Human digestion--a processing perspective

Bioactive peptides derived from insect proteins: Preparation, biological activities, potential applications, and safety issues

Bioactive peptides are polypeptides with specific amino acid sequences that exhibit biological activities and health benefits. Insects have emerged as a sustainable source of proteins in human food and animal feed due to their efficient resource utilization, low environmental footprint, and good nutritional profile. Moreover, insect-derived bioactive peptides (IBPs) offer potential applications in functional foods and pharmaceuticals due to their antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and anti-obesity activities. In this article, the isolation, purification, and properties of IBPs are reviewed, as well as their potential health benefits, commercial applications, and safety. Despite the growing interest in incorporating IBPs into food products, challenges regarding consumer acceptance, safety, and regulations still persist. Thus, there is a pressing need for further research in this area, as well as clarification of the regulatory framework, before the full potential of insects as a sustainable source of bioactive peptides for human consumption can be realized.

Tailoring meat products for the elderly: A comprehensive review

The population of the elderly is projected to grow significantly in most of the developed countries in the near future. This should earn this demographic the title of 'Consumer of the future'. Meat has high quality proteins and essential vitamins which are important for all demographics but more so for the elderly due to their susceptibility to sarcopenia. This review explored the landscape of meat research and product development that meets the distinctive requirements of the elderly, drawing from published refereed articles, industry reports, and unpublished grey literature. The review emphasised the importance of understanding the evolving dietary and sensory requirements associated with ageing and how they intersect with meat consumption. One notable aspect observed is the diversity within the elderly population, which underscores the necessity for tailored approaches in meat product development to cater to the varying preferences and nutritional needs of different individuals. This review also highlights the ongoing efforts in developing meat-based products that span a spectrum of consistencies, ranging from solid to liquid forms, to accommodate the diverse needs of elderly consumers. Despite these advancements, the review found a discrepancy between the pace of meat product development for the elderly and the rapid advancements in kitchen-level technologies and suggests that further research is needed to bridge this gap and align product innovation with emerging technological trends.

Impact of aging on the digestive system related to protein digestion in vivo

For the current aging population, protein is an important macronutrient to counteract the development of sarcopenia. Protein digestion is influenced by the capacity of the digestive system. The current evidence is reviewed about the impact of aging on the human digestive system and related to protein digestion in vivo. Aging changes the digestive organs which impacts protein digestion. Dentition decreases and mastication changes, potentially affecting particle size reduction. Stomach gastric acidity is unchanged, gastric emptying is delayed, while total transit time remains unchanged. Production of enzymes by the pancreas is decreased, but any changes in the small intestine remain unresolved. Animal studies showed decreased fecal protein digestion in older compared to young animals. Human studies showed decreased postprandial peripheral plasma appearance of ingested amino acids and increased splanchnic extraction. The findings suggest that the deteriorating digestive system with aging results in decreased protein digestion. Interpretation of the results should be taken with caution because of interindividual differences in the aging process, and because studies on protein digestion in aging humans are scarce. More information is needed on healthy aging and its relation to the digestive tract and protein digestion, several methods including in vitro experiments are valuable in this perspective.

How D-amino acids embedded in the protein sequence modify its digestibility: Behaviour of digestive enzymes tested on a model peptide used as target

D-amino acids can affect the action of digestive enzymes, hence the protein digestion. In this work the behaviour of the main stomach and gut digestive enzymes (pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin) in the presence of D-amino acids in the protein chain was monitored over time using a model peptide, Ac-LDAQSAPLRVYVE-NH2 (belonging to β-lactoglobulin, position 48-60), where L-amino acids were systematically substituted by D-amino acids. The results showed several changes in the behaviour of digestive enzymes, not only when the D-amino acids are inserted at the specific cleavage sites (after Val-57), but in some cases also when in distant positions. The effect seemed more pronounced in the case of pepsin rather than the gut enzymes, possibly indicating a better resilience of the upper gut phase of digestion to racemization. These results demonstrated that racemization could impair nutritional value by slowing down digestibility and has different effects according to the enzyme/amino acids involved.

The Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Lactococcus lactis-Ling-Zhi 8 on Ameliorating Atherosclerosis and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver in High-Fat Diet Rabbits

Inflammation plays a crucial role in atherosclerosis and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). We previously engineered a recombinant Lactococcus lactis strain expressing the Ling-Zhi immunomodulatory protein (L. lactis-LZ8). This study investigated the anti-atherosclerotic effects of L. lactis-LZ8 in rabbits fed a high-fat diet (HFD). Changes in body weight, serum lipid profiles, and liver function were monitored. The aorta and liver tissues were analyzed for gross pathology and histopathology. Eight-week administration of L. lactis-LZ8 with HFD ameliorated atherosclerosis by downregulating protein and gene expression associated with lipid metabolism and inflammation in the aortas. The rabbits receiving L. lactis-LZ8 exhibited a significant dose-dependent reduction in hepatic fat accumulation. RNA sequencing of the livers revealed that inflammatory genes in the L. lactis-LZ8 groups were downregulated compared to the HFD group. Disease ontology enrichment analysis indicated that these genes were involved in atherosclerosis. Gene set enrichment analysis plots revealed significant enrichment in the gene sets related to cholesterol homeostasis. CIBERSORT immune cell fraction analysis indicated significant infiltration by regulatory T cells, CD8+ T cells, activated dendritic cells, and natural killer cells in the L. lactis-LZ8 group. Our studies underscore LZ8's role in precision nutrition, providing a potential solution to the current challenges in modifying atherosclerosis and NAFLD.

Effects of food bar chewing duration on the physiologic, metabolic, and perceptual responses to moderate-intensity running

PURPOSE

Chewing duration can affect food particle size, gastric processing, and postprandial glycemia, but these effects have not been investigated with exercise. This study examined how the chewing duration of a food bar impacts glycemic and metabolic responses, gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, psychological affect, and performance during endurance running.

METHODS

This randomized, unblinded, crossover study had 15 males (35.2 ± 7.4 years, VO2peak: 56.1 ± 5.2 ml/kg/min) attend three laboratory visits. Visit 1 required a VO2peak test, 10 min familiarization run at 60% VO2peak, and familiarization time-to-exhaustion (TTE) test (10 min at 90% VO2peak, followed by TTE at 100% VO2peak). Visits 2 and 3 consisted of a 60 min run at 60% VO2peak, followed by TTE testing. Participants were fed 45 g of a bar (180 kcal, 4 g fat, 33 g carbohydrate, 3 g protein, 1 g fiber) in 9 g servings 30 min before running, and 27 g of bar in 9 g servings at three timepoints during the 60 min run. Participants consumed the servings in 20 (20CHEW) or 40 (40CHEW) masticatory cycles, at 1 chew/second. Outcomes included blood glucose, substrate use, GI symptoms, perceived exertion (RPE), overall feeling, and TTE.

RESULTS

Post-prandial blood glucose, GI symptoms, and RPE increased over time, but there were no significant between-condition or condition-by-time effects. TTE showed no significant between-condition effect (20CHEW: 288 ± 133 s; 40CHEW: 335 ± 299 s; p = 0.240). Overall feeling demonstrated a time-by-condition effect (p = 0.006), suggesting possible better maintenance over time with 40CHEW.

CONCLUSION

Cumulatively, the results suggest that extended chewing minimally impacts physiology, perceptions, and performance during 60 min moderate-intensity running.

Applications of polysaccharides in enzyme-triggered oral colon-specific drug delivery systems: A review

Enzyme-triggered oral colon-specific drug delivery system (EtOCDDS1) can withstand the harsh stomach and small intestine environments, releasing encapsulated drugs selectively in the colon in response to colonic microflora, exerting local or systematic therapeutic effects. EtOCDDS boasts high colon targetability, enhanced drug bioavailability, and reduced systemic side effects. Polysaccharides are extensively used in enzyme-triggered oral colon-specific drug delivery systems, and its colon targetability has been widely confirmed, as their properties meet the demand of EtOCDDS. Polysaccharides, known for their high safety and excellent biocompatibility, feature modifiable structures. Some remain undigested in the stomach and small intestine, whether in their natural state or after modifications, and are exclusively broken down by colon-resident microbiota. Such characteristics make them ideal materials for EtOCDDS. This article reviews the design principles of EtOCDDS as well as commonly used polysaccharides and their characteristics, modifications, applications and specific mechanism for colon targeting. The article concludes by summarizing the limitations and potential of ETOCDDS to stimulate the development of innovative design approaches.

Acute physiological effects on macromolecule digestion following oral ingestion of the enzyme blend Elevase® in individuals that had undergone an ileostomy, but were otherwise healthy-a randomized, double blinded, placebo-controlled exploratory study

Digestive enzymes can selectively degrade proteins, carbohydrates and lipids; and their supplementation alongside food may accelerate the breakdown of complex food matrices, facilitate greater nutrient absorption, decrease food sensitivities and aid in the management of certain disease states. Several intrinsic and extrinsic factors govern food digestion and for every individual this phenomenon is unique. This study was conducted as a randomized, crossover, placebo-controlled design where each participant served as their own control. This post-hoc analysis investigated the impact of a dietary enzyme supplementation blend known as Elevase® on dietary macromolecule digestion in samples from otherwise healthy participants that had previously undergone a small bowel resection, resulting in an ileostomy (NCT04489810). This is the first time this study-paradigm has been used for the assessment of in vivo dietary breakdown following enzyme supplementation. Arguably, this technique offers superior data when compared to that generated in artificial gut digestion models, preclinical animal models, or indeed conventional clinical studies using stool analyses, as it allows real-time access to samples in situ in the small intestine where the majority of nutritional absorption takes place. It was demonstrated that after 4 h, Elevase® significantly increased monosaccharide levels (predominantly glucose and fructose) in the ileostomy samples taken from the same individuals on the same diet on a different day. In addition, the bile salt taurohyodeoxycholic acid was also increased, suggesting a physiological host response to the macromolecule digestion induced by the enzymatic blend. Overall, these findings suggest Elevase® could accelerate food digestion and potentially increase nutrient availability from the diet.

Application of In Vitro Digestion Models in the Evaluation of Dietary Supplements

Nowadays, dietary supplements are a permanent part of our diet. Using various simulated in vitro digestive models, the bioavailability of dietary supplement ingredients has also been investigated. In most cases, static models are used instead of dynamic ones. This article focuses on the division of applications of in vitro methods, such as assessing the quality of dietary supplements (in chemical and pharmaceutical form), the impact of diet on the assessment of the bioavailability of product ingredients, the impact of supplement ingredients on the state of intestinal microflora, and the development of new products using various encapsulation methods. The review included publications from 2000 to 2024 showing the use of in vitro methods in dietary supplements containing polysaccharides, proteins, elements, vitamins, and bioactive substances, as well as probiotic and prebiotic products. The impact of components in dietary supplements on the human digestive tract and their degree of bioaccessibility were determined through the use of in vitro methods. The application of in vitro methods has also become an effective tool for designing new forms of dietary supplements in order to increase the availability and durability of labile ingredients in these products.

Oral delivery of probiotics using single-cell encapsulation

Adequate intake of live probiotics is beneficial to human health and wellbeing because they can help treat or prevent a variety of health conditions. However, the viability of probiotics is reduced by the harsh environments they experience during passage through the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Consequently, the oral delivery of viable probiotics is a significant challenge. Probiotic encapsulation provides a potential solution to this problem. However, the production methods used to create conventional encapsulation technologies often damage probiotics. Moreover, the delivery systems produced often do not have the required physicochemical attributes or robustness for food applications. Single-cell encapsulation is based on forming a protective coating around a single probiotic cell. These coatings may be biofilms or biopolymer layers designed to protect the probiotic from the harsh gastrointestinal environment, enhance their colonization, and introduce additional beneficial functions. This article reviews the factors affecting the oral delivery of probiotics, analyses the shortcomings of existing encapsulation technologies, and highlights the potential advantages of single-cell encapsulation. It also reviews the various approaches available for single-cell encapsulation of probiotics, including their implementation and the characteristics of the delivery systems they produce. In addition, the mechanisms by which single-cell encapsulation can improve the oral bioavailability and health benefits of probiotics are described. Moreover, the benefits, limitations, and safety issues of probiotic single-cell encapsulation technology for applications in food and beverages are analyzed. Finally, future directions and potential challenges to the widespread adoption of single-cell encapsulation of probiotics are highlighted.

Tissue and cellular spatiotemporal dynamics in colon aging

Tissue structure and molecular circuitry in the colon can be profoundly impacted by systemic age-related effects, but many of the underlying molecular cues remain unclear. Here, we built a cellular and spatial atlas of the colon across three anatomical regions and 11 age groups, encompassing ~1,500 mouse gut tissues profiled by spatial transcriptomics and ~400,000 single nucleus RNA-seq profiles. We developed a new computational framework, cSplotch, which learns a hierarchical Bayesian model of spatially resolved cellular expression associated with age, tissue region, and sex, by leveraging histological features to share information across tissue samples and data modalities. Using this model, we identified cellular and molecular gradients along the adult colonic tract and across the main crypt axis, and multicellular programs associated with aging in the large intestine. Our multi-modal framework for the investigation of cell and tissue organization can aid in the understanding of cellular roles in tissue-level pathology.

Immune system and gut microbiota senescence in elderly IBD patients

In inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), the loss of immune tolerance against gut microbiota causes chronic inflammation and the progressive accumulation of organ damage in genetically susceptible individuals. In the elderly, IBD is often characterized by a different disease behavior when compared with pediatric and young adult disease. Besides disease behavior, another aspect of the multifaceted impact of age on elderly IBD course is increased susceptibility to infections. In this context, age-of-onset-dependent IBD behavior and clinical course are two major contributors to immune system senescence and change of gut microbiota in older subjects. Here, we review the available literature linking immunosenescence and age-dependent changes in the gut microbiota composition to IBD pathogenesis speculating on their possible implications in disease expression in this age class.

The effects of carrot shape and oral processing behaviour on bolus properties and β-carotene bioaccessibility of raw carrots

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of carrot shape (cube vs. julienne) and oral processing behaviour, specifically chewing time, on bolus properties and bioaccessibility of β-carotene in raw carrots. Participants (n = 20) consumed raw carrot cubes (15 × 15 × 15 mm, 4.2 g/bite) and raw carrot julienne (2 × 3 × 90 mm, 4.2 g/bite) with normal (cube: 20 s/bite; julienne: 28 s/bite) and short (cube: 10 s/bite; julienne: 14 s/bite) chewing time. Expectorated boli were collected and characterized for number and mean area of carrot bolus particles. The proportion of easily extractable β-carotene of the carrot bolus was taken as an approximate indicator of the potentially bioaccessible β-carotene. Longer chewing time resulted in significantly more and smaller carrot bolus particles, larger particle surface area (p < 0.01) and higher proportion of easily extractable β-carotene than shorter chewing of raw carrots of both shapes (Cube_Normal vs. Cube_Short: 29 ± 7 % vs. 23 ± 7 %; Julienne_Normal vs. Julienne Short: 31 ± 8 % vs. 26 ± 6 %, p < 0.05). Carrot shape significantly influenced number and size of bolus particles (p < 0.01) with carrot julienne generating more and smaller carrot bolus particles than carrot cubes. These differences in bolus properties between carrot julienne and cubes did not influence the proportion of easily extractable β-carotene (p > 0.05). We conclude that differences in oral processing behaviour and the corresponding differences in bolus properties produce only modest differences in β-carotene bioaccessibility of raw carrots regardless of carrot shape.

Distinct microbiome of tongue coating and gut in type 2 diabetes with yellow tongue coating

The gut microbiome plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). However, the inconvenience of obtaining fecal samples hinders the clinical application of gut microbiome analysis. In this study, we hypothesized that tongue coating color is associated with the severity of T2DM. Therefore, we aimed to compare tongue coating, gut microbiomes, and various clinical parameters between patients with T2DM with yellow (YC) and non-yellow tongue coatings (NYC). Tongue coating and gut microbiomes of 27 patients with T2DM (13 with YC and 14 with NYC) were analyzed using 16S rDNA gene sequencing technology. Additionally, we measured glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), random blood glucose (RBG), fasting blood glucose (FBG), postprandial blood glucose (PBG), insulin (INS), glucagon (GC), body mass index (BMI), and homeostasis model assessment of β-cell function (HOMA-β) levels for each patient. The correlation between tongue coating and the gut microbiomes was also analyzed. Our findings provide evidence that the levels of Lactobacillus spp. are significantly higher in both the tongue coating and the gut microbiomes of patients with YC. Additionally, we observed that elevated INS and GC levels, along with decreased BMI and HOMA-β levels, were indicative of a more severe condition in patients with T2DM with YC. Moreover, our results suggest that the composition of the tongue coating may reflect the presence of Lactobacillus spp. in the gut. These results provide insights regarding the potential relationship between tongue coating color, the gut microbiome, and T2DM.

Gut-to-brain spreading of pathology in synucleinopathies: A focus on molecular signalling mediators

Synucleinopathies are a group of neurodegenerative disorders, classically characterized by the accumulation of aggregated alpha synuclein (aSyn) in the central nervous system. Parkinson's disease (PD) and multiple system atrophy (MSA) are the two prominent members of this family. Current treatment options mainly focus on the motor symptoms of these diseases. However, non-motor symptoms, including gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, have recently gained particular attention, as they are frequently associated with synucleinopathies and often arise before motor symptoms. The gut-origin hypothesis has been proposed based on evidence of an ascending spreading pattern of aggregated aSyn from the gut to the brain, as well as the comorbidity of inflammatory bowel disease and synucleinopathies. Recent advances have shed light on the mechanisms underlying the progression of synucleinopathies along the gut-brain axis. Given the rapidly expanding pace of research in the field, this review presents a summary of the latest findings on the gut-to-brain spreading of pathology and potential pathology-reinforcing mediators in synucleinopathies. Here, we focus on 1) gut-to-brain communication pathways, including neuronal pathways and blood circulation, and 2) potential molecular signalling mediators, including bacterial amyloid proteins, microbiota dysbiosis-induced alterations in gut metabolites, as well as host-derived effectors, including gut-derived peptides and hormones. We highlight the clinical relevance and implications of these molecular mediators and their possible mechanisms in synucleinopathies. Moreover, we discuss their potential as diagnostic markers in distinguishing the subtypes of synucleinopathies and other neurodegenerative diseases, as well as for developing novel individualized therapeutic options for synucleinopathies.

Development and analysis of a multi-module peristaltic simulator for gastrointestinal research

Many existing in vitro digestion systems do not accurately represent the peristaltic contractions of the gastrointestinal system; most of the systems that have physiologically-relevant peristaltic contractions have low throughput and can only test one sample at a time. A device has been developed that provides simulated peristaltic contractions for up to 12 digestion modules simultaneously using rollers of varying width to modulate the dynamics of the peristaltic motion. The force applied to a simulated food bolus varied from 2.61 ± 0.03 N to 4.51 ± 0.16 N (p < 0.05) depending on roller width. Video analysis showed that the degree of occlusion of the digestion module varied from 72.1 ± 0.4% to 84.6 ± 1.2% (p < 0.05). A multiphysics, computational fluid dynamics model was created to understand the fluid flow. The fluid flow was also examined experimentally using video analysis of tracer particles. The model-predicted maximum fluid velocity in the peristaltic simulator incorporating the thin rollers was 0.016 m/s, and the corresponding value measured using tracer particles was 0.015 m/s. The occlusion, pressure, and fluid velocity in the new peristaltic simulator fell within physiologically representative ranges. Although no in vitro device perfectly recreates the conditions of the gastrointestinal system, this novel device is a flexible platform for future gastrointestinal research and could allow for high-throughput screening of food materials for health-promoting properties under conditions representative of human gastrointestinal motility.

Organization of the human intestine at single-cell resolution

The intestine is a complex organ that promotes digestion, extracts nutrients, participates in immune surveillance, maintains critical symbiotic relationships with microbiota and affects overall health1. The intesting has a length of over nine metres, along which there are differences in structure and function2. The localization of individual cell types, cell type development trajectories and detailed cell transcriptional programs probably drive these differences in function. Here, to better understand these differences, we evaluated the organization of single cells using multiplexed imaging and single-nucleus RNA and open chromatin assays across eight different intestinal sites from nine donors. Through systematic analyses, we find cell compositions that differ substantially across regions of the intestine and demonstrate the complexity of epithelial subtypes, and find that the same cell types are organized into distinct neighbourhoods and communities, highlighting distinct immunological niches that are present in the intestine. We also map gene regulatory differences in these cells that are suggestive of a regulatory differentiation cascade, and associate intestinal disease heritability with specific cell types. These results describe the complexity of the cell composition, regulation and organization for this organ, and serve as an important reference map for understanding human biology and disease.

Uptake and effects of polystyrene nanoplastics in comparison to non-plastic silica nanoparticles on small intestine cells (IPEC-J2)

Nanoplastics smaller than 1 µm accumulate as anthropogenic material in the food chain, but only little is known about their uptake and possible effects on potentially strongly exposed cells of the small intestine. The aim of the study was to observe the uptake of 100 nm polystyrene nanoplastics into a non-tumorigenic small intestine cell culture model (IPEC-J2 cells) and to monitor the effects on cell growth and gene regulation, compared to a 100 nm non-plastic silica nanoparticle reference. The intracellular uptake of both types of nanoparticles was proven via (confocal) fluorescence microscopy and complemented with transmission electron microscopy. Fluorescence microscopy showed a growth phase-dependent uptake of nanoparticles into the cells, hence further experiments included different time points related to epithelial closure, determined via electric cell substrate impedance sensing. No retardations in epithelial closure of cells after treatment with polystyrene nanoparticles could be found. In contrast, epithelial cell closure was partly negatively influenced by silica nanoparticles. An increased production of organic nanoparticles, like extracellular vesicles, was not measurable via nanoparticle tracking analysis. An assessment of messenger RNA by next generation sequencing and subsequent pathway analysis revealed that the TP53 pathway was influenced significantly by the polystyrene nanoparticle treatment. In both treatments, dysregulated mRNAs were highly enriched in the NOTCH signaling pathway compared to the non-particle control.

Strong-field THz radiation-induced curing of composite resin materials in dentistry

Dental caries is listed as one of the three major non-communicable diseases by the World Health Organization, and its main treatment method is to restore it by filling it with resin. At present, the visible light-cure method has the problems of non-uniform curing and low penetration efficiency, which makes the bonding area easy to develop marginal leakages, thus leading to secondary caries and requiring repeated treatment. In this work, through the strong terahertz (THz) irradiation-weak THz detection technique, it is found that the strong THz electromagnetic pulses can accelerate the curing process of the resin, and the weak-field THz spectroscopy can be used to monitor this dynamic change in real time, which will greatly promote the potential application of THz technology in dentistry.

The energetics of childhood: Current knowledge and insights into human variation, evolution, and health

How organisms capture and ultimately use metabolic energy-a limiting resource of life-has profound implications for understanding evolutionary legacies and current patterns of phenotypic variation, adaptation, and health. Energetics research among humans has a rich history in biological anthropology and beyond. The energetics of childhood, however, remains relatively underexplored. This shortcoming is notable given the accepted importance of childhood in the evolution of the unique human life history pattern as well as the known sensitivity of childhood development to local environments and lived experiences. In this review, I have three objectives: (1) To overview current knowledge regarding how children acquire and use energy, highlighting work among diverse human populations and pointing to recent advances and remaining areas of uncertainty; (2) To discuss key applications of this knowledge for understanding human variation, evolution, and health; (3) To recommend future avenues for research. A growing body of evidence supports a model of trade-offs and constraint in childhood energy expenditure. This model, combined with advancements on topics such as the energetics of immune activity, the brain, and the gut, provides insights into the evolution of extended human subadulthood and the nature of variation in childhood development, lifetime phenotype, and health.

Nutritional Management of Intestinal Failure due to Short Bowel Syndrome in Children

BACKGROUND

The most common cause of intestinal failure (IF) in childhood remains short bowel syndrome (SBS), where bowel mass is significantly reduced due to a congenital atresia or resection and parenteral nutrition (PN) needed. Home PN has improved outcome and quality of life, but the long-term therapeutic goal is to achieve enteral autonomy whilst avoiding long term complications. This paper is aimed at discussing nutritional strategies available to clinicians caring for these patients.

METHODS

A literature search was performed from 1992 to 2022 using Pubmed, MEDLINE and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and recent guidelines were reviewed. In the absence of evidence, recommendations reflect the authors' expert opinion.

RESULTS

Consensus on the best possible way of feeding children with IF-SBS is lacking and practice varies widely between centres. Feeding should commence as soon as possible following surgery. Oral feeding is the preferred route and breast milk (BM) the first milk of choice in infants. Donor BM, standard preterm or term formula are alternatives in the absence of maternal BM. Extensively hydrolysed or amino acid-based feeds are used when these are not tolerated. Solids should be introduced as soon as clinically appropriate. Children are encouraged to eat by mouth and experience different tastes and textures to avoid oral aversion. Aggressive weaning of PN and tube (over-) feeding are now discouraged.

CONCLUSIONS

To date, uniform agreement on the optimal type of feed, timing of food introduction and feeding regime used is lacking and great difference in practice remains. There is need for more research to establish common treatment protocols.

Insights into the constellating drivers of satiety impacting dietary patterns and lifestyle

Food intake and body weight regulation are of special interest for meeting today's lifestyle essential requirements. Since balanced energy intake and expenditure are crucial for healthy living, high levels of energy intake are associated with obesity. Hence, regulation of energy intake occurs through short- and long-term signals as complex central and peripheral physiological signals control food intake. This work aims to explore and compile the main factors influencing satiating efficiency of foods by updating recent knowledge to point out new perspectives on the potential drivers of satiety interfering with food intake regulation. Human internal factors such as genetics, gender, age, nutritional status, gastrointestinal satiety signals, gut enzymes, gastric emptying rate, gut microbiota, individual behavioral response to foods, sleep and circadian rhythms are likely to be important in determining satiety. Besides, the external factors (environmental and behavioral) impacting satiety efficiency are highlighted. Based on mechanisms related to food consumption and dietary patterns several physical, physiological, and psychological factors affect satiety or satiation. A complex network of endocrine and neuroendocrine mechanisms controls the satiety pathways. In response to food intake and other behavioral cues, gut signals enable endocrine systems to target the brain. Intestinal and gastric signals interact with neural pathways in the central nervous system to halt eating or induce satiety. Moreover, complex food composition and structures result in considerable variation in satiety responses for different food groups. A better understanding of foods and factors impacting the efficiency of satiety could be helpful in making smart food choices and dietary recommendations for a healthy lifestyle based on updated scientific evidence.

Novel nano-encapsulated probiotic agents: Encapsulate materials, delivery, and encapsulation systems

Gut microbes are closely associated with most human health. When ingested orally, probiotics can effectively regulate the composition and quantity of human intestinal microorganisms, which is beneficial to human health. However, probiotics will be affected by the harsh environment of the digestive tract during the in vivo transportation process, and ensuring the viability of probiotics is a great challenge. Probiotic encapsulating technology provides an effective solution to this problem. The introduction of extreme temperatures, large probiotic microcapsule sizes and the difficulty in controlling probiotic microcapsule particle sizes mean that traditional microcapsule encapsulation methods have some limitations. From traditional microcapsule technology to the bulk encapsulation of probiotics with nanofibers and nanoparticles to the recent ability to wear nano "armor" for a single probiotic through biofilm, biological membrane and nanocoating. Emerging probiotic nanoagents provides a new conceptual and development direction for the field of probiotic encapsulation. In this review, we presented the characteristics of encapsulated probiotic carrier materials and digestive tract transport systems, we focused on the encapsulation systems of probiotic nanoagents, we analyzed the shortcomings and advantages of the current agent encapsulation systems, and we stated the developmental direction and challenges for these agents for the future.

Designing food for the elderly: the critical impact of food structure

Ageing is an unavoidable progressive process causing many changes of the individual life. However, if faced in an efficient way, living longer in a healthy status could be an opportunity for all. In this context, food consumption and dietary patterns are pivotal factors in promoting active and healthy ageing. The development of food products tailored for the specific needs of the elderly might favour the fulfilment of nutritionally balanced diets, while reducing the consequences of malnutrition. To this aim, the application of a food structure design approach could be particularly profitable, being food structure responsible to the final functionalities of food products. In this narrative review, the physiological changes associated to food consumption occurring during ageing were firstly discussed. Then, the focus shifted to the possible role of food structure in delivering target functionalities, considering food acceptability, digestion of the nutrients, bioactive molecules and probiotic bacteria.

Effects of Dietary Nutrients on Fatty Liver Disease Associated With Metabolic Dysfunction (MAFLD): Based on the Intestinal-Hepatic Axis

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has recently become the most common liver disease with a global prevalence of over 25% and is expected to increase. Recently, experts have reached a consensus that “fatty liver disease associated with metabolic dysfunction or MAFLD” may be a more appropriate and inclusive definition than NAFLD. Like the former name NAFLD, MAFLD, as a manifestation of multiple system metabolic disorders involving the liver, has certain heterogeneity in its pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, pathological changes and natural outcomes. We found that there is a delicate dynamic balance among intestinal microflora, metabolites and host immune system to maintain a healthy intestinal environment and host health. On the contrary, this imbalance is related to diseases such as MAFLD. However, there are no clear studies on how dietary nutrients affect the intestinal environment and participate in the pathogenesis of MAFLD. This review summarizes the interactions among dietary nutrients, intestinal microbiota and MAFLD in an attempt to provide evidence for the use of dietary supplements to regulate liver function in patients with MAFLD. These dietary nutrients influence the development and progression of MAFLD mainly through the hepatic-intestinal axis by altering dietary energy absorption, regulating bile acid metabolism, changing intestinal permeability and producing ethanol. Meanwhile, the nutrients have the ability to combat MAFLD in terms of enriching abundance of intestinal microbiota, reducing Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and promoting abundance of beneficial gut microbes. Therefore, family therapy with MAFLD using a reasonable diet could be considered.

Royal Jelly Proteins and Their Derived Peptides: Preparation, Properties, and Biological Activities

Royal jelly, also called bee milk, is a source of high-quality proteins. Royal jelly proteins serve as not only a rich source of essential amino acids and functional donors but also an excellent substrate for preparing bioactive peptides. Most naturally occurring bioactive peptides in royal jelly are antibacterial, while peptides derived from proteolytic reactions are shown to exert antihypertensive, antioxidative, and anti-aging activities. Further studies are warranted to characterize the functional properties of major royal jelly proteins and peptides, to explore the preparation of bioactive peptides and the potential novel activities, to improve their bioavailability, to enhance the production efficiency for commercial availability, and finally to open up new applications for royal jelly as a functional food and potential therapeutic agent.

Chew on it: influence of oral processing behaviour on in vitro protein digestion of chicken and soya-based vegetarian chicken

Oral processing behaviour can affect the bioavailability of macronutrients. The aim of the present study was to determine the influence of oral processing behaviour on bolus properties and in vitro protein digestion of chicken and soya-based vegetarian chicken. Natural chewing time and chewing frequency of both foods were determined in healthy adults (n 96). While natural chewing time differed considerably between consumers (chicken: 7·7-39·4 s; soya-based vegetarian chicken: 7·8-46·2 s), chewing frequency (1·4 chews/s) did not differ considerably between consumers and was independent of product type. Natural chewing times of 11 and 24 s were found for clusters of consumers showing shortest and longest chewing time for both products. Chicken and soya-based vegetarian chicken were chewed for 11 and 24 s and boli expectorated by n 16 consumers to determine in vitro gastric digestion and by n 7 to determine in vitro intestinal digestion. For both foods, longer chewing time resulted in the formation of significantly (P < 0·05) more and smaller bolus fragments and higher in vitro degree of protein hydrolysis (DH%) than shorter chewing time (chicken: DH%11s = 7 ± 23 % and DH%24s = 89 ± 26 %; soya-based vegetarian chicken: DH%11s = 57 ± 18 % and DH%24s = 70 ± 21 %, P < 0·001). In vitro degree of protein hydrolysis was higher for chicken than that for soya-based vegetarian chicken regardless of chewing time. We conclude that naturally occurring longer chewing time leads to more and smaller bolus particles of chicken and soya-based vegetarian chicken and thereby increases in vitro protein hydrolysis compared with shorter chewing time.

Effect of processing on in vitro digestibility (IVPD) of food proteins

Proteins are important macronutrients for the human body to grow and function throughout life. Although proteins are found in most foods, their very dissimilar digestibility must be taking into consideration when addressing the nutritional composition of a diet. This review presents a comprehensive summary of the in vitro digestibility of proteins from plants, milk, muscle, and egg. It is evident from this work that protein digestibility greatly varies among foods, this variability being dependent not only upon the protein source, but also the food matrix and the molecular interactions between proteins and other food components (food formulation), as well as the conditions during food processing and storage. Different approaches have been applied to assess in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD), varying in both the enzyme assay and quantification method used. In general, animal proteins tend to show higher IVPD. Harsh technological treatments tend to reduce IVPD, except for plant proteins, in which thermal degradation of anti-nutritional compounds results in improved IVPD. However, in order to improve the current knowledge about protein digestibility there is a vital need for understanding dependency on a protein source, molecular interaction, processing and formulation and relationships between. Such knowledge can be used to develop new food products with enhanced protein bioaccessibility.

Effect of simulated saliva components on the in vitro digestion of peanut oil body emulsion

The digestion properties of natural oil bodies (OBs) are very important to their potential applications such as traditional fat replacement or bioactive delivery systems. However, study on the complete digestion behaviours of OBs has not been reported yet. In this paper, peanut OBs were extracted by an aqueous medium method, and their digestion behaviour was studied using completed in vitro oral-gastric-intestinal digestion simulation. In particular, the effects of saliva components, mainly α-amylase and mucin, on the digestion of the peanut OBs were systematically investigated. The OB emulsion microstructure, average particle size d_4,3, ζ-potential, and surface protein compositions during oral, gastric and intestinal digestion, and the free fatty acid (FFA) release rate of the peanut OBs during intestinal digestion were determined. Interestingly, it was revealed from both the periodic acid-Schiff staining technique and the confocal laser microscopy characterization that glycosidic bonds exist on the surface of the peanut OBs, though how they were produced was unknown. The results from the digestion measurements showed that α-amylase in saliva can break the glycosidic bonds in oral digestion, promoting the digestion of the OBs in the gastric and intestinal environments. Saliva mucin caused bridging flocculation of OBs by electrostatic attraction in the gastric tract, and depletion flocculation of OBs in the intestinal tract. The former hindered the fusion of oil droplets, and the latter promoted FFA release rate by increasing the contacting surface area of OBs with bile salts.

Glycosidic bonds exist on the surface of OBs, and α-amylase in saliva breaks the glycosidic bonds, promoting gastrointestinal digestion of OBs.

Lipid-Based Nanocarrier System for the Effective Delivery of Nutraceuticals

Nutraceuticals possess several health benefits and functions; however, most nutraceuticals are prone to degradation in the gastrointestinal environment and have poor bioavailability. Application of a novel carrier system is of increasing importance to overcome obstacles and provide efficient applicability. Lipid-based nanocarriers provide a large surface-to-mass ratio, enhanced intestinal absorption by solubilization in the intestinal milieu, intestinal lymphatic transport, and altering enterocyte-based transport. A critical overview of the current limitation, preparation, and application of lipid-based nanocarriers (liposomes and niosomes) and lipid nanoparticles (SLNs and NLCs) is discussed. Physical and gastrointestinal stability and bioavailability of nanoencapsulated nutraceuticals are considered as well.

Oral, Tongue-Coating Microbiota, and Metabolic Disorders: A Novel Area of Interactive Research

Interactions between colonizing microbiota and the host have been fully confirmed, among which the tongue-coating microbiota have a moderate rate of renewal and disease sensitivity and are easily obtained, making them an ideal research subject. Oral microbiota disorders are related to diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and other systemic diseases. As an important part of the oral cavity, tongue-coating microbiota can promote gastritis and digestive system tumors, affecting the occurrence and development of multiple chronic diseases. Common risk factors include diet, age, and immune status, among others. Metabolic regulatory mechanisms may be similar between the tongue and gut microbiota. Tongue-coating microbiota can be transferred to the respiratory or digestive tract and create a new balance with local microorganisms, together with the host epithelial cells forming a biological barrier. This barrier is involved in the production and circulation of nitric oxide (NO) and the function of taste receptors, forming the oral-gut-brain axis (similar to the gut-brain axis). At present, the disease model and mechanism of tongue-coating microbiota affecting metabolism have not been widely studied, but they have tremendous potential.

Quality of Life, Satisfaction, Occlusal Force, and Halitosis after Direct and Indirect Relining of Inferior Complete Dentures

Objective  The aim of this study was to compare the direct relining technique with the indirect relining technique in relation to quality of life, satisfaction with the relining, occlusal force, and halitosis of users of acrylic complete dentures.

Materials and Methods  Twenty bimaxillary edentulous individuals were selected. They had to use the same pair of complete dentures for a minimum of 1 year and a maximum of 5 years. The subjects were randomly divided in groups of direct relining and indirect relining of the inferior denture ( n = 10). Both groups received the same silicone-based relining. The clinical tests verified the quality of life (Oral Health Impact Profile in edentulous individuals), the satisfaction with the relining, the occlusal force, and halitosis. The tests (halitosis and occlusal force) were performed initially (before the relining), immediately after the relining, and 30, 60, 90, and 180 days after the relining. The questionnaires (quality of life and satisfaction with the relining) were performed initially (before the relining), and 30, 60, 90, and 180 days after the relining.

Statistical Analysis  Analysis of variance and the Tukey test were used ( p < 0.05).

Results  There was no statistical difference comparing the two techniques in all the evaluations ( p < 0.05). There was a significant statistical difference for the factor of time in all clinical tests for each relining technique ( p < 0.05). The quality of life and satisfaction with the relining increased significantly 30 days after the relining when compared with the initial time point, for both techniques ( p < 0.05). The occlusal force increased significantly after 90 and 180 days when compared with the initial time point, for both techniques ( p < 0.05). Halitosis decreased significantly immediately after the relining when compared with the initial time point, for both techniques ( p < 0.05).

Conclusion  Independent of the relining technique used, there was an increase in the quality of life, satisfaction with the relining, and occlusal force, as well as a reduction in the level of halitosis. Both techniques generated similar results and therefore can be options in clinical practice.

Recent advances in proteolytic stability for peptide, protein, and antibody drug discovery

Introduction: To discover and develop a peptide, protein, or antibody into a drug requires overcoming multiple challenges to obtain desired properties. Proteolytic stability is one of the challenges and deserves a focused investigation.Areas covered: This review concentrates on improving proteolytic stability by engineering the amino acids around the cleavage sites of a liable peptide, protein, or antibody. Peptidases are discussed on three levels including all peptidases in databases, mixtures based on organ and tissue types, and individual peptidases. The technique to identify cleavage sites is spotlighted on mass spectrometry-based approaches such as MALDI-TOF and LC-MS. For sequence engineering, the replacements that have been commonly applied with a higher chance of success are highlighted at the beginning, while the rarely used and more complicated replacements are discussed later. Although a one-size-fits-all approach does not exist to apply to different projects, this review provides a 3-step strategy for effectively and efficiently conducting the proteolytic stability experiments to achieve the eventual goal of improving the stability by engineering the molecule itself.Expert opinion: Improving the proteolytic stability is a spiraling up process sequenced by testing and engineering. There are many ways to engineer amino acids, but the choice must consider the cost and properties affected by the changes of the amino acids.

Effect of conservation methods on the bioaccessibility of bioelements from in vitro-digested edible mushrooms

BACKGROUND

The release of bioelements from edible mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus, Cantharellus cibarius, and Imleria badia) was examined using in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion to assess their health-promoting potential. The following samples were tested: fresh, frozen, dried in a food dryer, dried in the sun, and lyophilized. The samples were incubated in gastric juice (pepsin, NaCl, HCl) and in intestinal juice (NaHCO₃ , pancreatin, bile salts) with the aim of verifying the bioaccessibility of the bioelements and the digestibility of mushrooms. Four bioelements that are essential for the human body were studied: Mg, Zn, Cu, and Fe.

RESULTS

It was found that Mg was extracted in the highest amounts from the sun-dried A. bisporus (1.620 g kg^-1 d.w.). In the case of microelements, the lyophilized fruiting bodies of I. badia released Zn in the highest quantities (0.180 g kg^-1 d.w.). Lyophilization and sun-drying methods were more advantageous than other methods. Fresh material was a more valuable source of bioelements than frozen material.

CONCLUSION

Our results showed that edible mushrooms have a high content of bioelements that are easily bioaccessible, which indicates their health-promoting properties. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Current status of the gastrointestinal digestion effects on honey: A comprehensive review

In the past five years, more than 8000 scientific reports have been published on honey composition and its potential bioactivity as a source of pro-health components. However, the potential effectiveness of nutrients and other compounds in the human body is greatly influenced by the individual digestion conditions. Consequently, changes in the structure of honey components and their interactions with other constituents are expected and they may affect the bioaccessibility, the bioavailability, and further physiological functions of honey nutrients and bioactives. In this context, in addition to present key physiological characteristics for each step of the human digestion and their simulation aspects, this review also summarizes and discusses available data regarding the effect of the digestion (in vitro and in vivo) on honey compounds. Additionally, we consider the influence of the digestion on biological activities described for the compounds in the honey.

Determining the glycaemic responses of foods: conventional and emerging approaches

A low-glycaemic diet is crucial for those with diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Information on the glycaemic index (GI) of different ingredients can help in designing novel food products for such target groups. This is because of the intricate dependency of material source, composition, food structure and processing conditions, among other factors, on the glycaemic responses. Different approaches have been used to predict the GI of foods, and certain discrepancies exist because of factors such as inter-individual variation among human subjects. Besides other aspects, it is important to understand the mechanism of food digestion because an approach to predict GI must essentially mimic the complex processes in the human gastrointestinal tract. The focus of this work is to review the advances in various approaches for predicting the glycaemic responses to foods. This has been carried out by detailing conventional approaches, their merits and limitations, and the need to focus on emerging approaches. Given that no single approach can be generalised to all applications, the review emphasises the scope of deriving insights for improvements in methodologies. Reviewing the conventional and emerging approaches for the determination of GI in foods, this detailed work is intended to serve as a state-of-the-art resource for nutritionists who work on developing low-GI foods.

The Role of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles, Escherichia coli, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus on Small Intestinal Enzyme Activity

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have become common in the food industry, which motivates the need to evaluate ENM effects on human health. Gastrointestinal (GI) in vitro models (e.g. Caco-2, Caco-2/HT29-MTX) have been used in nanotoxicology research. However, the human gut environment is composed of both human cells and the gut microbiota. The goal of this study is to increase the complexity of the Caco-2/HT29-MTX in vitro model by co-culturing human cells with the Gram-positive, commensal Lactobacillus rhamnosus or the Gram-negative, opportunistic Escherichia coli; with the hypothesis that the presence of bacteria would ameliorate the effects of exposure to metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) such as iron oxide (Fe2O3), silicone dioxide (SiO2), titanium dioxide (TiO2), or zinc oxide (ZnO). To understand this relationship, Caco-2/HT29-MTX cell barriers were acutely co-exposed (4 hours) to bacteria and/or NPs (pristine or in vitro digested). The activity of the brush border membrane (BBM) enzymes intestinal alkaline phosphatase (IAP), aminopeptidase-N (APN), sucrase isomaltase (SI) and the basolateral membrane enzyme (BLM) Na+/K+ ATPase were assessed. Findings show that (i) the human digestion process alters the physicochemical properties of NPs, (ii) large agglomerates of NPs remain entrapped on the apical side of the intestinal barrier, which (iii) affects the activity of BBM enzymes. Interestingly, some NPs effects were attenuated in the presence of either bacterial strains. Confocal microscopy detected bacteria-NPs interactions, which may impede the NP-intestinal cell contact. These results highlight the importance of improving in vitro models to closely mimic the complexities of the human body.

Mesoscale modelling of polymer aggregate digestion

We use mesoscale simulations to gain insight into the digestion of biopolymers by studying the break-up dynamics of polymer aggregates (boluses) bound by physical cross-links. We investigate aggregate evolution, establishing that the linking bead fraction and the interaction energy are the main parameters controlling stability with respect to diffusion. We show via a simplified model that chemical breakdown of the constituent molecules causes aggregates that would otherwise be stable to disperse. We further investigate breakdown of biopolymer aggregates in the presence of fluid flow. Shear flow in the absence of chemical breakdown induces three different regimes depending on the flow Weissenberg number ( W i ). i) At W i ≪ 1 , shear flow has a negligible effect on the aggregates. ii) At W i ∼ 1 , the aggregates behave approximately as solid bodies and move and rotate with the flow. iii) At W i ≫ 1 , the energy input due to shear overcomes the attractive cross-linking interactions and the boluses are broken up. Finally, we study bolus evolution under the combined action of shear flow and chemical breakdown, demonstrating a synergistic effect between the two at high reaction rates.

Nature-Assembled Structures for Delivery of Bioactive Compounds and Their Potential in Functional Foods

Consumers are demanding more natural, healthy, and high-quality products. The addition of health-promoting substances, such as bioactive compounds, to foods can boost their therapeutic effect. However, the incorporation of bioactive substances into food products involves several technological challenges. They may have low solubility in water or poor stability in the food environment and/or during digestion, resulting in a loss of their therapeutic properties. Over recent years, the encapsulation of bioactive compounds into laboratory-engineered colloidal structures has been successful in overcoming some of these hurdles. However, several nature-assembled colloidal structures could be employed for this purpose and may offer many advantages over laboratory-engineered colloidal structures. For example, the casein micelles and milk fat globules from milk and the oil bodies from seeds were designed by nature to deliver biological material or for storage purposes. These biological functional properties make them good candidates for the encapsulation of bioactive compounds to aid in their addition into foods. This review discusses the structure and biological function of different nature-assembled carriers, preparation/isolation methods, some of the advantages and challenges in their use as bioactive compound delivery systems, and their behavior during digestion.

Factors affecting flavor perception in space: Does the spacecraft environment influence food intake by astronauts?

The intention to send a crewed mission to Mars involves a huge amount of planning to ensure a safe and successful mission. Providing adequate amounts of food for the crew is a major task, but 20 years of feeding astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) have resulted in a good knowledge base. A crucial observation from the ISS is that astronauts typically consume only 80% of their daily calorie requirements when in space. This is despite daily exercise regimes that keep energy usage at very similar levels to those found on Earth. This calorie deficit seems to have little effect on astronauts who spend up to 12 months on the ISS, but given that a mission to Mars would take 30 to 36 months to complete, there is concern that a calorie deficit over this period may lead to adverse effects in crew members. The key question is why astronauts undereat when they have a supply of food designed to fully deliver their nutritional needs. This review focuses on evidence from astronauts that foods taste different in space, compared to on Earth. The underlying hypothesis is that conditions in space may change the perceived flavor of the food, and this flavor change may, in turn, lead to underconsumption by astronauts. The key areas investigated in this review for their potential impact on food intake are the effects of food shelf life, physiological changes, noise, air and water quality on the perception of food flavor, as well as the link between food flavor and food intake.

The Nano-Intestine Interaction: Understanding the Location-Oriented Effects of Engineered Nanomaterials in the Intestine

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) are used in food additives, food packages, and therapeutic purposes owing to their useful properties, Therefore, human beings are orally exposed to exogenous nanomaterials frequently, which means the intestine is one of the primary targets of nanomaterials. Consequently, it is of great importance to understand the interaction between nanomaterials and the intestine. When nanomaterials enter into gut lumen, they inevitably interact with various components and thereby display different effects on the intestine based on their locations; these are known as location-oriented effects (LOE). The intestinal LOE confer a new biological-effect profile for nanomaterials, which is dependent on the involvement of the following biological processes: nano-mucus interaction, nano-intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) interaction, nano-immune interaction, and nano-microbiota interaction. A deep understanding of NM-induced LOE will facilitate the design of safer NMs and the development of more efficient nanomedicine for intestine-related diseases. Herein, recent progress in this field is reviewed in order to better understand the LOE of nanomaterials. The distant effects of nanomaterials coupling with microbiota are also highlighted. Investigation of the interaction of nanomaterials with the intestine will stimulate other new research areas beyond intestinal nanotoxicity.

An in vitro digestion study of encapsulated lactoferrin in rapeseed phospholipid-based liposomes

Effectiveness of liposomes elaborated with rapeseed phospholipid (RP) extracted from a residue of oil processing, stigmasterol (ST) and/or hydrogenated phosphatidylcholine (HPC) for the encapsulation lactoferrin (LF) was studied; lipid membrane of liposomes was characterized (bilayer size, chain conformational order, lateral packing, lipid phase, and morphology) and the protection offered to the encapsulated LF during in vitro digestion was determined. Liposomes composed of RP+ST^{LC(low concentration)} showed spherical and irregular vesicles without perforations. Lamellar structure was organized in a liquid-ordered phase with a potential orthorhombic packing. Stability and size of the liposomes were more affected by gastric digestion than intestinal digestion; 67-80% of the initially encapsulated LF remained intact after gastric digestion whereas the percentage was reduced to 16-35% after intestinal digestion. Our results shows that liposomes elaborated with RP, properly combined with other lipids, can be a useful oral delivery system of molecules sensitive to digestive enzymes.