6-Shogaol induces apoptosis in human colorectal carcinoma cells via ROS production, caspase activation, and GADD 153 expression

6-Shogaol improves sorafenib efficacy in colorectal cancer cells by modulating its cellular accumulation and metabolism

Carcinoma of the colon and rectum, also known as colorectal cancer, ranks as the third most frequently diagnosed malignancy globally. Sorafenib exhibits broad-spectrum antitumor activity against Raf, VEGF, and PDGF pathways in hepatocellular, thyroid, and renal cancers, but faces resistance in colorectal malignancies. 6-Shogaol, a prominent natural compound found in Zingiberaceae, exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antiemetic properties. We investigated the influence of 6-shogaol on sorafenib's cytotoxic profile against colorectal cancer cell lines (HT-29, HCT-116, CaCo-2, and LS174T) through its effects on cellular accumulation and metabolism. Cytotoxicity was assessed using the sulpharodamine B assay, caspase-3 and c-PARP cleavage, cell cycle distribution analysis, and P-gp efflux activity. 6-Shogoal showed considerable cytotoxicity with decreased IC50 in colorectal cancer cell lines. Combining sorafenib and 6-shogaol increased c-PARP and pro-caspase-3 concentrations in HCT-116 cells compared to sorafenib alone. In combination, pro-caspase-3 concentrations were decreased in CaCo-2 cells compared to alone. Sorafenib combinations with 6-shogaol showed a significant drop in cell cycle distribution from 16.96±1.10 % to 9.16±1.85 %, respectively. At 100 µM, sorafenib and 6-shogaol showed potent and significant activity with intra-cellular rhodamine concentration on P-gp efflux activity in CRC cell lines. In conclusion, 6-shogaol substantially improved the cytotoxic profile of sorafenib by affecting its cellular uptake and metabolism. Future research should focus on dosage optimization and formulation and evaluate the efficacy and safety of the combination in animal models with colorectal cancer.

Review of the anticancer properties of 6-shogaol: Mechanisms of action in cancer cells and future research opportunities

Cancer is a major global health challenge that affects every nation and accounts for a large portion of the worldwide disease burden. Furthermore, cancer cases will rise significantly in the next few decades. The Food and Drug Administration has approved more than 600 drugs for treating diverse types of cancer. However, many conventional anticancer medications cause side effects, and drug resistance develops as the treatment proceeds with a concomitant impact on patients' quality of life. Thus, exploring natural products with antitumor properties and nontoxic action mechanisms is essential. Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) rhizome has a long history of use in traditional medicine, and it contains biologically active compounds, gingerols and shogaols. The main ginger shogaol is 6-shogaol, whose concentration dramatically increases during the processing of ginger, primarily due to the heat-induced conversion of 6-gingerol. Some studies have demonstrated that 6-shogaol possesses biological and pharmacological properties, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. The mechanism of action of 6-shogaol as an anticancer drug includes induction of paraptosis, induction of apoptosis, increase in the production of reactive oxygen species, induction of autophagy, and the inhibition of AKT/mTOR signaling. Despite this knowledge, the mechanism of action of 6-shogaol is not fully understood, and the scientific data on its therapeutic dose, safety, and toxicity are not entirely described. This review article examines the potential of 6-shogaol as an anticancer drug, addressing the limitations of current medications; it covers 6-shogaol's attributes, mechanism of action in cancer cells, and opportunities for future research.

Research progress of ginger in the treatment of gastrointestinal tumors

Cancer seriously endangers human health. Gastrointestinal cancer is the most common and major malignant tumor, and its morbidity and mortality are gradually increasing. Although there are effective treatments such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy for gastrointestinal tumors, they are often accompanied by serious side effects. According to the traditional Chinese medicine and food homology theory, many materials are both food and medicine. Moreover, food is just as capable of preventing and treating diseases as medicine. Medicine and food homologous herbs not only have excellent pharmacological effects and activities but also have few side effects. As a typical medicinal herb with both medicinal and edible uses, some components of ginger have been shown to have good efficacy and safety against cancer. A mass of evidence has also shown that ginger has anti-tumor effects on digestive tract cancers (such as gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, liver cancer, laryngeal cancer, and pancreatic cancer) through a variety of pathways. The aim of this study is to investigate the mechanisms of action of the main components of ginger and their potential clinical applications in treating gastrointestinal tumors.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Root Capsules Enhance Analgesic and Antioxidant Efficacy of Diclofenac Sodium in Experimental Acute Inflammation

Our study aimed to evaluate the analgesic and antioxidant effects of ginger (Zingiber officinale) root capsule extract (GRCE) in addition to diclofenac (D) sodium treatment in carrageenan-induced acute inflammation (AI). Seven groups of eight Wistar-Bratislava white rats were included in the study. One group was the control (C), and AI was induced in the other six groups. The following treatments were applied: saline solution for C and AI groups, D for the AID group, GRCE for two groups and GRCE and D for another two groups. The GRCE was administered by gavage in two doses (100 mg/Kg b.w. or 200 mg/kg b.w.), while D was administered intraperitoneally in a dose of 5 mg/kg b.w. The association of GRCE with this low dose of diclofenac reduced pain threshold and improved mobility with the best results for the dose of 200 mg/kg b.w. Moreover, this combination reduced, better than D alone, the serum levels of the evaluated pro-oxidant parameters (malondialdehyde, the indirect assessment of NO synthesis, total oxidative status and oxidative stress index) up to 78%, especially oxidative stress index (p < 0.0001). GRCE alone slightly improved the antioxidant parameters (total antioxidant capacity and total thiols), but when associated with, D the results were better, especially for total thiols as their plasma levels increased up to 50% (p < 0.0010), with the best results obtained for the 200 mg/kg b.w. dose of GRCE. In conclusion, ginger root capsules associated with diclofenac might offer additional antioxidant and analgesic effects in a dose-dependent manner in acute inflammation.

Structure-Based Profiling of Potential Phytomolecules with AKT1 a Key Cancer Drug Target

Identifying cancer biomarkers is imperative, as upregulated genes offer a better microenvironment for the tumor; hence, targeted inhibition is preferred. The theme of our study is to predict molecular interactions between cancer biomarker proteins and selected natural compounds. We identified an overexpressed potential molecular target (AKT1) and computationally evaluated its inhibition by four dietary ligands (isoliquiritigenin, shogaol, tehranolide, and theophylline). The three-dimensional structures of protein and phytochemicals were retrieved from the RCSB PDB database (4EKL) and NCBI’s PubChem, respectively. Rational structure-based docking studies were performed using AutoDock. Results were analyzed based primarily on the estimated free binding energy (kcal/mol), hydrogen bonds, and inhibition constant, Ki, to identify the most effective anti-cancer phytomolecule. Toxicity and drug-likeliness prediction were performed using OSIRIS and SwissADME. Amongst the four phytocompounds, tehranolide has better potential to suppress the expression of AKT1 and could be used for anti-cancer drug development, as inhibition of AKT1 is directly associated with the inhibition of growth, progression, and metastasis of the tumor. Docking analyses reveal that tehranolide has the most efficiency in inhibiting AKT1 and has the potential to be used for the therapeutic management of cancer. Natural compounds targeting cancer biomarkers offer less rejection, minimal toxicity, and fewer side effects.

6-Shogaol as a Novel Thioredoxin Reductase Inhibitor Induces Oxidative-Stress-Mediated Apoptosis in HeLa Cells

Inhibition of thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) is a crucial strategy for the discovery of antineoplastic drugs. 6-Shogaol (6-S), a primary bioactive compound in ginger, has high anticancer activity. However, its potential mechanism of action has not been thoroughly investigated. In this study, we demonstrated for the first time that 6-S, a novel TrxR inhibitor, promoted oxidative-stress-mediated apoptosis in HeLa cells. The other two constituents of ginger, 6-gingerol (6-G) and 6-dehydrogingerduone (6-DG), have a similar structure to 6-S but fail to kill HeLa cells at low concentrations. 6-Shogaol specifically inhibits purified TrxR1 activity by targeting selenocysteine residues. It also induced apoptosis and was more cytotoxic to HeLa cells than normal cells. The molecular mechanism of 6-S-mediated apoptosis involves TrxR inhibition, followed by an outburst of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Furthermore, TrxR knockdown enhanced the cytotoxic sensitivity of 6-S cells, highlighting the physiological significance of targeting TrxR by 6-S. Our findings show that targeting TrxR by 6-S reveals a new mechanism underlying the biological activity of 6-S and provides meaningful insights into its action in cancer therapeutics.

Biosynthesized silver nanoparticles have anticoccidial and jejunum-protective effects in mice infected with Eimeria papillata

Eimeriosis, an infection with Eimeria spp. that affects poultry, causes huge economic losses. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have antibacterial and antifungal properties, but their action against Eimeria infection has not yet been elucidated. This study demonstrates the action of AgNPs in the treatment of mice infected with Eimeria papillata. AgNPs were prepared from Zingiber officinale rhizomes. Phytochemical screening by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis (GC-MS) was used to detect active compounds. Mice were divided into five groups: uninfected mice, uninfected mice that were administered AgNPs, untreated mice infected with 103 sporulated oocysts of E. papillata, infected mice treated with AgNPs, and infected mice treated with amprolium. Characterization of the samples showed the AgNPs to have nanoscale sizes and aspherical shape. Phytochemical screening by GC-MS demonstrated the presence of 38 phytochemical compounds in the extract of Z. officinale. Mice infected with E. papillata-sporulated oocysts were observed to have many histopathological damages in the jejuna, including a decrease in the goblet cell numbers affecting the jejunal mucosa. Additionally, an increased oocyst output was also observed. The treatment of infected mice with AgNPs resulted in the improvement of the jejunal mucosa, increase in the number of goblet cell, and decrease in the number of meronts, gamonts, and developing oocysts in the jejuna. Moreover, AgNPs also led to decreased oocyst shedding in feces. The results revealed AgNPs to have an anticoccidial effect in the jejunum of E. papillata-infected mice and, thus, could be a potential treatment for eimeriosis.

Ginger for Healthy Ageing: A Systematic Review on Current Evidence of Its Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Anticancer Properties

The world's population is ageing at an accelerated pace. Ageing is a natural, physiological but highly complex and multifactorial process that all species in the Tree of Life experience over time. Physical and mental disabilities, and age-related diseases, would increase along with the increasing life expectancy. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a plant that belongs to the Zingiberaceae family, native to Southeast Asia. For hundreds of years, ginger has been consumed in various ways by the natives of Asian countries, both as culinary and medicinal herb for the treatment of many diseases. Mounting evidence suggests that ginger can promote healthy ageing, reduce morbidity, and prolong healthy lifespan. Ginger, a well-known natural product, has been demonstrated to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial properties, as well as an outstanding antiviral activity due to a high concentration of antiviral compounds. In this review, the current evidence on the potential role of ginger and its active compounds in the prevention of ageing is discussed.

An investigation of 6-Shogaol effects on MCF7 cell lines through a systems biology approach

Introduction

In the literature, to investigate hormonal mechanisms of cell growth of patients with breast cancer (BC), as the second most common cause of death in the world, the researchers frequently used MCF-7 cell lines. And, identifying the functional mechanisms of therapeutics agents as new cancer inhibitors is still unclear.

Methods

We used the NCBI-GEO dataset (GSE36973) to study the effects of 6-Shogaol on MCF-7 cell lines commonly used for more than 45 years in several studies. The pre-processing and post-processing stages were carried out for the target samples to identify the most significant differentially expressed genes between two MCF-7 with and without treated by 6-Shogaol. Furthermore, various analyses, including biological process and molecular function from the DAVID website, the protein–protein interaction (PPI) network, gene-miRNA, gene-transcription factor, gene-drugs, and gene-diseases networks, statistically significant assoications with clinical features and survival rates were conducted.

Results

The initial outcomes revealed thirty significant DEGs. Among which the approach resulted in eleven upregulated and nineteen downregulated genes. Over-expression of TRADD and CREB3L1 and low-expression of KIF4A and PALMD were substantial in the TNF signaling pathway. Moreover, hsa-mir-16-5p and hsa-mir-124-3p were inhibitors of breast cancer growth.

Conclusion

The fact that some of genes are associated with survival rates as well as various clinical features including disease stages, it can be deduced that the 6-Shogaol treatment on MCF7 cell lines at the genome level shows inhibition functionalities of the herbal medicine in breast cancer at early stages and pave the way in developing new therapeutic agents.

Advances in adjunct therapy against tuberculosis: Deciphering the emerging role of phytochemicals

Eastern countries are a major source of medicinal plants, which set up a rich source of ethnopharmacologically known medicines used in the treatment of various diseases. These traditional medicines have been known as complementary, alternative, or nonconventional therapy across globe for ages. Tuberculosis (TB) poses a huge global burden and leads to maximum number of deaths due to an infectious agent. Treatment of TB using Directly Observed Treatment Short-course (DOTS) therapy comprises multiple antibiotics is quite lengthy and causes serious side-effects in different organs. The length of the TB treatment leads to withdrawal from the patients, which paves the way for the emergence of drug resistance in the bacterial population. These concerns related to therapy need serious and immediate interventions. Traditional medicines using phytochemicals has shown to provide tremendous potential in TB treatment, mainly in the eradication of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb), increasing natural immunity, and managing the side effects of anti-TB drugs. This review describes the antituberculosis potential of selected ethnopharmacologically important phytochemicals as potential immune-modulator and as an adjunct-therapy in TB. This review will be a useful reference for researchers working on ethnopharmacology and will open the door for the discovery of novel agents as an adjunct-therapy to tuberculosis.

Orally Administered Natural Lipid Nanoparticle-Loaded 6-Shogaol Shapes the Anti-Inflammatory Microbiota and Metabolome

The past decade has seen increasing interest in microbiota-targeting therapeutic strategies that aim to modulate the gut microbiota's composition and/or function to treat chronic diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), metabolic symptoms, and obesity. While targeting the gut microbiota is an innovative means for treating IBD, it typically requires an extended treatment time, hampering its potential application. Herein, using an established natural-lipid nanoparticle (nLNP) platform, we demonstrate that nLNPs encapsulated with the drug candidate 6-shogaol (6S/nLNP) distinctly altered microbiota composition within one day of treatment, significantly accelerating a process that usually requires five days using free 6-shogaol (6S). In addition, the change in the composition of the microbiota induced by five-day treatment with 6S/nLNP was maintained for at least 15 days (from day five to day 20). The consequent alteration in the fecal metabolic profile stemming from this compositional change manifested as functional changes that enhanced the in vitro anti-inflammatory and wound-healing efficacy of macrophage cells (Raw 264.7) and epithelial cells (Caco-2 BBE1), respectively. Further, this metabolic compositional change, as reflected in an altered metabolic profile, promoted a robust anti-inflammatory effect in a DSS-induced mouse model of acute colitis. Our study demonstrates that, by near-instantly modulating microbiota composition and function, an nLNP-based drug-delivery platform might be a powerful tool for treating ulcerative colitis.

6-Shogaol induces apoptosis in acute lymphoblastic leukaemia cells by targeting p53 signalling pathway and generation of reactive oxygen species

Combination therapies, using medicinal herbs, are broadly recommended to attenuate the chemotherapy adverse effects. Based on our previous findings considering the anti-leukaemic effects of ginger extract on acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) cells, the present study was aimed to investigate the anti-cancer role of this pharmaceutical plant on ALL mice models. Moreover, we worked towards identifying the most anti-leukaemic derivative of ginger and the mechanism through which it may exert its cytotoxic impact. In vivo experiments were performed using five groups of six C57BL/6 nude mice, and the anti-leukaemic activity of ginger extract alone or in combination with methotrexate (MTX) was examined. Results showed increased survival rate and reduced damages in mice brain and liver tissues. Subsequently, MTT assay demonstrated synergistic growth inhibitory effect of 6-shogaol (6Sh) and MTX on ALL cell lines and patients primary cells. Eventually, the molecular anti-neoplastic mechanism of 6Sh was evaluated using Bioinformatics. Flow cytometry illustrated 6Sh-mediated apoptosis in Nalm-6 cells confirmed by Western blotting and RT-PCR assays. Further analyses exhibited the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through 6Sh. The current study revealed the in vivo novel anti-leukaemic role of ginger extract, promoted by MTX. Moreover, 6-shogaol was introduced as the major player of ginger cytotoxicity through inducing p53 activity and ROS generation.

Cytotoxic effect of 6-Shogaol in Imatinib sensitive and resistant K562 cells

Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) is a clonal hematopoietic malignancy characterized by the formation of BCR-ABL fusion protein. Imatinib (IMA) is a BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), which exhibited a high rate of response for newly diagnosed CML patients. Emergence of IMA resistance considered as a major challenge in CML therapy. Recent studies reported the anti-cancer effect of natural extracts such as 6-Shogaol (6-SG) which is extracted from ginger and the mechanisms involved in targeting of cancer cells. In the present study, we aimed to explore the potential anticancer effect of 6-SG on K562S (Imatinib sensitive) and K562R (Imatinib resistant) cells. K562S and K562R cells were incubated with increasing concentrations of 6-SG (5 μM- 50 μM) to determine its cytotoxic and apoptotic effects. Cell viability and apoptosis were investigated with spectrophotometric MTT assay and flow cytometric Annexin V staining, respectively. The mRNA expression levels of apoptotic related genes (BAX and BCL-2) and drug transporter (MDR-1 and MRP-1) genes were evaluated with qRT-PCR. According to our results, 6-SG treatment inhibited cell viability, induced apoptosis in both K562S and K562R cells. Based on our RT-PCR results, 6-SG enhanced pro-apoptotic BAX gene and decreased anti-apoptotic BCL-2 gene expression levels significantly in both treated K562S and K562R cells. Furthermore, 6-SG increased MDR-1 mRNA expression level in K562S and K562R cells in comparison with their control counterparts. Whereas, 6-SG decrease MRP-1 mRNA expression level in K562S cells significantly. It is the first study that reveals the apoptotic effect of 6-SG in CML cell line and IMA resistance. Therefore, 6-SG treatment can be suggested as a promising strategy for CML therapy.

Nutritional implications of ginger: chemistry, biological activities and signaling pathways

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) has been used as a food, spice, supplement and flavoring agent and in traditional medicines due to its beneficial characteristics such as pungency, aroma, nutrients and pharmacological activity. Ginger and ginger extracts were reported to have numerous effects, such as those on diabetes and metabolic syndrome, cholesterol levels and lipid metabolism, and inflammation, revealed by epidemiological studies. To understand the beneficial characteristics of ginger, especially its physiological and pharmacological activities at the molecular level, the biological effects of ginger constituents, such as monoterpenes (cineole, citral, limonene and α/β-pinenes), sesquiterpenes (β-elemene, farnesene and zerumbone), phenolics (gingerols, [6]-shogaol, [6]-paradol and zingerone) and diarylheptanoids (curcumin), and the associated signaling pathways are summarized. Ginger constituents are involved in biological activities, such as apoptosis, cell cycle/DNA damage, chromatin/epigenetic regulation, cytoskeletal regulation and adhesion, immunology and inflammation, and neuroscience, and exert their effects through specific signaling pathways associated with cell functions/mechanisms such as autophagy, cellular metabolism, mitogen-activated protein kinase and other signaling, and development/differentiation. Estrogens, such as phytoestrogens, are one of the most important bioactive materials in nature, and the molecular mechanisms of estrogen actions and the assays to detect them have been discussed. The molecular mechanisms of estrogen actions induced by ginger constituents and related applications, such as the chemoprevention of cancers, and the improvement of menopausal syndromes, osteoporosis, endometriosis, prostatic hyperplasia, polycystic ovary syndrome and Alzheimer's disease, were summarized by a comprehensive search of references to understand more about their health benefits and associated health risks.

Antifungal and anti-biofilm effects of 6-shogaol against Candida auris

AIMS

This study aimed to assess the antifungal and anti-biofilm effects of 6-shogaol against Candida auris using in vitro phenotypic and genotypic analyses.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Our results showed that 6-shogaol exhibited antifungal as well as anti-biofilm activity by inhibiting biofilm formation and eradicating the preformed biofilms of C. auris. The rate and extent of antifungal activity were further confirmed by a time-kill assay. The XTT reduction assay confirmed that 6-shogaol decreased cellular metabolic activity in the biofilm. The effect of 6-shogaol on established C. auris biofilms was visualized by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Also, this study demonstrated that 6-shogaol reduced the levels of aspartyl proteinases and downregulated the expression of the efflux pump-related CDR1 gene in C. auris.

CONCLUSIONS

The data indicated that 6-shogaol extracted from ginger had antifungal and anti-biofilm effects on C. auris.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

This study demonstrated the value of the plant-derived 6-shogaol as a promising and potent bioactive compound. The mode of action of this compound against C. auris biofilm was also proposed.

Anti-Survival and Pro-Apoptotic Effects of 6-Shogaol on SW872 Human Liposarcoma Cells via Control of the Intrinsic Caspase Pathway, STAT-3, AMPK, and ER Stress

Notably, 6-Shogaol, a bioactive natural substance, has anticancer effects on many types of tumors. Up to date, the anticancer effect and mode of action of 6-Shogaol on liposarcoma are not known. In this study, we investigated whether 6-Shogaol inhibits the growth of SW872 and 93T449 cells, two different human liposarcoma cell lines. Of note, 6-Shogaol inhibited the growth of SW872 and 93T449 cells without affecting that of normal 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. Specifically, 6-Shogaol further induced the apoptosis of SW872 cells, as evidenced by nuclear DNA fragmentation, increased sub G1 population, activation of the intrinsic caspase pathway, and PARP cleavage. However, pretreatment with either z-VAD-fmk, a pan-caspase inhibitor, or N-acetylcysteine, an antioxidant, attenuated the 6-Shogaol’s growth-suppressive and apoptosis-inducing effects on SW872 cells. Moreover, 6-Shogaol activated AMPK while inhibited STAT-3 in SW872 cells, and siRNA-based genetic silencing of AMPK or STAT-3 considerably blocked the growth-suppressive and apoptotic response of 6-Shogaol to SW872 cells. Moreover, 6-Shogaol also upregulated the expression and phosphorylation of GRP-78, eIF-2α, ATF4, and CHOP, known ER stress markers, in SW872 cells, illustrating the induction of ER stress. These findings collectively demonstrate that 6-Shogaol has strong antigrowth and proapoptotic effects on SW872 cells through regulation of the intrinsic caspase pathway, oxidative stress, STAT-3, AMPK, and ER stress.

6-Shogaol enhances the anticancer effect of 5-fluorouracil, oxaliplatin, and irinotecan via increase of apoptosis and autophagy in colon cancer cells in hypoxic/aglycemic conditions

BACKGROUND

The development and growth of colorectal cancer based on constitutive activation of numerous signaling pathways that stimulate proliferation and metastasis. Plant-derived agents excel by targeting multiple aspects of tumor progression. Previous investigations have shown that ginger derivatives- shogaols possess anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects. In the present study, we have examined the anti-cancer effects of 6-shogaol alongside with the most widely used chemotherapeutic agents/regimens in the tumor-like microenvironment conditions.

METHODS

Cytotoxicity on two colon cancer cell lines (SW480 and SW620) was measured by MTT test. Apoptosisassay, immunocytochemical and Western blotting analysis for autophagy and apoptosis detection were performed.

RESULTS

Here, we report that 6-shogaol by itself or in combination with chemotherapeutic agents/regimens exerted a cytotoxic effect on CRC cells. Cell death might be linked with the activation of autophagy and apoptosis-related pathways. In the tumor-like microenvironment, which is characterized by hypoxia and glucose starvation, 6-shogaol with chemotherapeutics is significantly more potent than conventional chemotherapy alone.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our data suggest that the addition of 6-shogaol to established chemotherapeutic regimens could potentially be a remarkable therapeutic strategy for colorectal cancer.

Radioiodinated Ginger Compounds (6-gingerol and 6-shogaol) and Incorporation Assays on Breast Cancer Cells

BACKGROUND

6-Gingerol (6G) and 6-Shogaol (6S) are the main active components of ginger. 6-Gingerol is known for its anti-metastatic and anti-invasive pharmacological activities on cancer cells, besides, 6-Shogaol also inhibits breast cancer cell invasion.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, radioiodination (131I) of 6G and 6S was aimed. Additionally, it is aimed to monitor their incorporation behavior on breast cancer cell lines.

METHODS

6-Gingerol was isolated from the fresh ginger-roots extract, additionally, dehydrated to obtain 6-Shogaol. 6G and 6S were radioiodinated using iodogen method. Quality control studies of radioiodinated ginger compounds (6G and 6S) were performed by thin layer radio-chromatography. In vitro studies of radioiodinated ginger compounds on MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells were performed with incorporation assays.

RESULTS

6-Gingerol and 6-Shogaol were radioiodinated (131I-6G and 131I-6S) in high yields over 95%. 131I-6S demonstrated higher incorporation values than 131I-6G on MDA-MB-231 cells. Incorporation behavior of 131I-6G and 131I-6S was similar to MCF-7 cells.

CONCLUSION

It has been observed that ginger compounds were radioiodinated successfully and 131I-6S have a noteworthy incorporation on MDA-MB-231 cells which is a known breast carcinoma cell line with highly invasive characteristics.

6-Shogaol Suppresses 2-Amino-1-Methyl-6-Phenylimidazo [4,5-b] Pyridine (PhIP)-Induced Human 786-O Renal Cell Carcinoma Osteoclastogenic Activity and Metastatic Potential

2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) which can be detected in processed meats and red meats, is a potential carcinogen for renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Approximately 30% of patients with metastatic RCC have bone metastases, and the prognosis of RCC with bone metastases is poor. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether PhIP induced bone metastases and to develop novel therapeutic agents. Our data revealed that PhIP pre-treatment increased the production of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP) in human 786-O renal cell carcinoma cells. Subsequently, the cultures of human osteoblasts with PhIP-stimulated condition medium of 786-O increased the expression of the macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL), and decreased the expression of osteoprotegerin (OPG). In addition, PhIP-mediated PTHrP up-regulated as well as increased IL-8 secretion in 786-O cells, and then contributed to 786-O-mediated bone resorption. Furthermore, 6-shogaol, which is an active ingredient in ginger, showed suppressive effects on PhIP-mediated bone resorption. In summary, this is the first study to demonstrate that PhIP pre-treatment increases the stimulatory effect of human renal cell carcinoma 786-O on osteoclastogenesis activity directly by PTHrP. In addition, 6-shogaol treatment reverses PhIP-mediated bone resorption. It suggests that 6-shogaol treatment results in bone resorption activity in the RCC model in vitro.

Gingers and Their Purified Components as Cancer Chemopreventative Agents

Chemoprevention by ingested substituents is the process through which nutraceuticals and/or their bioactive components antagonize carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis is the course of action whereby a normal cell is transformed into a neoplastic cell. This latter action involves several steps, starting with initiation and followed by promotion and progression. Driving these stages is continued oxidative stress and inflammation, which in turn, causes a myriad of aberrant gene expressions and mutations within the transforming cell population and abnormal gene expressions by the cells within the surrounding lesion. Chemoprevention of cancer with bioreactive foods or their extracted/purified components occurs primarily via normalizing these inappropriate gene activities. Various foods/agents have been shown to affect different gene expressions. In this review, we discuss how the chemoprevention activities of gingers antagonize cancer development.

Jujube honey induces apoptosis in human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cell via DNA damage, p53 expression, and caspase activation

Jujube honey, a very popular honey in China, has been shown to own numerous biological properties. However, the anticancer effect and the underlying mechanisms of jujube honey in HepG2 cells have not been investigated to date. This study was designed to evaluate jujube honey-induced apoptosis and its molecular mechanism in HepG2 and the following results were obtained. Firstly, treatment with jujube honey blocked cell cycle progression at the G0/G1 phase, reduced the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm), induced DNA damage, and upregulates p53 expression. Secondly, pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and Bad were upregulated and antiapoptotic proteins Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL were downregulated. Lastly, caspase activation and apoptotic death occurred in HepG2 cells. In conclusion, this study showed that jujube honey induces HepG2 cell apoptosis via DNA damage, p53 expression, and caspase activation. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: We demonstrate the molecular mechanism by which jujube honey triggers apoptosis in HepG2 cells. This new insight provided useful information on the use of jujube honey as a potential therapeutic and preventive agent.

Effect of Simultaneous Snail Slime-aided Degradation and Yeast Fermentation on Terpenoid Composition of Plantain Pseudostem Waste

Background:

In this study, local sustainable enzyme sources involving excised digestive juice of African land snail and yeast were utilized to achieve the simultaneous saccharification (SSF) and fermentation (SSF) of plantain pseudostem (PPS) waste, and afterwards their effects on terpenoids using gas chromatography coupled to a flame ionization detector (GC-FID), were examined.

Methods:

The most abundant terpenoids were found in the order α-pinene > borneol > camphor > humulene > β-caryophellene, while the least in abundance were cis ocimene (8.78x10-6 mg/100g), and cyperene (1.81x10-5 mg/100g). The application of exclusive fermentation and SSF respectively elevated azuluene by 95.46 and 99.6%, while pinene-2-ol was elevated by 83.02 and 98.57%, respectively.

Results:

Both exclusive fermentation and SSF had no effect on myrcene, cyperene, ethyl cinnamate, germacrene b, valencene, beta selinene, aromadendrene, and taraxerol, while the degree of degradation of some of the terpenoids by both processes was respectively as follows; gama muurolene (100%), β-caryophyllene (97.60 and 93.14%), α-terpinenyl acetate (91.95 and 83.16%), geranyl acetate (94.81 and 43.87%), and terpinen-4-ol (94.40 and 57.00%).

Conclusion:

The findings of this study encourage the imminent application of simultaneous saccharification and fermentation for the enhancement of bioactivities of terpenoids.

Biological effects of whole Z.Officinale extract on chronic myeloid leukemia cell line K562

The anticancer activity of Zingiber officinalis (ginger) is an area of active research. However, data is quite limited regarding its action and mechanism, especially in hematologic cancer types. Here, antiproliferative and apoptotic effects of whole extract of the rhizome of Zingiber officinalis (ZOWE), was investigated in K562 cell line derived from a chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) patient. Various concentrations of whole extract (0, 10, 25, 50 and 100 μM) were tested in K562 cultures. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis was assessed with appropriate methods, as well as cellular ROS levels. In this study, we showed that ZOWE inhibited proliferation of K562 cells substantially, when compared to peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from healthy donor. Increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and increased PARP cleavage demonstrated that ZOWE inhibited proliferation by induction of apoptosis. These changes were coupled with an increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Furthermore, ZOWE addition to the culture also reduced expression levels of survival proteins pAkt and survivin, in a concentration dependent manner. Our results clearly mark that ZOWE causes to a reduction in cell viability, an induction of apoptosis and elevation in ROS levels in chronic myeloid leukemia cells and effects are significantly different from healthy peripheral blood mononuclear cells, further supporting its potential therapeutic value.

Enhanced Oral Bioavailability, Anti-Tumor Activity and Hepatoprotective Effect of 6-Shogaol Loaded in a Type of Novel Micelles of Polyethylene Glycol and Linoleic Acid Conjugate

：6-shogaol is a promising anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory agent. However, the treatment effectiveness of 6-shogaol is limited by poor water solubility, poor oral absorption and rapid metabolism. Herein, 6-shogaol loaded in micelles (SMs) were designed to improve 6-shogaol's solubility and bioavailability. The micelles of a PEG derivative of linoleic acid (mPEG_2k-LA) were prepared by the nanoprecipitation method with a particle size of 76.8 nm, and entrapment of 81.6 %. Intriguingly, SMs showed a slower release in phosphate buffer saline (PBS) (pH = 7.4) compared to free 6-shogaol while its oral bioavailability increased by 3.2⁻fold in vivo. More importantly, the in vitro cytotoxic effect in HepG2 cells of SMs was significantly higher than free 6-shogaol. Furthermore, SMs could significantly improve the tissue distribution of 6-shogaol, especially liver and brain. Finally, SMs showed a better hepatoprotective effect against carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatic injury in vivo than free 6-shogaol. These results suggest that the novel micelles could potentiate the activities of 6-shogaol in cancer treatment and hepatoprotection.

Attenuation of autophagy flux by 6-shogaol sensitizes human liver cancer cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis via p53 and ROS

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‑related apoptosis‑inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a member of the TNF superfamily and is an antitumor drug that induces apoptosis in tumor cells with minimal or no effects on normal cells. Here, it is demonstrated that 6‑shogaol (6‑sho), a bioactive component of ginger, exerted anti‑inflammatory and anticancer properties, attenuated tumor cell propagation and induced TRAIL‑mediated cell death in liver cancer cells. The current study identified a potential pathway by revealing that TRAIL and 6‑sho or chloroquine acted together to trigger reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, to upregulate tumor‑suppressor protein 53 (p53) expression and to change the mitochondrial transmembrane potential (MTP). Treatment with N‑acetyl‑L‑cysteine reversed these effects, restoring the MTP and attenuated ROS production and p53 expression. Interestingly, treatment with 6‑sho increased p62 and microtubule‑associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B‑II levels, indicating an inhibited autophagy flux. In conclusion, attenuation of 6‑sho‑induced autophagy flux sensitized cells to TRAIL‑induced apoptosis via p53 and ROS, suggesting that the administration of TRAIL in combination with 6‑sho may be a suitable therapeutic method for the treatment of TRAIL‑resistant Huh7 liver cells.

Ginger in gastrointestinal disorders: A systematic review of clinical trials

Ginger, the rhizome of Zingiber officinale, which is used as a spice globally has a long history of medicinal use that stimulates investigators to assess its potential roles as an adjuvant therapy or alternative medicine in a range of diseases. Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, and antiulcer effects of ginger have been proven in many scientific studies, and some of the ancient applications of ginger as a home remedy has been confirmed in human. In this review, we summarized the current evidence on the effects of ginger consumption on gastrointestinal disorders based on clinical trials. Our data indicate that divided lower daily dosage of 1500 mg ginger is beneficial for nausea relief. Because of limited number of studies on some other gastrointestinal disorders, the results may not be as much powered as to find significant results. Therefore, more extensive and well-controlled human studies of ginger or its standard extracts are required to demonstrate its efficacy as a gastroprotective agent. Dose-finding studies should be undertaken to accurately determine the effective dose and preparation of ginger in further clinical trials protocol.

[6]-Gingerol-induced cell cycle arrest, reactive oxygen species generation, and disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential are associated with apoptosis in human gastric cancer (AGS) cells

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), a monocotyledonous herb, is widely used as an herbal medicine owing to the phytoconstituents it possesses. In the current study, the quantity of [6]-gingerol, the major phenolic ketone, in the fresh ginger and dried ginger rhizome was found to be 6.11 µg/mg and 0.407 µg/mg. Furthermore, [6]-gingerol was assessed for its antiapoptotic effects in human gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS) cells evidenced by acridine orange/ethidium bromide staining technique and Annexin-V assay. An increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation led to a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and subsequent induction of apoptosis. Results disclose that perturbations in MMP are associated with deregulation of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio at protein level, which leads to upregulation of cytochrome-c triggering the caspase cascade. These enduringly suggest that [6]-gingerol can be effectively used for targeting the mitochondrial energy metabolism to manage gastric cancer cells.

Applying an Electrophilicity-Based Strategy to Develop a Novel Nrf2 Activator Inspired from Dietary [6]-Shogaol

Activation of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) is a crucial cellular defense mechanisms against oxidative stress and also an effective means to decrease the risk of oxidative stress-related diseases including cancer. Thus, identifying novel Nrf2 activators is highly anticipated. Inspired from [6]-shogaol (6S), an active component of ginger, herein we developed a novel potent Nrf2 activator, (1E,4E)-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-7-methylocta-1,4,6-trien-3-one (SA) by an electrophilicity-based strategy. Compared with the parent 6S, SA bearing a short but entirely conjugated unsaturated ketone chain manifested the improved electrophilicity and cytoprotection (cell viability for the 10 μM 6S- and SA-treated group being 48.9 ± 5.3% and 76.1 ± 3.2%, respectively) against tert-butylhydroperoxide ( t-BHP)-induced cell death (cell viability for the t-BHP-stimulated group being 42.4 ± 0.4%) of HepG2. Mechanistic study uncovers that SA works as a potent Nrf2 activator by inducing Keap1 modification, inhibiting Nrf2 ubiquitylation and phosphorylating ERK in a Michael acceptor-dependent fashion. Taking 6S as an example, this works illustrates the feasibility and importance of applying an electrophilicity-based strategy to develop Nrf2 activators with dietary molecules as an inspiration due to their low toxicity and extraordinarily diverse chemical scaffolds.

Enhancing the Anticancer Activity of Antrodia cinnamomea in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells via Cocultivation With Ginger: The Impact on Cancer Cell Survival Pathways

Antrodia cinnamomea (AC) is a medicinal fungal species that has been widely used traditionally in Taiwan for the treatment of diverse health-related conditions including cancer. It possesses potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties in addition to its ability to promote cancer cell death in several human tumors. Our aim was to improve the anticancer activity of AC in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) through its cocultivation with ginger aiming at tuning the active ingredients. HCC cell lines, Huh-7 and HepG2 were used to study the in vitro anticancer activity of the ethanolic extracts of AC (EAC) alone or after the cocultivation in presence of ginger (EACG). The results indicated that the cocultivation of AC with ginger significantly induced the production of important triterpenoids and EACG was significantly more potent than EAC in targeting HCC cell lines. EACG effectively inhibited cancer cells growth via the induction of cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and induction of apoptosis in Huh-7 and HepG2 cells as indicated by MTT assay, cell cycle analysis, Annexin V assay, and the activation of caspase-3. In addition, EACG modulated cyclin proteins expression and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways in favor of the inhibition of cancer cell survival. Taken together, the current study highlights an evidence that EACG is superior to EAC in targeting cancer cell survival and inducing apoptotic cell death in HCC. These findings support that EACG formula can serve as a potential candidate for HCC adjuvant therapy.

Drug-like dietary vanilloids induce anticancer activity through proliferation inhibition and regulation of bcl-related apoptotic proteins

In this study, a series of 20 structurally similar vanilloids (Vn) were tested for their antiproliferative effects against 12 human cancer cells: human breast (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231), cervical (HeLa), ovarian (Caov-3), lung (A549), liver (HepG2), colorectal (HT-29 and HCT116), nasopharyngeal (CNE-1 and HK-1), and leukemic (K562 and CEM-SS) cancer cells. Among all the tested vanilloids, Vn16 (6-shogaol) exhibited the most potent cytotoxic effects against human colorectal cancer cells (HT-29). The apoptotic induction effects exhibited by Vn16 on HT-29 cells were confirmed using dual staining fluorescence microscopy and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The effects of Vn16 on regulation of 43 apoptotic-related markers were determined in HT-29. The results suggested that 8 apoptotic markers (caspase 8, BAD, BAX, second mitochondrial-derived activator, caspase 3, survivin, bcl-2, and cIAP-2) were either upregulated or downregulated. These results further support the chemopreventive properties of foods that contain vanilloids.

Occurrence, biological activity and metabolism of 6-shogaol

As one of the main bioactive compounds of dried ginger, 6-shogaol has been widely used to alleviate many ailments. It is also a major pungent flavor component, and its precursor prior to dehydration is 6-gingerol, which is reported to be responsible for the pungent flavor and biological activity of fresh ginger. Structurally, gingerols including 6-gingerol have a β-hydroxyl ketone moiety and is liable to dehydrate to generate an α,β-unsaturated ketone under heat and/or acidic conditions. The conjugation of the α,β-unsaturated ketone skeleton in the chemical structure of 6-shogaol explicates its higher potency and efficacy than 6-gingerol in terms of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiemetic and other bioactivities. Research on the health benefits of 6-shogaol has been conducted and results have been reported recently; however, scientific data are scattered due to a lack of systematic collection. In addition, action mechanisms of the preventive and/or therapeutic actions of 6-shogaol remain obscurely non-collective. Herein, we review the preparations, biological activity and mechanisms, and metabolism of 6-shogaol as well as the properties of 6-shogaol metabolites.

Atorvastatin inhibits the apoptosis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells induced by angiotensin II via the lysosomal-mitochondrial axis

This study was aimed to evaluate lysosomes-mitochondria cross-signaling in angiotensin II (Ang II)-induced apoptosis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and whether atorvastatin played a protective role via lysosomal-mitochondrial axis. Apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry, Hoechst 33342 and AO/EB assay. The temporal relationship of lysosomal and mitochondrial permeabilization was established. Activity of Cathepsin D (CTSD) was suppressed by pharmacological and genetic approaches. Proteins production were measured by western blotting. Our study showed that Ang II could induce the apoptosis of HUVECs in a dose-depended and time-depended manner. Exposure to 1 μM Ang II for 24 h resulted in mitochondrial depolarization, cytochrome c release, and increased ROS production. Lysosomal permeabilization and CTSD redistribution into the cytoplasm occurred several hours prior to mitochondrial dysfunction. These effects were all suppressed by atorvastatin. Either pharmacological or genetic inhibition of CTSD preserved mitochondrial function and decreased apoptosis in HUVECs. Most importantly, we found that the protective effect of atorvastatin was significantly greater than pharmacological or genetic inhibition of CTSD. Finally, overexpression of CTSD without exposure to Ang II had no effect on mitochondrial function and apoptosis. Our data strongly suggested that Ang II induced apoptosis through the lysosomal-mitochondrial axis in HUVECs. Furthermore, atorvastatin played an important role in the regulation of lysosomes and mitochondria stability, resulting in an antagonistic role against Ang II on HUVECs.

Polyphenols in Colorectal Cancer: Current State of Knowledge including Clinical Trials and Molecular Mechanism of Action

Polyphenols have been reported to have wide spectrum of biological activities including major impact on initiation, promotion, and progression of cancer by modulating different signalling pathways. Colorectal cancer is the second most major cause of mortality and morbidity among females and the third among males. The objective of this review is to describe the activity of a variety of polyphenols in colorectal cancer in clinical trials, preclinical studies, and primary research. The molecular mechanisms of major polyphenols related to their beneficial effects on colorectal cancer are also addressed. Synthetic modifications and other future directions towards exploiting of natural polyphenols against colorectal cancer are discussed in the last section.

Stressed Out - Therapeutic Implications of ER Stress Related Cancer Research

The unfolded protein response (UPR) is an established and well-studied cellular response to the stress and serves to relieve the stress and reinstate cellular homeostasis. It occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), responsible of properly folding and processing of secretory and transmembrane proteins. It is extremely sensitive to alteration in homeostasis caused by various internal or external stressors which leads to accumulation of misfolded or unfolded proteins in the ER lumen. The UPR works by restoring protein homeostasis in the ER, either through the boosting of protein-folding and degradation capability or by assuaging the demands for such effects, and can cause the activation of cell death if unable to do so. Cancer cells have adapted to gain advantage from the UPR and keeping the cell away from apoptosis and promoting survival, including survival of the cancer stem cells and evading the immune system. Several components of the UPR are overexpressed in a malignant cell and are responsible for resistance from various chemotherapy options and radiotherapy, which are also responsible for causing ER stress and activating the UPR. In this review, we discuss the various ways in which UPR can aid different cancers to survive and evade therapy and highlight recent research, which exploits the UPR to confer sensitivity to these cancer cells against various drugs and radiation.

6-shogaol induces autophagic cell death then triggered apoptosis in colorectal adenocarcinoma HT-29 cells

6-shogaol is a phytochemical of dietary ginger, we found that 6-shogaol could induced both autophagic and apoptotic death in human colon adenocarcinoma (HT-29) cells. Results of this study showed that 6-shogal induced cell cycle arrest, autophagy, and apoptosis in HT-29 cells in a time sequence. After 6h, 6-shogal induced apparent G2/M arrest, then the HT-29 cells formed numerous autophagosomes in each phase of the cell cycle. After 18h, increases in acidic vesicles and LAMP-1 (Lysosome-associated membrane proteins 1) showed that 6-shogaol had caused autophagic cell death. After 24h, cell shrinkage and Caspase-3/7 activities rising, suggesting that apoptotic cell death had increased. And after 48h, the result of TUNEL assay indicated the highest occurrence of apoptosis upon 6-shogaol treatment. It appeared that apoptosis is triggered by autophagy in 6-shogaol treated HT-29 cells, the damage of autophagic cell death initiated apoptosis program.

6-Paradol and 6-Shogaol, the Pungent Compounds of Ginger, Promote Glucose Utilization in Adipocytes and Myotubes, and 6-Paradol Reduces Blood Glucose in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice

The anti-diabetic activity of ginger powder (Zingiber officinale) has been recently promoted, with the recommendation to be included as one of the dietary supplements for diabetic patients. However, previous studies presented different results, which may be caused by degradation and metabolic changes of ginger components, gingerols, shogaols and paradols. Therefore, we prepared 10 ginger active components, namely 6-, 8-, 10-paradols, 6-, 8-, 10-shogaols, 6-, 8-, 10-gingerols and zingerone, and evaluated their anti-hyperglycemic activity. Among the tested compounds, 6-paradol and 6-shogaol showed potent activity in stimulating glucose utilization by 3T3-L1 adipocytes and C2C12 myotubes. The effects were attributed to the increase in 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. 6-Paradol, the major metabolite of 6-shogaol, was utilized in an in vivo assay and significantly reduced blood glucose, cholesterol and body weight in high-fat diet-fed mice.

Efficient dehydration of 6-gingerol to 6-shogaol catalyzed by an acidic ionic liquid under ultrasound irradiation

6-Gingerol and 6-shogaol are the main bioactive compounds in ginger. Although 6-shogaol has more and better bioactivities than its precursor 6-gingerol, the low content of 6-shogaol in ginger restricts its bioactive effects in functional foods. The traditional preparation methods of 6-shogaol are defective because of the environmental hazards and low efficiency of the processes. In this study, an efficient, easy and eco-friendly dehydration conversion of 6-gingerol to 6-shogaol is presented using an acidic ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hydrosulfate ([Bmim]HSO4) under ultrasound irradiation. The key parameters, including reaction temperature, reaction time, mass ratio of catalyst to substrate and ultrasonic power in each reaction process, were investigated. The yield of 6-shogaol reached as high as 97.16% under optimized condition. The catalyst could be separated from the reaction mixture and reused five times with only a slight loss of activity.

Ginger augmented chemotherapy: A novel multitarget nontoxic approach for cancer management

Cancer, referred to as the 'disease of civilization', continues to haunt humanity due to its dreadful manifestations and limited success of therapeutic interventions such as chemotherapy in curing the disease. Although effective, chemotherapy has repeatedly demonstrated inadequacy in disease management due to its debilitating side effects arising from its deleterious nonspecific effects on normal healthy cells. In addition, development of chemoresistance due to mono-targeting often results in cessation of chemotherapy. This urgently demands development and implementation of multitargeted alternative therapies with mild or no side effects. One extremely promising strategy that yet remains untapped in the clinic is augmenting chemotherapy with dietary phytochemicals or extracts. Ginger, depository of numerous bioactive molecules, not only targets cancer cells but can also mitigate chemotherapy-associated side effects. Consequently, combination therapy involving ginger extract and chemotherapeutic agents may offer the advantage of being efficacious with reduced toxicity. Here we discuss the remarkable and often overlooked potential of ginger extract to manage cancer, the possibility of developing ginger-based combinational therapies, and the major roadblocks along with strategies to overcome them in clinical translation of such inventions. We are optimistic that clinical implementation of such combination regimens would be a much sought after modality in cancer management.

[6]-Shogaol, a dietary phenolic compound, induces oxidative stress mediated mitochondrial dependant apoptosis through activation of proapoptotic factors in Hep-2 cells

Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is a well-known herb used in ethnomedicine. [6]-shogaol, a phenolic nature is a major constituent of ginger. In this study, we investigated the anticancer activity of [6]-shogaol in Laryngeal cancer (Hep-2) cells. We demonstrated the effects of [6]-shogaol on the cell growth and apoptosis in Hep-2 cells were analyzed by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the level of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔYm), DNA damage and apoptotic morphological changes were analyzed by AO/EtBr, AO and Hoechst staining. Further, apoptotic protein expressions were analyzed by western blot analysis. Our results indicated that [6]-shogaol induces apoptosis as evidenced by loss of cell viability, enhanced ROS, lipid peroxidation results in altered mitochondrial membrane potential, increased DNA damage in Hep-2 cells. Further, the prooxidant role of [6]-shogaol inhibit Bcl-2 expression with the simultaneous up-regulation of Bax, Cytochrome c, Caspase-9 and -3 protein expressions were observed in Hep-2 cells. Thus, [6]-shogaol induces apoptosis in Hep-2 cells through inducing oxidative damage and modulate apoptotic marker expressions. Therefore, [6]-shogaol might be used as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of laryngeal cancer.

Herbal Formulation C168 Attenuates Proliferation and Induces Apoptosis in HCT 116 Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cells: Role of Oxidative Stress and DNA Damage

The use of herbal formulations has gained scientific interest, particularly in cancer treatment. In this study, the herbal formulation of interest, denoted as C168, is a mixture of eight genera of plants. This study aims to investigate the antiproliferative effect of C168 methanol extract (CME) on various cancer cells and its underlying mechanism of action on the most responsive cell line, namely, HCT 116 cells. CME exerted antiproliferative activities on HCT 116 colorectal carcinoma cells and HepG2 hepatocellular carcinoma cells but not on CCD-841-CoN normal colon epithelial cells, Jurkat E6.1 lymphoblastic leukemic cells, and V79-4 Chinese hamster lung fibroblasts. Further investigation on HCT 116 cells showed that CME induced G₂/M cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis. Treatment of CME induced oxidative stress in HCT 116 cells by increasing the superoxide anion level and decreasing the intracellular glutathione. CME also increased tail moment value and H2AX phosphorylation in HCT 116 cells, suggesting DNA damage as an early signal of CME induced apoptosis. Loss of mitochondrial membrane potential in CME-treated cells also indicated the involvement of mitochondria in CME induced apoptosis. This study indicated the selectivity of CME toward colon cancer cells with the involvement of oxidative damage as its possible mechanism of action.

Cancer Chemoprevention Effects of Ginger and its Active Constituents: Potential for New Drug Discovery

Ginger is a commonly used spice and herbal medicine worldwide. Besides its extensive use as a condiment, ginger has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for the management of various medical conditions. In recent years, ginger has received wide attention due to its observed antiemetic and anticancer activities. This paper reviews the potential role of ginger and its active constituents in cancer chemoprevention. The phytochemistry, bioactivity, and molecular targets of ginger constituents, especially 6-shogaol, are discussed. The content of 6-shogaol is very low in fresh ginger, but significantly higher after steaming. With reported anti-cancer activities, 6-shogaol can be served as a lead compound for new drug discovery. The lead compound derivative synthesis, bioactivity evaluation, and computational docking provide a promising opportunity to identify novel anticancer compounds originating from ginger.

Gingerols and shogaols: Important nutraceutical principles from ginger

Gingerols are the major pungent compounds present in the rhizomes of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and are renowned for their contribution to human health and nutrition. Medicinal properties of ginger, including the alleviation of nausea, arthritis and pain, have been associated with the gingerols. Gingerol analogues are thermally labile and easily undergo dehydration reactions to form the corresponding shogaols, which impart the characteristic pungent taste to dried ginger. Both gingerols and shogaols exhibit a host of biological activities, ranging from anticancer, anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic to various central nervous system activities. Shogaols are important biomarkers used for the quality control of many ginger-containing products, due to their diverse biological activities. In this review, a large body of available knowledge on the biosynthesis, chemical synthesis and pharmacological activities, as well as on the structure-activity relationships of various gingerols and shogaols, have been collated, coherently summarised and discussed. The manuscript highlights convincing evidence indicating that these phenolic compounds could serve as important lead molecules for the development of therapeutic agents to treat various life-threatening human diseases, particularly cancer. Inclusion of ginger or ginger extracts in nutraceutical formulations could provide valuable protection against diabetes, cardiac and hepatic disorders.