Advances in research and development of bioplastic for food packaging

Production of L-lactic acid from methanol by engineered yeast Pichia pastoris

Lactic acid (LA) serves as a widely used platform compound and has received significant attention as a raw material for synthesis of biodegradable polylactic acid. Currently, LA is mainly produced through microbial fermentation, but its high costs undermine its competitive advantage against other materials, necessitating the development of novel production routes. Methanol bioconversion represents an emerging low-carbon circular economy, where LA could become an outstanding representative product. This study successfully established an efficient methanol-based LA synthesis route in Pichia pastoris. Through systematic metabolic engineering strategies, including screening lactate dehydrogenase, modification of cofactor preference, blocking LA consumption pathway, and mitochondrial LA synthesis compartmentalization, 4.2 g/L L-LA was produced in fed-batch fermentation by using methanol as the sole carbon source. Through multi-dimensional and spatial engineering of enzyme, a cell factory was developed for efficient synthesis of L-LA, highlights the significant potential of the low-carbon synthesis route for L-LA via methanol bioconversion.

Biotechnology in Food Packaging Using Bacterial Cellulose

Food packaging, which is typically made of paper/cardboard, glass, metal, and plastic, is essential for protecting and preserving food. However, the impact of conventional food packaging and especially the predominant use of plastics, due to their versatility and low cost, bring serious environmental and health problems such as pollution by micro and nanoplastics. In response to these challenges, biotechnology emerges as a new way for improving packaging by providing biopolymers as sustainable alternatives. In this context, bacterial cellulose (BC), a biodegradable and biocompatible material produced by bacteria, stands out for its mechanical resistance, food preservation capacity, and rapid degradation and is a promising solution for replacing plastics. However, despite its advantages, large-scale application still encounters technical and economic challenges. These include high costs compared to when conventional materials are used, difficulties in standardizing membrane production through microbial methods, and challenges in optimizing cultivation and production processes, so further studies are necessary to ensure food safety and industrial viability. Thus, this review provides an overview of the impacts of conventional packaging. It discusses the development of biodegradable packaging, highlighting BC as a promising biopolymer. Additionally, it explores biotechnological techniques for the development of innovative packaging through structural modifications of BC, as well as ways to optimize its production process. The study also emphasizes the importance of these solutions in promoting a circular economy within the food industry and reducing its environmental impact.

Thermal, Morphological, Mechanical, and Biodegradation Properties of Poly(L-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L-lactide)/High-Density Polyethylene Blends

Polymer blends of poly(L-lactide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L-lactide) (PLLA-PEG-PLLA) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) with different blend ratios were prepared by a melt blending method. The thermal, morphological, mechanical, opacity, and biodegradation properties of the PLLA-PEG-PLLA/HDPE blends were investigated and compared to the PLLA/HDPE blends. The blending of HDPE improved the crystallization ability and thermal stability of the PLLA-PEG-PLLA; however, these properties were not improved for the PLLA. The morphology of the blended films showed that the PLLA-PEG-PLLA/HDPE blends had smaller dispersed phases compared to the PLLA/HDPE blends. The PLLA-PEG-PLLA/HDPE blends exhibited higher flexibility, lower opacity, and faster biodegradation and bioerosion in soil than the PLLA/HDPE blends. Therefore, these PLLA-PEG-PLLA/HDPE blends have a good potential for use as flexible and partially biodegradable materials.

Fabrication of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate)/ZnO Nanocomposite Films for Active Packaging Applications: Impact of ZnO Type on Structure-Property Dynamics

Bio-based and biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) have great potential as sustainable packaging materials. The incorporation of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) could further improve their functional properties by providing enhanced barrier and antimicrobial properties, although current literature lacks details on how the characteristics of ZnO influence the structure-property relationships in PHA/ZnO nanocomposites. Therefore, commercial ZnO NPs with different morphologies (rod-like, spherical) and silane surface modification are incorporated into poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) (PHBHHx) via extrusion and compression molding. All ZnO NPs are homogeneously distributed in the PHBHHx matrix at 1, 3 and 5 wt.%, but finer dispersion is achieved with modified ZnO. No chemical interactions between ZnO and PHBHHx are observed due to a lack of hydroxyl groups on ZnO. The fabricated nanocomposite films retain the flexible properties of PHBHHx with minimal impact of ZnO NPs on crystallization kinetics and the degree of crystallinity (53 to 56%). The opacity gradually increases with ZnO loading, while remaining translucent up to 5 wt.% ZnO and providing an effective UV barrier. Improved oxygen barrier and antibacterial effects against S. aureus are dependent on the intrinsic characteristics of ZnO rather than its morphology. We conclude that PHBHHx retains its favorable processing properties while producing nanocomposite films that are suitable as flexible active packaging materials.

The Impact of Abiotic and Biotic Conditions for Degradation Behaviors of Common Biodegradable Products in Stabilized Composts

This work examines the influence of the degradation behaviors of biotic and abiotic conditions on three types of biodegradable products: cups from PLA and from cellulose, and plates from sugarcane. The main objective of this study was to evaluate if biodegradable products can be degraded in composts that were stabilized by backyard composting. Furthermore, the impact of crucial abiotic parameters (temperature and pH) for the degradation behaviors process was investigated. The changes in the biopolymers were analyzed by FTIR spectroscopy. This work confirmed that abiotic and biotic conditions are important for an effective disintegration of the investigated biodegradable products. Under abiotic conditions, the degradation behaviors of PLA were observable under both tested temperature (38 and 59 °C) conditions, but only at the higher temperature was complete disintegration observed after 6 weeks of incubation in mature compost. Moreover, our research shows that some biodegradable products made from cellulose also need additional attention, especially with respect to incorporated additives, as composting could be altered and optimal conditions in composting may not be achieved. This study shows that the disintegration of biodegradable products is a comprehensive process and requires detailed evaluation during composting. The results also showed that biodegradable products can also be degraded post composting and that microplastic pollution from biodegradable polymers in soil may be removed by simple physical treatments.

Green Synthesis of Bioplastics from Microalgae: A State-of-the-Art Review

The synthesis of conventional plastics has increased tremendously in the last decades due to rapid industrialization, population growth, and advancement in the use of modern technologies. However, overuse of these fossil fuel-based plastics has resulted in serious environmental and health hazards by causing pollution, global warming, etc. Therefore, the use of microalgae as a feedstock is a promising, green, and sustainable approach for the production of biobased plastics. Various biopolymers, such as polyhydroxybutyrate, polyurethane, polylactic acid, cellulose-based polymers, starch-based polymers, and protein-based polymers, can be produced from different strains of microalgae under varying culture conditions. Different techniques, including genetic engineering, metabolic engineering, the use of photobioreactors, response surface methodology, and artificial intelligence, are used to alter and improve microalgae stocks for the commercial synthesis of bioplastics at lower costs. In comparison to conventional plastics, these biobased plastics are biodegradable, biocompatible, recyclable, non-toxic, eco-friendly, and sustainable, with robust mechanical and thermoplastic properties. In addition, the bioplastics are suitable for a plethora of applications in the agriculture, construction, healthcare, electrical and electronics, and packaging industries. Thus, this review focuses on techniques for the production of biopolymers and bioplastics from microalgae. In addition, it discusses innovative and efficient strategies for large-scale bioplastic production while also providing insights into the life cycle assessment, end-of-life, and applications of bioplastics. Furthermore, some challenges affecting industrial scale bioplastics production and recommendations for future research are provided.

Unveiling the Future of Meat Packaging: Functional Biodegradable Packaging Preserving Meat Quality and Safety

Meat quality and shelf life are important parameters affecting consumer perception and safety. Several factors contribute to the deterioration and spoilage of meat products, including microbial growth, chemical reactions in the food's constituents, protein denaturation, lipid oxidation, and discoloration. This study reviewed the development of functional packaging biomaterials that interact with food and the environment to improve food's sensory properties and consumer safety. Bioactive packaging incorporates additive compounds such as essential oils, natural extracts, and chemical substances to produce composite polymers and polymer blends. The findings showed that the incorporation of additive compounds enhanced the packaging's functionality and improved the compatibility of the polymer-polymer matrices and that between the polymers and active compounds. Food preservatives are alternative substances for food packaging that prevent food spoilage and preserve quality. The safety of food contact materials, especially the flavor/odor contamination from the packaging to the food and the mass transfer from the food to the packaging, was also assessed. Flavor is a key factor in consumer purchasing decisions and also determines the quality and safety of meat products. Novel functional packaging can be used to preserve the quality and safety of packaged meat products.

Recent progress in PBAT-based films and food packaging applications: A mini-review

Bioplastics are a promising alternative to non-biodegradable plastics. One of these bioplastics, PBAT (polybutylene adipate co-terephthalate), is a polyester-based bioplastic commonly used to manufacture flexible packaging films. PBAT-based films have high flexibility but relatively low strength compared to other bioplastics. The strength of PBAT films can be improved by blending them with other fillers/polymers. Additionally, the functionality of PBAT films can be enhanced by incorporating bioactive functional fillers. The physical and functional properties of PBAT films produced by adding active ingredients provide functionality and are a good alternative to non-degradable petrochemical-based plastics. The PBAT-based functional films protect food and improve packaged foods' quality and life span. Thus, this review provides recent advances in PBAT-based films and their use in active food packaging applications. After briefly describing the different fabrication methods of PBAT films, various important physical and functional properties and biodegradability are comprehensively discussed. PBAT-based active packaging film in real-time food packaging is also briefly covered. Through this review, more attention is expected to be focused on research on PBAT-based biodegradable active food packaging.

Preparation and characterization of bioplastic film from the green seaweed Halimeda opuntia

Protein-rich seaweeds are regarded as having commercial significance due to their numerous industrial applications. The green seaweed Halimeda opuntia was used during this study for the preparation of bioplastic film. A thin bioplastic film with better physical and mechanical properties was produced by optimizing the ratio of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to seaweed biomass. The films obtained were characterized by their thickness, tensile strength, elongation at break, Young's modulus, moisture absorption resistance, and solubility. To evaluate the composition and potential for chemical reactions of the films, an FTIR spectroscopy examination was conducted. Whereas TG-DTA and AFM were performed on films with high mechanical properties. The bioplastic film produced when algae percent was tripled in PVA concentration had better physical and mechanical characteristics, and the bioplastic films degraded in the environment within a short time. According to the current study, seaweed might serve as an alternative source for the production of bioplastic, which could help minimize the use of non-biodegradable plastics.

Biological Activity of Poly(1,3-propanediol citrate) Films and Nonwovens: Mechanical, Thermal, Antimicrobial, and Cytotoxicity Studies

Polymers are of great interest for medical and cosmeceutical applications. The current trend is to combine materials of natural and synthetic origin in order to obtain products with appropriate mechanical strength and good biocompatibility, additionally biodegradable and bioresorbable. Citric acid, being an important metabolite, is an interesting substance for the synthesis of materials for biomedical applications. Due to the high functionality of the molecule, it is commonly used in biomaterials chemistry as a crosslinking agent. Among citric acid-based biopolyesters, poly(1,8-octanediol citrate) is the best known. It shows application potential in soft tissue engineering. This work focuses on a much less studied polyester, poly(1,3-propanediol citrate). Porous and non-porous materials based on the synthesized polyesters are prepared and characterized, including mechanical, thermal, and surface properties, morphology, and degradation. The main focus is on assessing the biocompatibility and antimicrobial properties of the materials.

New polyvinyl alcohol/gellan gum-based bioplastics with guava and chickpea extracts for food packaging

Plastic is a fossil-based synthetic polymer that has become an essential material in our daily life. Plastic pollution resulting from the accumulation of plastic objects has become problematic for our environment. Bioplastic can be a biodegradable environmentally friendly alternative for the synthetic plastic. In this paper, bioplastics based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/gellan gum (GG) blend have been produced in three different compositions and their chemical structure, mechanical, morphological and thermal properties have been studied. Glycerol has been used as a plasticizer. To add extra features to the PVA/GG bioplastic, Psidium guajava (guava) leaves, GL, and chickpea, CP, extracts have been added to the PVA/GG (30/70) blend. Water and aqueous ethanol have been used in the extraction of GL and CP, respectively. The addition of the plant's extracts enhanced the tensile properties of the PVA/GG bioplastic. Weathering acceleration tests have been carried out to examine the degradation of the prepared bioplastics. Cytotoxicity studies revealed that the prepared bioplastic is safe to be used in food packaging applications. Water and oxygen permeability for the new PVA/GG bioplastic have also been studied. The addition of the plant extracts (GL and CP extracts) increased the oxygen and water permeability to different extents. Bioplastic life cycle assessment (LCA) and CO2 emissions in comparison to fossil-based plastic have been investigated. From all the results, PVA/GG based bioplastic proved to be a degradable, safe and effective alternative for fossil-based plastics in food packaging applications.

Development and evaluation of quercetin enriched bentonite-reinforced starch-gelatin based bioplastic with antimicrobial property

Nowadays novel bio-based materials have been widely employed in food and pharmaceutical industry because of their wide acceptability by the consumers rather than the synthetic materials nevertheless, they possess poor mechanical properties. Reinforcement of biopolymers with intercalation of mineral clays can improve their physicochemical properties; so that such biocomposites possess superior barrier and mechanical properties as well as stability and drug loading efficacy. Thus, this research aimed at formulating quercetin loaded bentonite-reinforced starch-gelatin based novel bioplastic with diverse applicability. The methodology of the study included Box Behnken optimization as well as physical, structural, mechanical and antimicrobial properties evaluation of the proposed reinforced bioplastics. Amount of starch, bentonite and glycerin were the independent variables while the tensile strength, swelling index and elongation percentage were studied as dependent variables. The optimized bioplastic film showed excellent physicochemical and morphological characteristics and also for efficient percentage drug content. The antimicrobial activity showed the highest activity against Escherichia coli followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed the non-homogenous nature of the film. Generally, the results revealed that quercetin loaded bentonite-reinforced starch-gelatin based could be used as ecological friendly active food packaging as well as pharmaceutical application with significant antimicrobial properties.

A critical review on the biosynthesis, properties, applications and future outlook of green MnO2 nanoparticles

MnO2 nanoparticles have played a vital role in biomedical, catalysis, electrochemical and energy storage fields, but requiring toxic chemicals in the fabrication intercepts their applications. There is an increasing demand for biosynthesis of MnO2 nanoparticles using green sources such as plant species in accordance with the purposes of environmental mitigation and production cost reduction. Here, we review recent advancements on the use of natural compounds such as polyphenols, reducing sugars, quercetins, etc. Extracted directly from low-cost and available plants for biogenic synthesis of MnO2 nanoparticles. Role of these phytochemicals and formation mechanism of bio-medicated MnO2 nanoparticles are shed light on. MnO2 nanoparticles own small particle size, high crystallinity, diverse morphology, high surface area and stability. Thanks to higher biocompatibility, bio-mediated synthesized MnO2 nanoparticles exhibited better antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer activity than chemically synthesized ones. In terms of wastewater treatment and energy storage, they also served as efficient adsorbents and catalyst. Moreover, several aspects of limitation and future outlook of bio-mediated MnO2 nanoparticles in the fields are analyzed. It is expected that the present work not only expands systematic understandings of synthesis methods, properties and applications MnO2 nanoparticles but also pave the way for the nanotechnology revolution in combination with green chemistry and sustainable development.

Revealing the key gene involved in bioplastic degradation from superior bioplastic degrader Bacillus sp. JY35

The use of bioplastics, which can alleviate environmental pollution caused by non-degradable bioplastics, has received attention. As there are many types of bioplastics, method that can treat them simultaneously is important. Therefore, Bacillus sp. JY35 which can degrade different types of bioplastics, was screened in previous study. Most types of bioplastics, such as polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), (P(3HB-co-4HB)), poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT), polybutylene succinate (PBS), and polycaprolactone (PCL), can be degraded by esterase family enzymes. To identify the genes that are involved in bioplastic degradation, analysis with whole-genome sequencing was performed. Among the many esterase enzymes, three carboxylesterase and one triacylglycerol lipase were identified and selected based on previous studies. Esterase activity using p-nitrophenyl substrates was measured, and the supernatant of JY35_02679 showed strong emulsion clarification activity compared with others. In addition, when recombinant E. coli was applied to the clear zone test, only the JY35_02679 gene showed activity in the clear zone test with bioplastic containing solid cultures. Further quantitative analysis showed 100 % PCL degradation at 7 days and 45.7 % PBS degradation at 10 days. We identified a gene encoding a bioplastic-degrading enzyme in Bacillus sp. JY35 and successfully expressed the gene in heterologous E. coli, which secreted esterases with broad specificity.

Rhodotorula sp. as a cell factory for production of valuable biomolecules

Rhodotorula sp. are well-known for their ability to biosynthesize a diverse range of valuable biomolecules, including carotenoids, lipids, enzymes, and polysaccharides. Despite the high number of studies conducted using Rhodotorula sp. at the laboratory scale, most of these do not address all processual aspects necessary for scaling up these processes for industrial applications. This chapter explores the potential of Rhodotorula sp. as a cell factory for the production of distinct biomolecules, with a particular emphasis on exploring their use from a biorefinery perspective. Through in-depth discussions of the latest research and insights into non-conventional applications, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of Rhodotorula sp.'s ability to produce biofuels, bioplastics, pharmaceuticals, and other valuable biochemicals. This book chapter also examines the fundamentals and challenges associated with the optimizing upstream and downstream processing of Rhodotorula sp-based processes. We believe that through this chapter, readers with different levels of expertise will gain insights into strategies for enhancing the sustainability, efficiency, and effectiveness of producing biomolecules using Rhodotorula sp.

The Potential Applications of Reinforced Bioplastics in Various Industries: A Review

The introduction of bioplastics has been an evolution for plastic industry since conventional plastics have been claimed to cause several environmental issues. Apart from its biodegradability, one of the advantages can be identified of using bioplastic is that they are produced by renewal resources as the raw materials for synthesis. Nevertheless, bioplastics can be classified into two types, which are biodegradable and non-biodegradable, depending on the type of plastic that is produced. Although some of the bioplastics are non-biodegradable, the usage of biomass in synthesising the bioplastics helps in preserving non-renewable resources, which are petrochemical, in producing conventional plastics. However, the mechanical strength of bioplastic still has room for improvement as compared to conventional plastics, which is believed to limit its application. Ideally, bioplastics need to be reinforced for improving their performance and properties to serve their application. Before 21st century, synthetic reinforcement has been used to reinforce conventional plastic to achieve its desire properties to serve its application, such as glass fiber. Owing to several issues, the trend has been diversified to utilise natural resources as reinforcements. There are several industries that have started to use reinforced bioplastic, and this article focuses on the advantages of using reinforced bioplastic in various industries and its limitations. Therefore, this article aims to study the trend of reinforced bioplastic applications and the potential applications of reinforced bioplastics in various industries.

Sources, distribution, and incipient threats of polymeric microplastic released from food storage plastic materials

The present study aimed to find out the source, distribution, quantity, and incipient threats of the microplastics (MPs) released by food-packing plastic materials, plastic bags, bottles, and containers on human health, biodiversity, water bodies, and atmosphere. For this purpose, 152 articles about MPs (0.1 to 5000 µm) and nanoplastics (NP) 1 to 100 nm) were reviewed and interpreted their results in the present articles about microplastics. The highest plastic waste is generated by China (⁓ 59 Mt), the USA (⁓ 38 Mt), Brazil (⁓ 12 Mt), Germany (⁓ 15 Mt), and Pakistan (⁓ 6 Mt). The count of MPs (MPs/kg) in Chinese salt was 718, UK 136, Iran 48, and USA 32, while MPs in bivalves, i.e., in Chinese bivalves was 2.93, UK 2.9, Iran 2.2, and Italy 7.2 in MPs/kg, respectively. The MPs count in Chinese fish was 7.3, Italy's 23, the USA's 13, and UK's 1.25 in MPs/kg, respectively. The MP concentrations in the water bodies, i.e., USA, were 15.2, Italy 7, and UK 4.4 in mg/L, respectively. It was critically reviewed that MPs can enter the human body causing various disorders (neurotoxic, biotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic disorders) because of the presence of various polymers. The present study concluded that MPs were released from processed and stored food containers, either through physical, biological, or chemical means, which harshly affect the surrounding environment and human health. The study recommended that alternatives to plastic containers are glass and bioplastic containers, papers, cotton bags, wooden boxes, and tree leaves need to use to avoid direct consumption of MPs from food.

Effect of branched polyethyleneimine and citric acid on the structural, physical and antibacterial properties of corn starch/chitosan films

To improve the antibacterial and physical properties of corn starch/chitosan films effectively, starch/chitosan/polyethyleneimine (PEI) blend films crosslinked by citric acid (labeled SCPC) with different contents (2.5 %, 5.0 %, 7.5 % and 10.0 %) were prepared by the solution casting method. The films were characterized in detail. The results showed that the addition of 3.75 % PEI improved the tensile strength and elongation at break of the starch/chitosan film simultaneously, but the thermal stability decreased. After CA was incorporated, the tensile strength and thermal stability of the films were enhanced significantly. FTIR, XRD, and ¹H NMR analyses revealed strong interactions among CA, PEI and starch-chitosan. All films showed smooth and homogenous fragile cross-sections. The water vapor permeability of the film decreased overall after PEI and CA addition. Moisture uptake (MU) accelerated after PEI addition, but the balanced MU was reduced by CA cross-linking. All films showed an inhibitory effect on E. coli and S. aureus, and CA incorporation significantly improved the inhibition ability of the film. The SCPC film with 3.75 % PEI and 5.0 % CA addition has the best comprehensive properties, which endowed its application in the bioactive packaging field.

Sustainable and Bio-Based Food Packaging: A Review on Past and Current Design Innovations

Food loss and waste occur for many reasons, from crop processing to household leftovers. Even though some waste generation is unavoidable, a considerable amount is due to supply chain inefficiencies and damage during transport and handling. Packaging design and materials innovations represent real opportunities to reduce food waste within the supply chain. Besides, changes in people's lifestyles have increased the demand for high-quality, fresh, minimally processed, and ready-to-eat food products with extended shelf-life, that need to meet strict and constantly renewed food safety regulations. In this regard, accurate monitoring of food quality and spoilage is necessary to diminish both health hazards and food waste. Thus, this work provides an overview of the most recent advances in the investigation and development of food packaging materials and design with the aim to improve food chain sustainability. Enhanced barrier and surface properties as well as active materials for food conservation are reviewed. Likewise, the function, importance, current availability, and future trends of intelligent and smart packaging systems are presented, especially considering biobased sensor development by 3D printing technology. In addition, driving factors affecting fully biobased packaging design and materials development and production are discussed, considering byproducts and waste minimization and revalorization, recyclability, biodegradability, and other possible ends-of-life and their impact on product/package system sustainability.

Blending of Low-Density Polyethylene and Poly(Butylene Succinate) (LDPE/PBS) with Polyethylene-Graft-Maleic Anhydride (PE-g-MA) as a Compatibilizer on the Phase Morphology, Mechanical and Thermal Properties

It is of significant concern that the buildup of non-biodegradable plastic waste in the environment may result in long-term issues with the environment, the economy and waste management. In this study, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) was compounded with different contents of poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) at 10-50 wt.%, to evaluate the potential of replacing commercial plastics with a biodegradable renewable polymer, PBS for packaging applications. The morphological, mechanical and thermal properties of the LDPE/PBS blends were examined in relation to the effect of polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride (PE-g-MA) as a compatibilizer. LDPE/PBS/PE-g-MA blends were fabricated via the melt blending method using an internal mixer and then were compression molded into test samples. The presence of LDPE, PBS and PE-g-MA individually in the matrix for each blend presented physical interaction between the constituents, as shown by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The morphology of LDPE/PBS/PE-g-MA blends showed improved compatibility and homogeneity between the LDPE matrix and PBS phase. Compatibilized LDPE/PBS blends showed an improvement in the tensile strength, with 5 phr of compatibilizer providing the optimal content. The thermal stability of LDPE/PBS blends decreased with higher PBS content and the thermal stability of compatibilized blends was higher in contrast to the uncompatibilized blends. Therefore, our research demonstrated that the partial substitution of LDPE with a biodegradable PBS and the incorporation of the PE-g-MA compatibilizer could develop an innovative blend with improved structural, mechanical and thermal properties.

Latest Trends in Sustainable Polymeric Food Packaging Films

Food packaging is the best way to protect food while it moves along the entire supply chain to the consumer. However, conventional food packaging poses some problems related to food wastage and excessive plastic production. Considering this, the aim of this work was to examine recent findings related to bio-based alternative food packaging films by means of conventional methodologies and additive manufacturing technologies, such as 3D printing (3D-P), with potential to replace conventional petroleum-based food packaging. Based on the findings, progress in the development of bio-based packaging films, biopolymer-based feedstocks for 3D-P, and innovative food packaging materials produced by this technology was identified. However, the lack of studies suggests that 3D-P has not been well-explored in this field. Nonetheless, it is probable that in the future this technology will be more widely employed in the food packaging field, which could lead to a reduction in plastic production as well as safer food consumption.

Novel Features of Cellulose-Based Films as Sustainable Alternatives for Food Packaging

Packaging plays an important role in food quality and safety, especially regarding waste and spoilage reduction. The main drawback is that the packaging industry is among the ones that is highly dependent on plastic usage. New alternatives to conventional plastic packaging such as biopolymers-based type are mandatory. Examples are cellulose films and its derivatives. These are among the most used options in the food packaging due to their unique characteristics, such as biocompatibility, environmental sustainability, low price, mechanical properties, and biodegradability. Emerging concepts such as active and intelligent packaging provides new solutions for an extending shelf-life, and it fights some limitations of cellulose films and improves the properties of the packaging. This article reviews the available cellulose polymers and derivatives that are used as sustainable alternatives for food packaging regarding their properties, characteristics, and functionalization towards active properties enhancement. In this way, several types of films that are prepared with cellulose and their derivatives, incorporating antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds, are herein described, and discussed.

Bioplastics for Food Packaging: Environmental Impact, Trends and Regulatory Aspects

The demand to develop and produce eco-friendly alternatives for food packaging is increasing. The huge negative impact that the disposal of so-called "single-use plastics" has on the environment is propelling the market to search for new solutions, and requires initiatives to drive faster responses from the scientific community, the industry, and governmental bodies for the adoption and implementation of new materials. Bioplastics are an alternative group of materials that are partly or entirely produced from renewable sources. Some bioplastics are biodegradable or even compostable under the right conditions. This review presents the different properties of these materials, mechanisms of biodegradation, and their environmental impact, but also presents a holistic overview of the most important bioplastics available in the market and their potential application for food packaging, consumer perception of the bioplastics, regulatory aspects, and future challenges.

Challenges in the context of single-use plastics and bioplastics in Brazil: A legislative review

Plastic has been present in our lives for the past century as an essential material for many commodity items. However, the same properties that make plastic convenient are also responsible for the current dramatic environmental pollution. As an alternative, most of the world has been working with technological innovations, and one of its strategies is the use of bioplastics. Despite being considered environmentally beneficial by some people, there are still developments and discussions that need to be made. This article aims to present a legislative review and discusses the difficulty in implementing policies related to the incentive of the bioplastics market, as well as presenting some state and municipal laws, already prohibiting single-use plastics in Brazil. These laws aim to encourage the substitution of these plastics for biodegradable ones. However, it still has gaps and a lack of clarification on how the banning of disposable plastics and their substitution will be beneficial since composting is still an incipient process in the country. It is also the purpose of this article to discuss the challenges in the context of the Circular Economy, as well as the potential solution based on the creation of public policies aimed at improving waste management, in addition to clearer legislation on alternatives to single-use plastics.

Food-inspired innovations to improve the stability of active pharmaceutical ingredients

Food-processing and pharmaceutical industries share a lot of stability issues against the same physical, chemical, and microbiological phenomena. They also share some solutions to improve the stability as the use of preservatives and packaging. Ecological concerns lead to the development of tremendous innovations in food. Some of these innovations could also be beneficial in the pharmaceutical domain. The objective of this review is to evaluate the potential application of these findings in the pharmaceutical field and the main limits in terms of toxicity, environmental, economic and regulatory issues. The principal factors influencing the shelf-life were highlighted through the description of the stability studies usually performed in the pharmaceutical industry (according to European guidelines). To counter those factors, different solutions are currently available as preservatives and specific packaging. They were described and debated with an overview of recent food innovations in each field. The limits of the current solutions in the pharmaceutical field and the innovation in the food field have inspired a critical pharmaceutical outlook. The active and intelligent packaging for active pharmaceutical ingredients of the future is imagined.

Plant protein-based nanocomposite films: A review on the used nanomaterials, characteristics, and food packaging applications

Consumer demands to utilize environmentally friendly packaging have led researchers to develop packaging materials from naturally derived resources. In recent years, plant protein-based films as a replacement for synthetic plastics have attracted the attention of the global food packaging industry due to their biodegradability and unique properties. Biopolymer-based films need a filler to show improved packaging properties. One of the latest strategies introduced to food packaging technology is the production of nanocomposite films which are multiphase materials containing a filler with at least one dimension less than 100 nm. This review provides the recent findings on plant-based protein films as biodegradable materials that can be combined with nanoparticles that are applicable to food packaging. Moreover, it investigates the characterization of nanocomposite plant-based protein films/edible coatings. It also briefly describes the application of plant-based protein nanocomposite films/coating on fruits/vegetables, meat and seafood products, and some other foods. The results indicate that the functional performance, barrier, mechanical, optical, thermal and antimicrobial properties of plant protein-based materials can be extended by incorporating nanomaterials. Recent reports provide a better understanding of how incorporating nanomaterials into plant protein-based biopolymers leads to an increase in the shelf life of food products during storage time.

The Effect of Whey Protein Films with Ginger and Rosemary Essential Oils on Microbiological Quality and Physicochemical Properties of Minced Lamb Meat

Consumers’ constant search for high-quality and safe products, with the least possible preservatives and additives, as well as extended shelf life, has led industries to research and develop alternative forms of food preservation and packaging. The purpose of this research was the study of the effect of natural antimicrobials and, in particular, the essential oils of ginger (Zingiber Officinale Roscoe) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) on strengthening whey protein films’ properties. Whey protein isolate (WPI) films, alone and with incorporated essential oils (WPI + EO) at different concentrations were prepared and then examined for their possible effect on delaying the deterioration of minced lamb meat. Microbiological and physicochemical measurements were carried out to examine the meat’s shelf life. Results showed that films with 1% EO significantly improved the microbiological quality of meat. On day 11, total viable counts, Pseudomonas spp., Br. thermosphacta, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, and yeasts remained low for films with 1% concentration of essential oil compared with 0.5%. Regarding, physicochemical properties the same pattern was observed for pH while oxidation degree was significantly reduced. Finally, color attributes measurements recorded fluctuations between samples, but overall, no considerable discoloration was observed.

Deep learning for the quality control of thermoforming food packages

Quality control is a key process designed to ensure that only products satisfying the defined quality requirements reach the end consumer or the next step in a production line. In the food industry, in the packaging step, there are many products that are still evaluated by human operators. To automate the process and improve efficiency and effectiveness, computer vision and artificial intelligence techniques can be applied. This automation is challenging since specific strategies designed according to the application scenario are required. Focusing on the quality control of the sealing and closure of matrix-shaped thermoforming food packages, the aim of the article is to propose a deep-learning-based solution designed to automatically perform the quality control while satisfying production cadence and ensuring 100% inline inspection of the products. Particularly, the designed computer vision system and the image-based criteria defined to determine when a product has to be accepted or rejected are presented. In addition, the vision control software is described with special emphasis on the different convolutional neural network (CNN) architectures that have been considered (ResNet18, ResNet50, Vgg19 and DenseNet161, non-pre-trained and pre-trained on ImageNet) and on the specifically designed dataset. To test the solution, different experiments are carried out in the laboratory and also in a real scenario, concluding that the proposed CNN-based approach improves the efficiency and security of the quality control process. Optimal results are obtained with the pre-trained DenseNet161, achieving false positive rates that range from 0.03 to 0.30% and false negative rates that range from 0 to 0.07%, with a rejection rate between 0.64 and 5.09% of production, and being able to detect at least 99.93% of the sealing defects that occur in any production. The modular design of our solution as well as the provided description allow it to adapt to similar scenarios and to new deep-learning models to prevent the arrival of faulty products to end consumers by removing them from the automated production line.

Recent Applications of Biopolymers Derived from Fish Industry Waste in Food Packaging

Fish waste is attracting growing interest as a new raw material for biopolymer production in different application fields, mainly in food packaging, with significant economic and environmental advantages. This review paper summarizes the recent advances in the valorization of fish waste for the preparation of biopolymers for food packaging applications. The issues related to fishery industry waste and fish by-catch and the potential for re-using these by-products in a circular economy approach have been presented in detail. Then, all the biopolymer typologies derived from fish waste with potential applications in food packaging, such as muscle proteins, collagen, gelatin, chitin/chitosan, have been described. For each of them, the recent applications in food packaging, in the last five years, have been overviewed with an emphasis on smart packaging applications. Despite the huge industrial potential of fish industry by-products, most of the reviewed applications are still at lab-scale. Therefore, the technological challenges for a reliable exploitation and recovery of several potentially valuable molecules and the strategies to improve the barrier, mechanical and thermal performance of each kind of biopolymer have been analyzed.

Potential applications of algae in biochemical and bioenergy sector

Algae have gained substantial importance as the most promising potential green fuel source across the globe and is on growing demand due to their antioxidant, anticancer, antiviral, antihypertensive, cholesterol reducing and thickening properties. Therefore, it has vast range of application in medicines, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, paper and nutraceutical industries. In this work, the remarkable ability of algae to convert CO₂ and other toxic compounds in atmosphere to potential biofuels, foods, feeds and high-value bioactive compounds is reviewed. Algae produce approximately 50% of the earth's oxygen using its photosynthetic activity, thus acting as a potent tool to mitigate the effects of air pollution. Further, the applicability of algae as a desirable energy source has also been discussed, as they have the potential to serve as an effective alternative to intermittent renewable energy; and also, to combustion-based fossil fuel energy, making them effective for advanced biofuel conversions. This work also evaluates the current applications of algae and the implications of it as a potential substrate for bioplastic, natural alternative to inks and for making paper besides high-value products. In addition, the scope for integrated biorefinery approach is also briefly explored in terms of economic aspects at the industrial scale, as such energy conversion mechanisms are directly linked with sustainability, thus providing a positive overall energy outlook.

Carvacrol, citral and α-terpineol essential oil incorporated biodegradable films for functional active packaging of Pacific white shrimp

Biodegradable poly(butylene adipate terephthalate) and poly(lactic acid) (PBAT/PLA) blend films compounded with carvacrol, citral and α-terpineol essential oils (EOs) were produced for food packaging via blown-film extrusion. PBAT/PLA interacted with citral and α-terpineol via hydrogen bonding and carbonyl groups. Microstructures and barrier properties against water vapor and oxygen were modified depending on types and concentrations (3% and 6%) of EOs. Films containing 6% citral showed outstanding smoothness due to plasticization effects and improved compatibility. Addition of EOs decreased PLA crystallinity, giving increased amorphous phase for oxygen permeation. Films containing EOs inhibited quality deterioration in Pacific white shrimp including microbial growth, lipid oxidation and textural change. Citral and carvacrol effectively stabilized protein conformation in muscle tissues, leading to delayed drip loss and retained adhesion between shrimp cephalothorax and abdomen. All EO compounded films prevented melanosis. Findings indicated high potential of EO compounded films as functional active packaging to preserve seafood qualities.

Impact of Optimized Packaging on Food Waste Prevention Potential among Consumers

Food and plastic waste are cited as major environmental challenges. The function of packaging is often overlooked when considering waste; however, food packaging is indispensable for hygienic protection during transport and distribution within the supply chain. An important way to prevent the premature spoilage of a variety of different food product groups is to use specially optimized packaging systems. These are able to provide a high level of protection and actively extend shelf life. However, even if novel packaging systems theoretically have great potential for waste reduction, it remains uncertain whether they will also be accepted at the consumer level and actually contribute to waste reduction within households. Three different methods were used to clarify consumers’ perceptions of optimized packaging and thus the potential impact on waste generation. General perceptions have been identified by means of quantitative research among 1117 consumers. Precise information on waste generation behavior was obtained by means of food diaries. Consumer simulations were used to analyze the extent to which optimized packaging can actually have a positive effect on food waste generation at the household level. It was found that the functionality of the packaging usually ceases with the consumer. Consumers are only marginally aware of the advantages of food product packaging in the household, and do not perceive the direct connection between packaging, freshness, shelf life, and spoilage as food waste. In general, consumers rarely or never use optimized packaging at home correctly. It could be concluded that consumers’ perceptions of optimized packaging in terms of potential food waste prevention are not pronounced. In summary, it can be stated that in contrast to its use in retail and transport, an optimization of packaging to avoid food waste for later use by the consumer only shows an effect in exceptional cases, or can only be achieved through targeted information campaigns. If this should be a focus topic in the future, either on the political or managerial level, this has to be taken into account.

(Bio)nanotechnology in Food Science-Food Packaging

Background: Bionanotechnology, as a tool for incorporation of biological molecules into nanoartifacts, is gaining more and more importance in the field of food packaging. It offers an advanced expectation of food packaging that can ensure longer shelf life of products and safer packaging with improved food quality and traceability. Scope and approach: This review recent focuses on advances in food nanopackaging, including bio-based, improved, active, and smart packaging. Special emphasis is placed on bio-based packaging, including biodegradable packaging and biocompatible packaging, which presents an alternative to most commonly used non-degradable polymer materials. Safety and environmental concerns of (bio)nanotechnology implementation in food packaging were also discussed including new EU directives. Conclusions: The use of nanoparticles and nanocomposites in food packaging increases the mechanical strength and properties of the water and oxygen barrier of packaging and may provide other benefits such as antimicrobial activity and light-blocking properties. Concerns about the migration of nanoparticles from packaging to food have been expressed, but migration tests and risk assessment are unclear. Presumed toxicity, lack of additional data from clinical trials and risk assessment studies limit the use of nanomaterials in the food packaging sector. Therefore, an assessment of benefits and risks must be defined.