insult-induced oxidative stress and subsequent "cytokine storm" that results in dramatic necrosis within the affected tissue. Review of the literature strongly suggests utility of LF to silence the "cytokine storm", giving credence to both prophylactic and therapeutic approaches towards combating COVID-19 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Zimecki
- The Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jeffrey K Actor
- University of Texas, Health Science Center Houston, Texas, USA.
| | - Marian L Kruzel
- University of Texas, Health Science Center Houston, Texas, USA
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12
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Denani CB, Real-Hohn A, de Carvalho CAM, Gomes AMDO, Gonçalves RB. Lactoferrin affects rhinovirus B-14 entry into H1-HeLa cells. Arch Virol 2021; 166:1203-1211. [PMID: 33606112 PMCID: PMC7894240 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-021-04993-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Lactoferrin is part of the innate immune system, with antiviral activity against numerous DNA and RNA viruses. Rhinoviruses, the leading cause of the common cold, are associated with exacerbation of respiratory illnesses such as asthma. Here, we explored the effect of bovine lactoferrin (BLf) on RV-B14 infectivity. Using different assays, we show that the effect of BLf is strongest during adhesion of the virus to the cell and entry. Tracking the internalisation of BLf and virus revealed a degree of colocalisation, although their interaction was only confirmed in vitro using empty viral particles, indicating a possible additional influence of BLf on other infection steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caio Bidueira Denani
- Instituto de Tecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Antonio Real-Hohn
- Center for Medical Biochemistry, Max Perutz Laboratories, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna Biocenter, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Carlos Alberto Marques de Carvalho
- Departamento de Patologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade do Estado do Pará, Belém, PA, Brazil.,Centro Universitário Metropolitano da Amazônia, Instituto Euro-Americano de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia, Belém, PA, Brazil
| | - Andre Marco de Oliveira Gomes
- Programa de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.,Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rafael Braga Gonçalves
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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13
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Walker LR, Marty MT. Revealing the Specificity of a Range of Antimicrobial Peptides in Lipid Nanodiscs by Native Mass Spectrometry. Biochemistry 2020; 59:2135-2142. [PMID: 32452672 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.0c00335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) interact directly with lipid membranes of pathogens and may have the potential to combat antibiotic resistance. Although many AMPs are thought to form toxic oligomeric pores, their interactions within lipid membranes are not well understood. Here, we used native mass spectrometry to measure the incorporation of a range of different AMPs in lipoprotein nanodiscs. We found that the truncation of human LL37 increases the lipid specificity but decreases the specificity of complex formation. We also saw that the reduction of disulfide bonds can have a dramatic effect on the ability of AMPs to interact with lipid bilayers. Finally, by examining a wider range of peptides we discovered that AMPs tend to interact specifically with anionic lipids but form nonspecific complexes with wide oligomeric state distributions. Overall, these data reveal that each AMP has unique behaviors but some common trends apply to many AMPs.
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14
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Ahmed A, Siman-Tov G, Hall G, Bhalla N, Narayanan A. Human Antimicrobial Peptides as Therapeutics for Viral Infections. Viruses 2019; 11:v11080704. [PMID: 31374901 PMCID: PMC6722670 DOI: 10.3390/v11080704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful in vivo infection following pathogen entry requires the evasion and subversion of multiple immunological barriers. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are one of the first immune pathways upregulated during infection by multiple pathogens, in multiple organs in vivo. In humans, there are many classes of AMPs exhibiting broad antimicrobial activities, with defensins and the human cathelicidin LL-37 being the best studied examples. Whereas historically the efficacy and therapeutic potential of AMPs against bacterial infection has been the primary focus of research, recent studies have begun to elucidate the antiviral properties of AMPs as well as their role in regulation of inflammation and chemoattraction. AMPs as therapeutic tools seem especially promising against emerging infectious viral pathogens for which no approved vaccines or treatments are currently available, such as dengue virus (DENV) and Zika virus (ZIKV). In this review, we summarize recent studies elucidating the efficacy and diverse mechanisms of action of various classes of AMPs against multiple viral pathogens, as well as the potential use of human AMPs in novel antiviral therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aslaa Ahmed
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Disease, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA
| | - Gavriella Siman-Tov
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Disease, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA
| | - Grant Hall
- United States Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996, USA
| | - Nishank Bhalla
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Disease, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA
| | - Aarthi Narayanan
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Disease, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA.
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15
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Redwan EM, Uversky VN, El-Fakharany EM, Al-Mehdar H. Potential lactoferrin activity against pathogenic viruses. C R Biol 2014; 337:581-95. [PMID: 25282173 DOI: 10.1016/j.crvi.2014.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Revised: 08/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Lactoferrin (LF) is an 80-kDa globular glycoprotein with high affinity for metal ions, particularly for iron. This protein possesses many biological functions, including the binding and release of iron and serves as one of the important components of the innate immune system, where it acts as a potent inhibitor of several pathogens. LF has efficacious antibacterial and antiviral activities against a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and against both naked and enveloped DNA and RNA viruses. In its antiviral pursuit, LF acts predominantly at the acute phase of the viral infection or even at the intracellular stage, as in hepatitis C virus infection. LF inhibits the entry of viral particles into host cells, either by direct attachment to the viral particles or by blocking their cellular receptors. This wide range of activities may be attributed to the capacity of LF to bind iron and its ability to interfere with the cellular receptors of both hosts and pathogenic microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elrashdy M Redwan
- Biology Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; Therapeutic and Protective Proteins Laboratory, Protein Research Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute, City for Scientific Research and Technological Applications, New Borg EL-Arab 21394, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Vladimir N Uversky
- Biology Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; Department of Molecular Medicine and USF Health Byrd Alzheimer's Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA; Institute for Biological Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russia.
| | - Esmail M El-Fakharany
- Therapeutic and Protective Proteins Laboratory, Protein Research Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute, City for Scientific Research and Technological Applications, New Borg EL-Arab 21394, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Hussein Al-Mehdar
- Biology Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
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16
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Wakabayashi H, Oda H, Yamauchi K, Abe F. Lactoferrin for prevention of common viral infections. J Infect Chemother 2014; 20:666-71. [PMID: 25182867 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2014.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Revised: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Although lactoferrin has many biological functions, the host-protective effects against pathogenic microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and viruses are regarded as one of the most important. Here, we review research on the protective role of lactoferrin administration against common viral infections. Many studies have shown the in vitro antiviral activity of lactoferrin against viral pathogens that cause common infections such as the common cold, influenza, gastroenteritis, summer cold, and herpes, where lactoferrin inhibits mainly viral attachment to the target cells. Recently, studies indicating the in vivo protective effects of lactoferrin by oral administration against common viral infections have been increasing. For instance, norovirus is an extremely important emerging human pathogen that causes a majority of gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide that may be a target candidate for lactoferrin. Lactoferrin consumption reduced the incidence of noroviral gastroenteritis in children and a similar effect was observed in a wide range of ages in a preliminary survey. A recent in vitro study reported that lactoferrin inhibits both cellular attachment of the murine norovirus, a virus closely-related to the human norovirus, and viral replication in the cells by inducing antiviral cytokines interferon (IFN)-α/β. Lactoferrin administration also enhances NK cell activity and Th1 cytokine responses, which lead to protection against viral infections. In conclusion, lactoferrin consumption may protect the host from viral infections through inhibiting the attachment of a virus to the cells, replication of the virus in the cells, and enhancement of systemic immune functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hirotsugu Oda
- Food Science & Technology Institute, Morinaga Milk Industry Co., Ltd., Japan
| | - Koji Yamauchi
- Food Science & Technology Institute, Morinaga Milk Industry Co., Ltd., Japan
| | - Fumiaki Abe
- Food Science & Technology Institute, Morinaga Milk Industry Co., Ltd., Japan
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17
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Lingappan K, Arunachalam A, Pammi M. Lactoferrin and the newborn: current perspectives. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 11:695-707. [PMID: 23879609 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.2013.811927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Neonatal sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) are associated with significant mortality and morbidity. Inflammation secondary to sepsis and NEC increases morbidity, especially those related to the lung, brain and eye. Therapeutic strategies that target inflammation and decrease the emergence of antibiotic resistance are urgently needed. Lactoferrin (Lf) is a multifunctional protein that modulates inflammation, cell growth and differentiation and has broad antimicrobial activity. Studies evaluating the efficacy and safety of Lf in the prevention of neonatal sepsis and NEC are currently in progress, and one completed study shows significant promise. In this article, the functions of this multifunctional molecule and current clinical evidence for its use in the newborn are reviewed. Lf prophylaxis and therapy may have a significant impact in improving clinical outcomes of vulnerable preterm neonates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krithika Lingappan
- Section of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Texas Children's Hospital & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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18
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19
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Pietrantoni A, Ammendolia MG, Superti F. Bovine lactoferrin: involvement of metal saturation and carbohydrates in the inhibition of influenza virus infection. Biochem Cell Biol 2012; 90:442-8. [PMID: 22332831 DOI: 10.1139/o11-072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza is a highly contagious, acute respiratory illness, which represents one of the main plagues worldwide. Even though some antiviral drugs are available, the alarming increase of virus strains resistant to them highlights the need to find new antiviral compounds. As we have recently demonstrated that bovine lactoferrin (bLf) prevents influenza virus-induced apoptosis, in the present wor,k we have attempted to investigate in depth the mechanism of the anti-influenza virus effect of this protein. To this aim, experiments have been carried out whereby different forms of bLf were added to the cells during different phases of viral infection. Results obtained showed that bLf was able to prevent influenza virus cytopathic effects when incubated with the cells after the adsorption step, independently from ion saturation or carbohydrate content. Moreover, the influence of iron saturations or sialic acid/carbohydrates removal on bLf activity on the early phases of infection has been observed. Our results provide further insights on the antiviral activity of bLf and suggest novel strategies for treatment of influenza virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agostina Pietrantoni
- Ultrastructural Infectious Pathology Section, Department of Technology and Health, National Institute of Health, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
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20
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Antiviral properties of lactoferrin--a natural immunity molecule. Molecules 2011; 16:6992-7018. [PMID: 21847071 PMCID: PMC6264778 DOI: 10.3390/molecules16086992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2011] [Revised: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/10/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Lactoferrin, a multifunctional iron binding glycoprotein, plays an important role in immune regulation and defence mechanisms against bacteria, fungi and viruses. Lactoferrin’s iron withholding ability is related to inhibition of microbial growth as well as to modulation of motility, aggregation and biofilm formation of pathogenic bacteria. Independently of iron binding capability, lactoferrin interacts with microbial, viral and cell surfaces thus inhibiting microbial and viral adhesion and entry into host cells. Lactoferrin can be considered not only a primary defense factor against mucosal infections, but also a polyvalent regulator which interacts in viral infectious processes. Its antiviral activity, demonstrated against both enveloped and naked viruses, lies in the early phase of infection, thus preventing entry of virus in the host cell. This activity is exerted by binding to heparan sulphate glycosaminoglycan cell receptors, or viral particles or both. Despite the antiviral effect of lactoferrin, widely demonstrated in vitro studies, few clinical trials have been carried out and the related mechanism of action is still under debate. The nuclear localization of lactoferrin in different epithelial human cells suggests that lactoferrin exerts its antiviral effect not only in the early phase of surface interaction virus-cell, but also intracellularly. The capability of lactoferrin to exert a potent antiviral activity, through its binding to host cells and/or viral particles, and its nuclear localization strengthens the idea that lactoferrin is an important brick in the mucosal wall, effective against viral attacks and it could be usefully applied as novel strategy for treatment of viral infections.
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21
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Madureira AR, Tavares T, Gomes AMP, Pintado ME, Malcata FX. Invited review: physiological properties of bioactive peptides obtained from whey proteins. J Dairy Sci 2010; 93:437-55. [PMID: 20105516 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2009-2566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2009] [Accepted: 09/18/2009] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Processing of whey proteins yields several bioactive peptides that can trigger physiological effects in the human body: on the nervous system via their opiate and ileum-contracting activities; on the cardiovascular system via their antithrombotic and antihypertensive activities; on the immune system via their antimicrobial and antiviral activities; and on the nutrition system via their digestibility and hypocholesterolemic effects. The specific physiological effects, as well the mechanisms by which they are achieved and the stabilities of the peptides obtained from various whey fractions during their gastrointestinal route, are specifically discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Madureira
- Centro de Biotecnologia e Quimica Fina (CBQF)/Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, R. Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida, P-4200-072 Porto, Portugal
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22
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Pietrantoni A, Dofrelli E, Tinari A, Ammendolia MG, Puzelli S, Fabiani C, Donatelli I, Superti F. Bovine lactoferrin inhibits influenza A virus induced programmed cell death in vitro. Biometals 2010; 23:465-75. [PMID: 20232110 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-010-9323-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2010] [Accepted: 03/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Influenza is one of the main plagues worldwide. The statistical likelihood of a new pandemic outbreak, together with the alarming emergence of influenza virus strains that are resistant to available antiviral medications, highlights the need for new antiviral drugs. Lactoferrin, a 80 kDa bi-globular iron-binding glycoprotein, is a pleiotropic factor with potent antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activities. Although the antiviral effect of lactoferrin is one of its major biological functions, the mechanism of action is still under debate. In this research, we have analyzed the effect of bovine lactoferrin (bLf) on Influenza A virus infection in vitro. Our results showed that (i) Influenza virus infected cells died as a result of apoptosis, (ii) bLf treatment inhibited programmed cell death by interfering with function of caspase 3, a major virus-induced apoptosis effector, and (iii) bLf efficiently blocked nuclear export of viral ribonucleoproteins so preventing viral assembly. These results provide further insights on the antiviral activity of bLf and suggest novel strategies for treatment of Influenza virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agostina Pietrantoni
- Department of Technology and Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
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23
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Venkatesh M, Abrams S. Can lactoferrin prevent neonatal sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis? Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2009; 7:515-25. [PMID: 19485792 DOI: 10.1586/eri.09.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Despite the use of potent antimicrobials, neonatal sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis are associated with significant mortality and morbidity. The emergence of microbial antibiotic resistance is a grave concern. Inflammation secondary to sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis increases pulmonary and cerebral morbidity. New strategies that target inflammation and reduce the emergence of antibiotic resistance are urgently needed. Lactoferrin has broad-spectrum antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activities. In animal models of colitis, lactoferrin reduces inflammatory injury. Lactoferrin also induces the receptor-mediated proliferation and differentiation of intestinal cells. A randomized, controlled trial of lactoferrin in premature neonates to prevent late-onset sepsis is currently in progress. Lactoferrin is a promising agent in the prevention of neonatal sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis but needs further evaluation to confirm its safety, tolerability and efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohan Venkatesh
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Neonatology, Texas Children's Hospital & Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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24
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Nojima Y, Suzuki Y, Yoshida K, Abe F, Shiga T, Takeuchi T, Sugiyama A, Shimizu H, Sato A. Lactoferrin Conjugated with 40-kDa Branched Poly(ethylene Glycol) Has an Improved Circulating Half-Life. Pharm Res 2009; 26:2125-32. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-009-9925-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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25
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Adams WC, Bond E, Havenga MJE, Holterman L, Goudsmit J, Karlsson Hedestam GB, Koup RA, Loré K. Adenovirus serotype 5 infects human dendritic cells via a coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor-independent receptor pathway mediated by lactoferrin and DC-SIGN. J Gen Virol 2009; 90:1600-1610. [PMID: 19282435 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.008342-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor (CAR) is the described primary receptor for adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5), a common human pathogen that has been exploited as a viral vector for gene therapy and vaccination. This study showed that monocytes and dendritic cells (DCs), such as freshly isolated human blood myeloid DCs, plasmacytoid DCs and monocyte-derived DCs, are susceptible to recombinant Ad5 (rAd5) infection despite their lack of CAR expression. Langerhans cells and dermal DCs from skin expressed CAR, but blocking CAR only partly decreased rAd5 infection, together suggesting that other receptor pathways mediate viral entry of these cells. Lactoferrin (Lf), an abundant protein in many bodily fluids known for its antiviral and antibacterial properties, promoted rAd5 infection in all cell populations except plasmacytoid DCs using a CAR-independent process. Lf caused phenotypic differentiation of the DCs, but cell activation played only a minor role in the increase in infection frequencies. The C-type lectin receptor DC-SIGN facilitated viral entry of rAd5-Lf complexes and this was dependent on high-mannose-type N-linked glycans on Lf. These results suggest that Lf present at high levels at mucosal sites can facilitate rAd5 attachment and enhance infection of DCs. A better understanding of the tropism and receptor mechanisms of Ad5 may help explain Ad5 pathogenesis and guide the engineering of improved rAd vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- William C Adams
- Immunology Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,The Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, Stockholm, Sweden.,Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Emily Bond
- The Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, Stockholm, Sweden.,Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | | | | | - Gunilla B Karlsson Hedestam
- The Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Richard A Koup
- Immunology Laboratory, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Karin Loré
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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26
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Li SS, Tsai HJ. Transgenic microalgae as a non-antibiotic bactericide producer to defend against bacterial pathogen infection in the fish digestive tract. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 26:316-325. [PMID: 18691655 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2008.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2007] [Revised: 07/12/2008] [Accepted: 07/12/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotics are commonly employed in most fish aquacultures to prevent disease. One major risk in this practice is that antibiotic-resistant pathogens may be selected. Therefore, we wanted to examine the feasibility of producing an economical, non-antibiotic alternative. The microalga Nannochloropsis oculata is an essential phytoplankton used as live feed for fish larvae. We attempted to culture N. oculata in a way that would provide an organism against bacterial pathogenic infection. To test this idea, we constructed an algae-codon-optimized bovine lactoferricin (LFB) fused with a red fluorescent protein (DsRed) driven by a heat-inducible promoter, which is a heat shock protein 70A promoter combined with a ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase small subunit 2' promoter from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. After electroporation, we examined 491 microalgal clones and generated two stable transgenic lines, each expressing a stable transgene inheritance for at least 26 months. This was confirmed by the positive detection of the mRNA transcript and the protein of LFB-DsRed produced by the transgenic microalgae. To test the efficacy of the antimicrobial peptide LFB, medaka fish (Oryzias latipes) were adapted from freshwater to seawater and were fed with the transgenic algae by oral-in-tube delivery method. Bacterial infection with 1 x 10(5)Vibrio parahaemolyticus per fish was induced 6h thereafter by oral-in-tube delivery as well. For medaka fish fed with 1 x 10(8) transgenic algae per fish, the average survival rate after a 24-h period of infection was much higher than that of medaka fed with wild-type algae (85+/-7.1% versus 5+/-7.1%). This result suggests that medaka fish fed with the LFB-containing transgenic microalgae will have bactericidal defense against V. parahaemolyticus infection in its digestive tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Shen Li
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Taiwan University, No. 1, Section 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 106, Taiwan
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Nojima Y, Suzuki Y, Iguchi K, Shiga T, Iwata A, Fujimoto T, Yoshida K, Shimizu H, Takeuchi T, Sato A. Development of Poly(ethylene glycol) Conjugated Lactoferrin for Oral Administration. Bioconjug Chem 2008; 19:2253-9. [DOI: 10.1021/bc800258v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Nojima
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Yosuke Suzuki
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Kazuma Iguchi
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Tuneo Shiga
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Aya Iwata
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Tomohito Fujimoto
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Yoshida
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Hirohiko Shimizu
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Takashi Takeuchi
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
| | - Atsushi Sato
- School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo University of Technology, 1404-1 Katakura, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0982, Japan, NRL Pharma, Inc., East Building KSP, 3-2-1 Sakado, Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan, and Department of Veterinary Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori 680-8553, Japan
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Zhang JX, Zhang SF, Wang TD, Guo XJ, Hu RL. Mammary gland expression of antibacterial peptide genes to inhibit bacterial pathogens causing mastitis. J Dairy Sci 2008; 90:5218-25. [PMID: 17954762 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2007-0301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
As a step toward prevention of bovine mastitis, a plasmid-mediated gene transfer technique was used to enable mammary cells to synthesize and secrete bovine lactoferricin and bovine tracheal antibacterial peptides. For this purpose, a series of mammary tissue-specific expression vectors, harboring the antibacterial peptide gene, the 5'-flanking regulation sequence of goat beta-casein, and the bovine growth hormone polyadenylation signal sequence, were constructed using a eukaryotic expression vector pIRES1-neo. The mammary gland tissue-specific expression vector carrying the antimicrobial peptide genes dissolved in physiologic saline was injected directly into the lactating mammary glands of goats. The milk samples after injection were checked by Tricine-SDS-PAGE and bacterium inhibition zone assay. The results of these tests showed that the mammary gland tissue-specific expression vector driven by the goat beta-casein gene promoter could efficiently direct the expression of antibacterial peptides in goat milk; the expression of antibacterial proteins lasted for 3 to 6 d. All of the milk samples collected from the mammary glands that had been injected with different vectors harboring the antibacterial peptide gene(s) exhibited bacteriostatic activity against different bacterial pathogens. These results demonstrated that the mammary gland tissue-specific expression vector could be used to introduce antibacterial peptide gene into the goat mammary gland, enabling secretion of a bioactive form of antibacterial peptide in the milk. This successful expression of antibacterial peptides in goat mammary glands provided a possible method to prevent mastitis in ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- J X Zhang
- Veterinary Institute, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, 1068 Qinglong Road, Changchun 130062, PR China
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29
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Abstract
Much has been learned in recent years about the mechanisms by which breastfeeding improves child health and survival. However, there has been little progress in using these insights to improve pediatric care. Factors that are important for protecting the breast fed infant might be expected to decrease the adverse effects of weaning on diarrhea, growth, and development. Lactoferrin, an iron-binding protein with multiple physiological functions (anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory), is one of the most important proteins present in mammalian milk. Protection against gastroenteritis is the most likely biologically relevant activity of lactoferrin. Multiple in vitro and animal studies have shown a protective effect of lactoferrin on infections with enteric microorganisms, including rotavirus, Giardia, Shigella, Salmonella and the diarrheagenic Escherichia coli. Lactoferrin has two major effects on enteric pathogens: it inhibits growth and it impairs function of surface expressed virulence factors thereby decreasing their ability to adhere or to invade mammalian cells. Thus, lactoferrin may protect infants from gastrointestinal infection by preventing the attachment by enteropathogens in the gut. Recently several clinical trials in children have started to address this issue. Whether lactoferrin can prevent a significant portion of diarrheal disease remains to be determined.
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Lactoferrin Structure and Functions. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2007; 606:163-94. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-74087-4_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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31
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Mistry N, Drobni P, Näslund J, Sunkari VG, Jenssen H, Evander M. The anti-papillomavirus activity of human and bovine lactoferricin. Antiviral Res 2007; 75:258-65. [PMID: 17481742 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2006] [Revised: 03/21/2007] [Accepted: 03/27/2007] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) cause common warts, laryngeal papilloma and genital condylomata and is necessary for the development of cervical cancer. We have previously found that lactoferrin has antiviral activity against HPV-16 and others have demonstrated that lactoferricin, an N-terminal fragment of lactoferrin, has inhibitory activities against several viruses. Two cell lines and two virus types, HPV-5 and HPV-16, were used to study if lactoferrin and lactoferricin could inhibit HPV pseudovirus (PsV) infection. We demonstrated that bovine lactoferrin (bLf) and human lactoferrin (hLf) were both potent inhibitors of HPV-5 and -16 PsV infections. Among the four lactoferricin derivatives we analyzed, a 15 amino acid peptide from bovine lactoferricin (bLfcin) 17-31 was the most potent inhibitor of both HPV-5 and HPV-16 PsV infection. Among the other derivatives, the human lactoferricin (hLfcin) 1-49 showed some antiviral activity against HPV PsV infection while bLfcin 17-42 inhibited only HPV-5 PsV infection in one of the cell lines. When we studied initial attachment of HPV-16, only bLfcin 17-42 and hLfcin 1-49 had an antiviral effect. This is the first time that lactoferricin was demonstrated to have an inhibitory effect on HPV infection and the antiviral activity differed depending on size, charge and structures of the lactoferricin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitesh Mistry
- Department of Virology, Umeå University, SE-901-85 Umeå, Sweden
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32
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Pan Y, Wan J, Roginski H, Lee A, Shiell B, Michalski WP, Coventry MJ. Comparison of the effects of acylation and amidation on the antimicrobial and antiviral properties of lactoferrin. Lett Appl Microbiol 2007; 44:229-34. [PMID: 17309497 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2006.02081.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To compare amidation and acylation of lactoferrin (LF) from bovine milk, as a means of enhancing its antimicrobial and antiviral properties. METHODS AND RESULTS LF was chemically modified by amidation with a 1-ethyl-3-[3-(dimethylamino) propyl] carbodiimide (EDC) in the presence of ammonium ions or by acylation with either succinic or acetic anhydride. In the test systems used, amidation substantially enhanced the activity of LF against Pseudomonas fluorescens in comparison with native LF. However, increasing the net negative charge of LF by acylation had no effect on the activity of LF against P. fluorescens, and abrogated the antimicrobial activity of LF against Bacillus subtilis and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Increasing the net negative charges of LF by acylation eliminated its antimicrobial and antiviral effects against poliovirus and feline calicivirus (nonenveloped viruses). CONCLUSIONS The addition of positive charges to LF via amidation enhanced antimicrobial properties in contrast to increasing the negative charges by acylation, which abolished both the antimicrobial and antiviral properties of LF. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The effects of charge alteration of LF determined in this study provides a basis for further development of LF formulations with enhanced antimicrobial effectiveness for use in food process hygiene, veterinary and health-care applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Pan
- School of Agriculture and Food Systems, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria, Australia
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33
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Mader JS, Smyth D, Marshall J, Hoskin DW. Bovine lactoferricin inhibits basic fibroblast growth factor- and vascular endothelial growth factor165-induced angiogenesis by competing for heparin-like binding sites on endothelial cells. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2006; 169:1753-66. [PMID: 17071598 PMCID: PMC1780222 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2006.051229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Angiogenesis is a complex process whereby new blood vessels form from pre-existing vasculature in response to proangiogenic factors such as basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and the 165-kd isoform of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF165). Angiogenesis inhibitors show considerable potential in the treatment of cancer because angiogenesis is necessary for tumor growth beyond a few millimeters in diameter because of the tumor's need for oxygen and nutrient supply, as well as waste removal. Bovine lactoferricin (LfcinB) is a peptide fragment of iron- and heparin-binding lactoferrin obtained from cow's milk. Here we provide in vivo and in vitro evidence that LfcinB has potent antiangiogenic activity. LfcinB strongly inhibited both bFGF- and VEGF165-induced angiogenesis in Matrigel plugs implanted in C57BL/6 mice. In addition, LfcinB inhibited the in vitro proliferation and migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in response to bFGF or VEGF165 but was not cytotoxic to HUVECs. Rather, LfcinB complexed with heparin-like structures on the HUVEC surface that are involved in the binding of bFGF and VEGF165 to their respective receptors, thereby preventing receptor-stimulated angiogenesis. These findings suggest that LfcinB may have utility as an antiangiogenic agent for the treatment of human cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie S Mader
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 1X5 Canada
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34
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Gauthier SF, Pouliot Y, Saint-Sauveur D. Immunomodulatory peptides obtained by the enzymatic hydrolysis of whey proteins. Int Dairy J 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2006.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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35
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Johansson C, Jonsson M, Marttila M, Persson D, Fan XL, Skog J, Frängsmyr L, Wadell G, Arnberg N. Adenoviruses use lactoferrin as a bridge for CAR-independent binding to and infection of epithelial cells. J Virol 2006; 81:954-63. [PMID: 17079302 PMCID: PMC1797453 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01995-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Most adenoviruses bind to the coxsackie- and adenovirus receptor (CAR). Surprisingly, CAR is not expressed apically on polarized cells and is thus not easily available to viruses. Consequently, alternative mechanisms for entry of coxsackievirus and adenovirus into cells have been suggested. We have found that tear fluid promotes adenovirus infection, and we have identified human lactoferrin (HLf) as the tear fluid component responsible for this effect. HLf alone was found to promote binding of adenovirus to epithelial cells in a dose-dependent manner and also infection of epithelial cells by adenovirus. HLf was also found to promote gene delivery from an adenovirus-based vector. The mechanism takes place at the binding stage and functions independently of CAR. Thus, we have identified a novel binding mechanism whereby adenovirus hijacks HLf, a component of the innate immune system, and uses it as a bridge for attachment to host cells.
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36
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Pan Y, Lee A, Wan J, Coventry M, Michalski W, Shiell B, Roginski H. Antiviral properties of milk proteins and peptides. Int Dairy J 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2006.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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37
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Ammendolia MG, Pietrantoni A, Tinari A, Valenti P, Superti F. Bovine lactoferrin inhibits echovirus endocytic pathway by interacting with viral structural polypeptides. Antiviral Res 2006; 73:151-60. [PMID: 17023058 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2006.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2006] [Revised: 08/07/2006] [Accepted: 09/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Lactoferrin, an 80 kDa bi-globular iron-binding glycoprotein belonging to the transferrin family, is a pleiotropic factor with potent antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activities, present in breast milk, in mucosal secretions, and in the secondary granules of neutrophils. Recently, we have shown that bovine lactoferrin prevents the early phases of echovirus infection and also acts as a survival factor inhibiting viral-induced apoptosis. In the present research we investigated the mechanism of bovine lactoferrin anti-echoviral effect demonstrating that echovirus enters susceptible cells by an endocytic pathway and that lactoferrin treatment is able to prevent viral genome delivery into the cytoplasm. It is likely that lactoferrin interaction with echovirus capsid proteins induces alterations that stabilize the conformation of the virion making it resistant to uncoating. Taken together, the results of our study show that the inhibition of echovirus 6 infectivity by lactoferrin is dependent on its interaction not only with cell surface glycosaminoglycan chains but also with viral structural proteins demonstrating that this glycoprotein targets the virus entry process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Grazia Ammendolia
- Department of Technology and Health, National Institute of Health, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy.
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38
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Feng XJ, Wang JH, Shan AS, Teng D, Yang YL, Yao Y, Yang GP, Shao YC, Liu S, Zhang F. Fusion expression of bovine lactoferricin in Escherichia coli. Protein Expr Purif 2006; 47:110-7. [PMID: 16216526 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2005.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2005] [Revised: 08/24/2005] [Accepted: 08/24/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The drug resistance problem has been growing with the utilization of current antibiotics in feed and medical industries. LfcinB, a 25-amino acid antibacterial peptide derived from bovine lactoferrin, is one of potential alternatives of antibiotics. According to the bias of codon utilization of Escherichia coli, a fragment encoding LfcinB has been chemically synthesized, inserted into vector pGEX-4T-2 and expressed in E. coli. The antibacterial peptide was fused with GST with a protease cleavage site located between them. Two constructs with different cleavage sites were made. One construct, pGEX-Th-LfcinB, contains a thrombin cleavage site carried by the vector, and the other, pGEX-Th-Xa-LfcinB, contains a Factor Xa cleavage site which was introduced after the thrombin cleavage site. Fusion protein GST-Th-LfcinB protein was efficiently cleaved by thrombin, yielding recombinant LfcinB showing antibacterial activity. However, fusion protein GEX-Th-Xa-Lfcin B containing Factor Xa recognition site could not be cleaved by Factor Xa at the conditions tried in this study. Successful expression of LfcinB in E. coli provides a possible method to produce LfcinB in large amounts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-jun Feng
- Gene Engineering Laboratory, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, PR China
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Tinari A, Pietrantoni A, Ammendolia MG, Valenti P, Superti F. Inhibitory activity of bovine lactoferrin against echovirus induced programmed cell death in vitro. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2005; 25:433-8. [PMID: 15848300 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2004] [Accepted: 02/18/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Lactoferrin is a glycoprotein and plays an important role in defence against pathogens. Although the antiviral activity of lactoferrin is one of the major biological functions of such protein, the mechanism of action is still under debate. The effect of lactoferrin on echovirus 6 infection in vitro was analysed and results showed that (i) cells infected with echovirus 6, died as a result of apoptosis and that (ii) programmed cell death was inhibited by lactoferrin treatment. In this report, we demonstrate that lactoferrin can exert its anti-enteroviral activity by preventing viral-induced apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Tinari
- Department of Technology and Health, National Institute of Health, Rome, Italy
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40
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Giansanti F, Massucci MT, Giardi MF, Nozza F, Pulsinelli E, Nicolini C, Botti D, Antonini G. Antiviral activity of ovotransferrin derived peptides. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 331:69-73. [PMID: 15845359 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.03.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Ovotransferrin and lactoferrin are iron-binding proteins with antiviral and antibacterial activities related to natural immunity, showing marked sequence and structural homologies. The antiviral activity of two hen ovotransferrin fragments DQKDEYELL (hOtrf(219-227)) and KDLLFK (hOtrf(269-301) and hOtrf(633-638)) towards Marek's disease virus infection of chicken embryo fibroblasts is reported here. These fragments have sequence homology with two bovine lactoferrin fragments with antiviral activity towards herpes simplex virus, suggesting that these fragments could have a role for the exploitation of the antiviral activity of the intact proteins towards herpes viruses. NMR analysis showed that these peptides, chemically synthetized, did not possess any favourite conformation in solution, indicating that both the aminoacid sequence and the conformation they display in the intact protein are essential for the antiviral activity.
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41
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Waarts BL, Aneke OJC, Smit JM, Kimata K, Bittman R, Meijer DKF, Wilschut J. Antiviral activity of human lactoferrin: inhibition of alphavirus interaction with heparan sulfate. Virology 2005; 333:284-92. [PMID: 15721362 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2004] [Revised: 06/24/2004] [Accepted: 01/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Human lactoferrin is a component of the non-specific immune system with distinct antiviral properties. We used alphaviruses, adapted to interaction with heparan sulfate (HS), as a tool to investigate the mechanism of lactoferrin's antiviral activity. Lactoferrin inhibited infection of BHK-21 cells by HS-adapted, but not by non-adapted, Sindbis virus (SIN) or Semliki Forest virus (SFV). Lactoferrin also inhibited binding of radiolabeled HS-adapted viruses to BHK-21 cells or liposomes containing lipid-conjugated heparin as a receptor analog. On the other hand, low-pH-induced fusion of the viruses with liposomes, which occurs independently of virus-receptor interaction, was unaffected. Studies involving preincubation of virus or cells with lactoferrin suggested that the protein does not bind to the virus, but rather blocks HS-moieties on the cell surface. Charge-modified human serum albumin, with a net positive charge, had a similar antiviral effect against HS-adapted SIN and SFV, suggesting that the antiviral activity of lactoferrin is related to its positive charge. It is concluded that human lactoferrin inhibits viral infection by interfering with virus-receptor interaction rather than by affecting subsequent steps in the viral cell entry or replication processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry-Lee Waarts
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Molecular Virology Section, University of Groningen, Ant. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
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42
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Waddington SN, Kennea NL, Buckley SMK, Gregory LG, Themis M, Coutelle C. Fetal and neonatal gene therapy: benefits and pitfalls. Gene Ther 2004; 11 Suppl 1:S92-7. [PMID: 15454963 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3302375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The current approaches to gene therapy of monogenetic diseases into mature organisms are confronted with several problems including the following: (1) the underlying genetic defect may have already caused irreversible pathological changes; (2) the level of sufficient protein expression to ameliorate or prevent the disease requires prohibitively large amounts of gene delivery vector; (3) adult tissues may be poorly infected by conventional vector systems dependent upon cellular proliferation for optimal infection, for example, oncoretrovirus vectors; (4) immune responses, either pre-existing or developing following vector delivery, may rapidly eliminate transgenic protein expression and prevent future effective intervention. Early gene transfer, in the neonatal or even fetal period, may overcome some or all of these obstacles. The mammalian fetus enjoys a uniquely protected environment in the womb, bathed in a biochemically and physically supportive fluid devoid of myriad extra-uterine pathogens. Strong physical and chemical barriers to infection might, perhaps, impede the frenetic cell division. The physical support and the biochemical support provided by the fetal-maternal placental interface may, therefore, minimize the onset of genetic diseases manifest early in life. The fetal organism must prepare itself for birth, but lacking a mature adaptive immune system may depend upon more primordial immune defences. It is the nature of these defences, and the vulnerabilities they protect, that are poorly understood in the context of gene therapy and might provide useful information for approaches to gene therapy in the young, as well as perhaps the mature organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N Waddington
- Imperial College London, Gene Therapy Research Group, Section of Cell and Molecular Biology, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Sir Alexander Fleming Building, Imperial College Road, London, UK
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43
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Andersen JH, Jenssen H, Sandvik K, Gutteberg TJ. Anti-HSV activity of lactoferrin and lactoferricin is dependent on the presence of heparan sulphate at the cell surface. J Med Virol 2004; 74:262-71. [PMID: 15332275 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.20171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional glycoprotein, which plays an important role in immune regulation and defense mechanisms against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Lactoferricin (Lfcin) is a potent antimicrobial peptide generated from the N-terminal part of LF by pepsin cleavage. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms of the anti-herpes simplex virus (anti-HSV) activity of LF and Lfcin. The results demonstrated that LF and Lfcin inhibited the entry of HSV into Vero cells. LF had no effect against HSV after the virus had entered the cells, while Lfcin exerted antiviral activity also after the initial binding of the virus to the host cell. The distribution of LF and Lfcin in the cells was investigated by immunogold-labeling and transmission electron microscope (TEM). LF was found mainly at the cell surface in cells expressing heparan sulphate. Lfcin was randomly distributed intracellularly. LF must be present at the cell surface to exert antiviral activity, while Lfcin exert its antiviral activity also when found mainly intracellularly. Both LF and Lfcin were dependent on the presence of heparan sulphate at the cell surface to exert their antiviral activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanette H Andersen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
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44
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Abstract
Lactoferrin, an iron-binding glycoprotein synthesized by neutrophils and exocrine glands, plays an important role in human innate defense mechanisms against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. First, a bacteriostatic activity of lactoferrin, depending on iron withholding to bacteria, and successively a bactericidal iron-independent effect, related to its binding on bacterial surfaces, was recognized. Many other functions have been ascribed to this cationic protein, including the inhibiting action toward bacterial adhesion and invasion of target host cells. Recent research also reported the lactoferrin influence on bacterial aggregation and biofilm development of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Streptococcus mutans. The different lactoferrin functions can be justified by different physicochemical properties of the molecule, which include the iron-binding capability, the binding to anionic cell surfaces and molecules, and serine protease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piera Valenti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Italy.
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Di Biase AM, Tinari A, Pietrantoni A, Antonini G, Valenti P, Conte MP, Superti F. Effect of bovine lactoferricin on enteropathogenic Yersinia adhesion and invasion in HEp-2 cells. J Med Microbiol 2004; 53:407-412. [PMID: 15096550 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.05410-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine lactoferricin, a pepsin-generated antimicrobial peptide from bovine lactoferrin active against a wide range of bacteria, was tested for its ability to influence the adhesion and invasion of Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis in HEp-2 cells. The addition of non-cytotoxic and non-bactericidal concentrations of lactoferricin to cell monolayers before infection, under different bacterial growth experimental conditions, was ineffective or resulted in about a 10-fold increase in bacterial adhesion, whereas, in bacteria grown in conditions allowing maximal inv gene expression, a 10-fold inhibition of cell invasion by lactoferricin was observed. To confirm that the anti-invasive activity of lactoferricin was exerted against invasin-mediated bacterial entry, experiments were also performed utilizing Escherichia coli strain HB101 (pRI203), harbouring the inv gene from Y. pseudotuberculosis, which allows penetration of mammalian cells. Under these experimental conditions, lactoferricin was able to inhibit bacterial entry into epithelial cells, demonstrating that this peptide acts on inv-mediated Yersinia species invasion. As the inv gene product is the most important virulence factor in enteropathogenic Yersinia, being responsible for bacterial adherence and penetration within epithelial cells of the intestinal lumen and for the subsequent colonization of regional lymph nodes, these data provide additional information on the protective role of lactoferricin against bacterial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Assunta Maria Di Biase
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy 2Department of Biology, III University of Rome, Italy 3Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Naples, Italy 4Department of Public Health Sciences, University 'La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Tinari
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy 2Department of Biology, III University of Rome, Italy 3Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Naples, Italy 4Department of Public Health Sciences, University 'La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
| | - Agostina Pietrantoni
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy 2Department of Biology, III University of Rome, Italy 3Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Naples, Italy 4Department of Public Health Sciences, University 'La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Antonini
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy 2Department of Biology, III University of Rome, Italy 3Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Naples, Italy 4Department of Public Health Sciences, University 'La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
| | - Piera Valenti
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy 2Department of Biology, III University of Rome, Italy 3Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Naples, Italy 4Department of Public Health Sciences, University 'La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Pia Conte
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy 2Department of Biology, III University of Rome, Italy 3Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Naples, Italy 4Department of Public Health Sciences, University 'La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
| | - Fabiana Superti
- Laboratory of Ultrastructure, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161 Rome, Italy 2Department of Biology, III University of Rome, Italy 3Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Naples, Italy 4Department of Public Health Sciences, University 'La Sapienza', Rome, Italy
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Velliyagounder K, Kaplan JB, Furgang D, Legarda D, Diamond G, Parkin RE, Fine DH. One of two human lactoferrin variants exhibits increased antibacterial and transcriptional activation activities and is associated with localized juvenile periodontitis. Infect Immun 2003; 71:6141-7. [PMID: 14573629 PMCID: PMC219577 DOI: 10.1128/iai.71.11.6141-6147.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The iron-binding protein lactoferrin is a ubiquitous and abundant constituent of human exocrine secretions. Lactoferrin inhibits bacterial growth by sequestering essential iron and also exhibits non-iron-dependent antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and immunoregulatory activities. All of these non-iron-dependent activities are mediated by the highly charged N terminus of lactoferrin. In this study we characterized a Lys/Arg polymorphism at position 29 in the N-terminal region of human lactoferrin that results from a single nucleotide polymorphism in exon 1 of the human lactoferrin gene. We expressed cDNAs encoding both lactoferrin variants in insect cells and purified the two proteins by ion exchange chromatography. The two lactoferrin variants exhibited nearly identical iron-binding and iron-releasing activities and equivalent bactericidal activities against a strain of the gram-negative bacterium Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans. When tested against the gram-positive species Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus mitis, however, lactoferrin containing Lys at position 29 exhibited significantly greater bactericidal activity than did lactoferrin containing Arg. In addition, the Lys-containing lactoferrin stimulated bovine tracheal epithelial cells to synthesize much higher levels of tracheal antimicrobial peptide mRNA than did the Arg-containing variant. A genotyping assay that distinguished between the two alleles based on a polymorphic EarI restriction site showed that the Lys and Arg alleles had frequencies of 24% and 76%, respectively, among 17 healthy human subjects, and 72% and 28%, respectively, among nine patients with localized juvenile periodontitis. Our findings suggest that these two lactoferrin variants are functionally different and that these differences may contribute to the pathogenesis of localized juvenile periodontitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kabilan Velliyagounder
- Department of Oral Biology, New Jersey Dental School, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, New Jersey 07103, USA
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Pietrantoni A, Di Biase AM, Tinari A, Marchetti M, Valenti P, Seganti L, Superti F. Bovine lactoferrin inhibits adenovirus infection by interacting with viral structural polypeptides. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47:2688-91. [PMID: 12878543 PMCID: PMC166106 DOI: 10.1128/aac.47.8.2688-2691.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2002] [Revised: 03/17/2003] [Accepted: 05/08/2003] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We recently demonstrated that lactoferrin, an antimicrobial glycoprotein, can inhibit adenovirus infection by competing for common glycosaminoglycan receptors. This study further characterizes the antiadenovirus activity of the protein, thus demonstrating that lactoferrin neutralizes infection by binding to adenovirus particles and that its targets are viral III and IIIa structural polypeptides.
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Abstract
Lactoferrin (Lf), a natural defence iron-binding protein, is present in exocrine secretions that are commonly exposed to normal flora: milk, tears, nasal exudate, saliva, bronchial mucus, gastrointestinal fluids, cervicovaginal mucus and seminal fluid. Additionally, Lf is produced in polymorphonuclear leukocytes and is deposited by these circulating cells in septic sites. A principal function of Lf is that of scavenging non-protein-bound iron in body fluids and inflamed areas so as to suppress free radical-mediated damage and decrease accessibility of the metal to invading bacterial, fungal and neoplastic cells. Adequate sources of bovine and recombinant human Lf are now available for development of commercial applications. Among the latter are use of Lf in food preservation, fish farming, infant milk formula and oral hygiene. Other readily accessible body compartments for Lf administration include skin, throat and small intestine. Further research is needed for possible medicinal use in colon and systemic tissues. Although Lf is a natural product and should be highly biocompatible, possible hazards have been documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugene D Weinberg
- Department of Biology and Programme in Medical Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA.
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