Masked mycotoxins: a review

Assessing the in vitro efficiency in adsorbing mycotoxins of a tri-octahedral bentonite with potential application in aquaculture feed

The use of mycotoxin binders in feed products is currently the most efficient method to mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins. The unprecedented growth of aquaculture in recent years has led to an increased use of plant-based ingredients in fish feeds, thereby raising the risk of mycotoxin exposure. This study investigates the in vitro adsorption efficiency of a tri-octahedral bentonite against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN), and fumonisin B1 (FB1) in simulated gastric (pH = 1.2) and intestinal (pH = 6.8) fluids at 25 °C, the usual body temperature in aquaculture fish species. The binder was highly effective, removing over 98% of AFB1 from both media. FB1 was completely adsorbed at pH = 1.2, while its adsorption at pH = 6.8 reached a maximum of 46.3%. ZEN binding was consistent across both pH levels, ranging from 56.1% to 69.7%. Nine equilibrium isotherm functions were fitted to the experimental data to elucidate the adsorption mechanisms. A Sips model isotherm best characterized AFB1 adsorption in simulated gastric fluid, whereas that of ZEN was best described by the Freundlich model. In simulated intestinal fluid (pH = 6.8), monolayer adsorption described by the Langmuir model provided the best fit for all three mycotoxins.

Monitoring Fusarium toxins from barley to malt: Targeted inoculation with Fusarium culmorum

Molds of the genus Fusarium infect nearly all types of grain, causing significant yield and quality losses. Many species of this genus produce mycotoxins, which pose significant risks to human and animal health. In beer production, the complex interaction between primary fungal metabolites and secondarily modified mycotoxins in barley, malt, and beer complicates the situation, highlighting the need for effective analytical methods to quickly and accurately monitor these toxins. We developed and validated a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method to simultaneously analyze 14 Fusarium toxins, including modified forms (deoxynivalenol (DON), DON-3-glucoside, 3-acetyl-DON, 15-acetyl-DON, nivalenol, fusarenone X, HT-2 toxin, T-2 toxin, the enniatins A, A1, B, B1, beauvericin, and zearalenone) in barley and throughout the malting process. Stable isotope dilution assays (SIDAs) and matrix-matched calibration were used for quantification. A micro-malting setup was established to produce Fusarium-contaminated barley malt under reproducible conditions using targeted inoculation with F. culmorum. Mycotoxins were quantified throughout the malting process and compared to the content of fungal DNA. Further, the impact of various malting parameters was investigated, thus revealing that different malting scenarios exhibited different toxin enrichment patterns. We demonstrated that mycotoxin concentration and the ratio of DON to DON-3-glucoside changed throughout the malting processes, depending on fungal spore concentrations, germination temperature, and malting temperature. The study highlights the complexity of mycotoxin dynamics in malt production and the importance of optimized processing conditions to minimize toxin levels in final malt products.

Occurrence of mycotoxins in milk thistle: to be included in legislation or not?

The silymarin complex extracted from milk thistle provides significant health benefits, particularly due to its antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties. However, plant substances can be contaminated by a number of fungi types and their secondary metabolites-mycotoxins. This work deals with the determination of aflatoxins and zearalenone and its metabolites in 39 different samples grown in 2020 and 2021. Analysis of mycotoxins was performed by UHPLC-MS/MS after immunoaffinity column AFLAPREP® and EASI-EXTRACT® ZEARALENONE clean-up. The presence of aflatoxins was not confirmed in the monitored samples, but 1/3 of the samples were contaminated with zearalenone in the range of 2.8-378.9 µg/kg. Metabolites of zearalenone such as α-zearalenol, α-zearalanol, and β-zearalanol were not detected in any of the samples. β-Zearalenol was found in two samples (2.6 µg/kg and 29.8 µg/kg).

A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Prevalence of Aflatoxin M1 in Dairy Products in Selected Middle East Countries

BACKGROUND

Human consumption of dairy products contaminated with aflatoxin (AF) M1 can lead to severe health issues. This AF's significance and impact on health necessitate a thorough investigation of its prevalence in dairy products.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to determine the prevalence of AFM1 in dairy products through a systematic review and meta-analysis, focusing on data from Middle Eastern countries.

METHODS

We identified relevant studies through electronic database searches (PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science) up to August 2023. We employed a random-effects model to derive an overall estimate and used 95% confidence intervals to determine pooled prevalence rates.

RESULTS

The meta-analysis included 193 studies encompassing 297,530 samples of dairy products. The results showed that AFM1 contaminated 87% of dairy products. The following is a ranking of countries based on the prevalence of AFM1 in their dairy products: Iran > Jordan > Turkey > Kuwait > Lebanon > Syria > Egypt > Cyprus > the United Arab Emirates. The current meta-analysis indicated that Middle Eastern countries exhibited a high prevalence of AFM1 in dairy products. The prevalence rates for AFM1 in various dairy products were as follows: milk (87%), yogurt (68.9%), cheese (63.6%), kashk (62.9%), doogh (55.6%) and ice cream (54%). Pasteurized milk (99.5%), ultra-high temperature (91.3%), raw milk (73%) and traditional milk (51%), among other milk types, had the highest contamination rates.

CONCLUSION

The study reveals a high prevalence of AFM1 in dairy products, particularly in Middle Eastern countries. Given the critical importance of milk and dairy products in the diet, special measures are needed to safeguard their quality and protect consumers from AF contamination.

A Review of the Mycotoxin Family of Fumonisins, Their Biosynthesis, Metabolism, Methods of Detection and Effects on Humans and Animals

Fumonisins, a class of mycotoxins predominantly produced by Fusarium species, represent a major threat to food safety and public health due to their widespread occurrence in staple crops including peanuts, wine, rice, sorghum, and mainly in maize and maize-based food and feed products. Although fumonisins occur in different groups, the fumonisin B series, particularly fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2), are the most prevalent and toxic in this group of mycotoxins and are of public health significance due to the many debilitating human and animal diseases and mycotoxicosis they cause and their classification as by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a class 2B carcinogen (probable human carcinogen). This has made them one of the most regulated mycotoxins, with stringent regulatory limits on their levels in food and feeds destined for human and animal consumption, especially maize and maize-based products. Numerous countries have regulations on levels of fumonisins in foods and feeds that are intended to protect human and animal health. However, there are still gaps in knowledge, especially with regards to the molecular mechanisms underlying fumonisin-induced toxicity and their full impact on human health. Detection of fumonisins has been advanced through various methods, with immunological approaches such as Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA) and lateral flow immunoassays being widely used for their simplicity and adaptability. However, these methods face challenges such as cross-reactivity and matrix interference, necessitating the need for continued development of more sensitive and specific detection techniques. Chromatographic methods, including HPLC-FLD, are also employed in fumonisin analysis but require meticulous sample preparation and derivitization due to the low UV absorbance of fumonisins. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the fumonisin family, focusing on their biosynthesis, occurrence, toxicological effects, and levels of contamination found in foods and the factors affecting their presence. It also critically evaluates the current methods for fumonisin detection and quantification, including chromatographic techniques and immunological approaches such as ELISA and lateral flow immunoassays, highlighting the challenges associated with fumonisin detection in complex food matrices and emphasizing the need for more sensitive, rapid, and cost-effective detection methods.

Analysis of wheat fungal community succession in traditional storage structures using Illumina MiSeq sequencing technology

The diversity of fungi in wheat with different deoxynivalenol (DON) content at various periods post-harvest and in the environment of storage were investigated. The changes in DON content were measured with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), and an amplicon sequence analysis of fungi was performed in traditional storage structures using high-throughput sequencing. The changes in temperature, humidity, and CO2 concentration were collected by sensors. In addition, we analyzed principal component analysis, species composition, species differences, and community differences of fungi. There was an obvious separation of the fungal communities under different storage conditions and times. Many fungal genera were gradually decreasing during storage and were eventually undetectable, and many fungal genera that were undetectable at first gradually increased during storage and even became dominant fungal genera. The competition between fungi was fierce. The competition between fungi were affected by the presence of DON. As the initial DON content increased, the contribution of inter-group differences became more obvious. The temperature, humidity, and CO2 concentration of wheat in the silo's environment changed with extended storage time. The content of DON decreased with extended storage time. We had investigated the changes in DON content and their correlation with the changes in fungal communities and environmental factors, which showed a high degree of correlation. This study offers theoretical justification for optimizing safe wheat grain in traditional storage conditions.

The effect of the interactions of water activity, and temperature on OTA, OTB, and OTα produced by Penicillium verrucosum in a mini silo of natural and inoculated wheat using CO2 production as fungal activity sentinel

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a nephrotoxin that contaminates grains in storage. Moisture and temperature sensors give delayed responses due to their slow kinetic movement within the silo. This study examines if CO2 production could predict OTA contamination and identify storage conditions exceeding the maximum limit (5 μg/kg). The impact of water activity levels (0.70-0.90 aw), temperatures (15 and 20 °C), and storage duration on (a)Penicillium verrucosum population, (b)CO2 respiration rates (RR), and (c)ochratoxins concentrations in stored wheat was investigated. 96 samples were analysed for ochratoxins with LCMS-MS. RR was >7 times higher at wetter conditions than at drier aw levels. A positive correlation between CO2, OTA, OTB, and OTα was observed at the wettest conditions. OTA exceeded the limit at >0.80 aw (16% moisture content) with RR > 0.01 mg CO2 kg-1 h-1. The knowledge of the RR of stored grain would alert grain farmers/managers to improve grain storage management.

Feed-induced hypersalivation in horses from Austria, Germany and Switzerland

BACKGROUND

While previous reports come mostly from the southern Americas, several outbreaks of hypersalivation in horses were observed in Middle Europe from 2016 to 2018.

OBJECTIVE

To describe feed-induced hypersalivation in European horses.

STUDY DESIGN

Analysis of feedstuffs.

METHODS

Veterinarians and horse or stable owners were encouraged to submit feedstuffs from case outbreaks of hypersalivation in which, infectious diseases or other systemic causes of the syndrome were ruled out and intoxication was suspected. Feedstuff analysis was performed, including gross examination, microscopic analysis of fine particles, and for hay and forage mycological culturing and mycotoxin testing.

RESULTS

Eleven case outbreaks were investigated. Typical clinical findings in the horses were either foamy saliva around the mouth or serous salivation with puddles forming on the ground. Some horses also showed lesions of the gingival mucosa and/or the tongue. Foamy hypersalivation, sometimes combined with lesions of tongue and/or gingiva, was associated with finding of ergot sclerotia and ergot alkaloids in hay or pasture plants (ergocornin and ergocorninin having the highest concentrations). Serous hypersalivation with massive loss of fluid was associated with the fungus Rhizoctonia spp. As indicated by the detection of traces of swainsonine, mycotoxin production on the forage was seen as likely cause. The cessation of clinical signs took days to weeks after diet change, probably depending on the duration, type and amount of toxin intake.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Small number of case outbreaks, records of clinical findings and horses' management were incomplete and were reported by horse owners.

CONCLUSION

Hypersalivation due to mycotoxins in the feed has become an emerging problem for horses in middle Europe.

Study of Bacillus cereus as an Effective Multi-Type A Trichothecene Inactivator

Type A trichothecenes are common mycotoxins in stored cereal grains, where co-contamination is likely to occur. Seeking new microbiological options capable of inactivating more than one type A trichothecene, this study aimed to analyze facultative anaerobe bacteria isolated from broiler proventriculus. For this purpose, type A trichothecenes were produced in vitro, and a facultative anaerobic bacterial consortium was obtained from a broiler's proventriculus. Then, the most representative bacterial strains were purified, and trichothecene inactivating assays were performed. Finally, the isolate with the greatest capacity to remove all tested mycotoxins was selected for biosorption assays. The results showed that when the consortium was tested, neosolaniol (NEO) was the most degraded mycotoxin (64.55%; p = 0.008), followed by HT-2 toxin (HT-2) (22.96%; p = 0.008), and T-2 toxin (T-2) (20.84%; p = 0.014). All isolates were bacillus-shaped and Gram-positive, belonging to the Bacillus and Lactobacillus genera, of which B. cereus was found to remove T-2 (28.35%), HT-2 (32.84%), and NEO (27.14%), where biosorption accounted for 86.10% in T-2, 35.59% in HT-2, and 68.64% in NEO. This study is the first to prove the capacity of B. cereus as an effective inactivator and binder of multi-type A trichothecenes.

The influence of different abiotic conditions on the concentrations of free and conjugated deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in stored wheat

Environmental factors influence fungal growth and mycotoxin production in stored grains. However, the concentrations of free mycotoxins and their conjugates and how they are impacted by different interacting environment conditions have not been previously examined. The objectives of this study were to examine the impact of storage conditions (0.93-0.98 aw) and temperature (20-25 °C) on (a) the concentrations of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone and their respective glucosides/conjugates and (b) the concentrations of emerging mycotoxins in both naturally contaminated and irradiated wheat grains inoculated with Fusarium graminearum. Contaminated samples were analysed for multiple mycotoxins using Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Method validation was performed according to the acceptable performance criteria set and updated by the European Commission regulations No. 2021/808/EC. As an important conjugate of deoxynivalenol, the concentrations of deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside were significantly different from its precursor deoxynivalenol at 0.93 aw (22% moisture content- MC) at 25 °C in the naturally contaminated wheat with a ratio proportion of 56:44% respectively. The high concentrations of deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside could be influenced by the wheat's variety and/or harvested season/fungal strain type/location. Zeralenone-14-sulfate concentrations were surprisingly three times higher than Zearalenone in the naturally contaminated wheat at 0.98 aw (26% MC) at both temperatures. Emerging mycotoxins such as moniliformin increased with temperature rise with the highest concentrations at 0.95 aw and 25 °C. These findings highlight the influence and importance of storage aw x temperature conditions on the relative presence of free vs conjugated mycotoxins which can have implications for food safety.

Occurrence of modified mycotoxins in Latin America: an up-to-date review

The Latin America region has a considerable extent of varied climate conditions: from tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate to temperate. Among the surface territory, different agricultural products are produced, making them an important food source for human consumption. Fungal species commonly colonize those important agricultural products and often contaminate them with mycotoxins that have a major impact on health, welfare, and productivity. Nowadays, special attention is paid to modified mycotoxins, which are those that cannot be detected by conventional analytical methods. However, little data about their natural occurrence in food and feed is available, especially in Latin American countries, where, among all the countries in this region, only a few of them are working on this subject. Thus, the present review summarizes the published information available in order to determine the possible human exposure risk to these toxins.

Individual and combined occurrences of the prevalent mycotoxins in commercial feline and canine food

Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin (T-2), and zearalenone (ZEN), can contaminate animal feeds and pose risks to animal health and production performance. These mycotoxins are commonly found in cereals and grains, with the increased use of cereals in pet food, there is a rising concern about mycotoxin contamination among pet owners. To address this, we analyzed imported brands of feline and canine food from the Chinese market produced in 2021-2022. Ninety-three samples were analyzed, comprising 45 feline food and 48 canine food samples. Among them, 14 were canned food and 79 were dry food. The results indicate that AFB1, DON, FBs, OTA, T-2, and ZEN occurred in 32.26%, 98.92%, 22.58%, 73.12%, 55.91%, and 7.53% of the samples, respectively. The most prevalent mycotoxin was DON, followed by OTA, T-2, AFB1, and FBs, whereas ZEN was less frequently detected. The mean concentrations of the six mycotoxins in pet feed samples were 3.17 μg/kg for AFB1, 0.65 mg/kg for DON, 2.15 mg/kg for FBs, 6.27 μg/kg for OTA, 20.00 μg/kg for T-2, and 30.00 μg/kg for ZEN. The levels of mycotoxins were generally below the limits of the Pet Feed Hygiene Regulations of China and the EU. Notably, a substantial majority of the pet food samples (88 out of 93) were contaminated by two or more mycotoxins. AFB1, FBs, OTA, and ZEN occurred slightly more often in feline food than in canine food. Except for OTA, the contamination rates for the other five mycotoxins in canned food were lower than those in dry food. Moreover, except for AFB1, the levels of the other five mycotoxins in canned foods were lower than those in dry foods. This study highlights the widespread contamination of pet foods with mycotoxins, which poses a significant risk to pets from continuous exposure to multiple mycotoxins.

Development of a high-throughput UHPLC-MS/MS method for the analysis of Fusarium and Alternaria toxins in cereals and cereal-based food

A QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe)-based multi-mycotoxin method was developed, analyzing 24 (17 free and 7 modified) Alternaria and Fusarium toxins in cereals via ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). A modified QuEChERS approach was optimized for sample preparation. Quantification was conducted using a combination of stable isotope dilution analysis (SIDA) for nine toxins and matrix-matched calibration for ten toxins. Quantification via a structurally similar internal standard was conducted for four analytes. Alternariol-9-sulfate (AOH-9-S) was measured qualitatively. Limits of detection (LODs) were between 0.004 µg/kg for enniatin A1 (ENN A1) and 3.16 µg/kg for nivalenol (NIV), while the limits of quantification were between 0.013 and 11.8 µg/kg, respectively. The method was successfully applied to analyze 136 cereals and cereal-based foods, including 28 cereal-based infant food products. The analyzed samples were frequently contaminated with Alternaria toxins, proving their ubiquitous occurrence. Interestingly, in many of those samples, some modified Alternaria toxins occurred, mainly alternariol-3-sulfate (AOH-3-S) and alternariol monomethyl ether-3-sulfate (AME-3-S), thus highlighting the importance of including modified mycotoxins in the routine analysis as they may significantly add to the total exposure of their parent toxins. Over 95% of the analyzed samples were contaminated with at least one toxin. Despite the general contamination, no maximum or indicative levels were exceeded.

Untargeted Metabolomics to Investigate the Influence of Epigenetic Modifiers on the Metabolism of Fusarium verticillioides

Toxigenic fungi are capable of producing toxic metabolites, called mycotoxins. But the presence of silent and lowly expressed genes represents the main challenge for the discovery of novel mycotoxins, especially their lesser-known forms, commonly referred to as "emerging mycotoxins." Epigenetic modifiers (EMs) are compounds that are able to alter the production of metabolites through the induction of silent biosynthetic pathways leading to an enhanced chemical diversity. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of different chemical modulators on the metabolic profiles of the well-known toxigenic fungal species, Fusarium verticillioides. Four EMs, 5-azacytidine, sodium butyrate, nicotinamide (NIC), and sodium valproate (SV), were used. Following their addition to Fusarium verticillioides cultures, the metabolic profiles were analyzed by using UHPLC-HRMS/MS under targeted and untargeted metabolomics approaches. Metabolites were putatively annotated through the use of MS-DIAL and MS-FINDER. Our results show that the treatment with SV induced the most important alteration of the secondary metabolic profile of F. verticillioides, by promoting the expression of cryptic genes. Among the 50 most discriminating metabolites across five culture conditions, 12 were fusarins or fusarin analogs. In contrast, SB and NIC had little impact on these metabolites. The study highlights SV's ability to alter gene expression by inhibiting DNA deacetylation in fungal strains. This research could have significant implications for agriculture and food industry, especially in regions facing major mycotoxin challenges.

Effects of fermentation time, baking, and storage on ochratoxin A levels in sourdough flat bread

Ochratoxin A (OTA), which is one of the most important mycotoxins in terms of human health, can be found in cereal products such as bread, "bazlama" (traditional flatbread), and pita bread, as well as cereals such as wheat, barley, and corn. This study aimed to determine the effect of different fermentation times, baking, and storage for various periods on the presence of OTA in sourdough bazlama. Bazlama flour was contaminated with OTA concentrations of 5 and 10 μg/kg. After two different fermentation times (1.5 and 3 h), baking at 300 ± 5°C, and storage at room temperature (25 ± 2°C) for 0, 5, and 10 days, the change in OTA levels of bazlama samples was determined by the high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) method. The effect of different storage periods on the presence of OTA is insignificant. Although a general decrease in OTA level has been determined, it has been found that long-term fermentation (at least 3 h) was more effective, especially in flours with a high concentration (10 μg/kg) of OTA contamination. It has been determined that bazlama made from contaminated flours with OTA levels of 5 and 10 μg/kg contained OTA levels exceeding 3 μg/kg when long-term fermentation was not used. This is the maximum permitted limit set by the Turkish Food Codex and the European Commission, indicating that it is not suitable for consumption in this position.

Co-Occurrence of Fusarium and Alternaria Metabolites in Brewing Barley Monitored during Two Consecutive Years (2019-2020)

Known mycotoxins have been investigated for years. They have been included in legislation and are meticulously controlled in most cereals, cereal-related products, and raw materials of animal origin. However, there are still mycotoxins that need to be addressed by regulations and subsequently are not monitored but can still occur in relatively high concentrations. This research aimed to assess the occurrence of common Fusarium mycotoxins in hulled barley. Samples of hulled barley were treated in the field with two protective treatments, alongside a control sample sans treatment. Furthermore, we aimed to assess the occurrence of Alternaria mycotoxins in the chosen samples. The results have shown that Fusarium mycotoxins were mostly determined by climatic conditions (no mycotoxins in 2020, except siccanol). Most interesting was the appearance of infectopyron, an Alternaria toxin that was detected in all samples in 2019 and in the majority of samples in 2020. The highest concentration was detected in 2019 in hulled barley with 536 µg/kg, while in 2020, the highest concentration of this mycotoxin reached 350 µg/kg. These findings depict the need for further research on food safety regarding mycotoxins, and the need for additional changes in legislation. This investigation shows that fungicide application in rainy years cannot efficiently suppress mycotoxin production. Additionally, even in dry years, some of the mycotoxins not involved in legislation, such as infectopyron and siccanol, do not respond to the application of fungicides.

An overview of mycotoxicoses in rabbits

Mycotoxicoses are usually a consideration in large animal species but can affect companion animals as well. Due to increasing interest and the ease of using rabbits as laboratory models, a growing number of published experimental studies discuss the effects of various mycotoxins on this species. However, the available evidence is fragmented and heterogeneous, and has not recently been collated in a review, to my knowledge. Although mycotoxicoses in rabbits are typically subclinical, clinical signs can include weight loss, anorexia, gastrointestinal disorders, stunted growth, reproductive abnormalities, and susceptibility to infections. An antemortem diagnosis typically relies on a comprehensive clinical history, and assessment of clinical signs and relevant laboratory findings, with confirmation of exposure achieved through the measurement of mycotoxin concentrations in feed or target organs. My review focuses on the clinicopathologic and histopathologic effects of the mycotoxins most important in rabbits, including fumonisins, ochratoxins, aflatoxins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone. This review offers a thorough overview of the effects of mycotoxins in rabbits, serving as a one-stop resource for veterinary practitioners, diagnosticians, and researchers.

Review: Strategies and technologies in preventing regulated and emerging mycotoxin co-contamination in forage for safeguarding ruminant health

Ruminants are often considered less susceptible to mycotoxins than monogastrics, owing to rumen microflora converting mycotoxins to less toxic compounds or several compounds present in the rumen-reticulum compartment, being able to bind the mycotoxin "mother" molecule that make them unavailable for absorption process in the gastro-intestinal tract of host animals. However, if ruminants consume feed contaminated by mycotoxins for long periods, their growth, development, and fertility can be compromised. Among regulated mycotoxins, the most studied and known for their effects are aflatoxins (AFs) AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2, as well as the AFM1 for its high importance in dairy sector, deoxynivalenol (DON) and its metabolites 3/15 acetyl-DON and 3-glucoside DON, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, zearalenone, fumonisins, in particular that belong to the B class, and ochratoxin A. Furthermore, because of the emergence of multiple emerging mycotoxins that are detectable in feed utilised in ruminant diets, such as ensiled forage, there is now a growing focus on investigating these compounds by the scientific community to deepen their toxicity for animal health. Despite the enhancement of research, it is remarkable that there is a paucity of in vivo trials, as well as limited studies on nutrient digestibility and the impact of these molecules on rumen and intestinal functions or milk yield and quality. In this review, recent findings regarding the occurrence of regulated and emerging mycotoxins in forage and their possible adverse effects on dairy cattle are described, with special emphasis on animal performance and on rumen functionality.

Mycotoxins in food: Occurrence, health implications, and control strategies-A comprehensive review

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by various filamentous fungi, including Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria, Claviceps, Mucor, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Myrothecium, Pyrenophora, and Stachybotrys. They can contaminate various plants or animal foods, resulting in a significant loss of nutritional and commercial value. Several factors contribute to mycotoxin production, such as humidity, temperature, oxygen levels, fungal species, and substrate. When contaminated food is consumed by animals and humans, mycotoxins are rapidly absorbed, affecting the liver, and causing metabolic disorders. The detrimental effects on humans and animals include reduced food intake and milk production, reduced fertility, increased risk of abortion, impaired immune response, and increased occurrence of diseases. Therefore, it is imperative to implement strategies for mycotoxin control, broadly classified as preventing fungal contamination and detoxifying their toxic compounds. This review aims to discuss various aspects of mycotoxins, including their occurrence, and risk potential. Additionally, it provides an overview of mycotoxin detoxification strategies, including the use of mycotoxin absorbents, as potential techniques to eliminate or mitigate the harmful effects of mycotoxins and masked mycotoxins on human and animal health while preserving the nutritional and commercial value of affected food products.

Detoxifying bacterial genes for deoxynivalenol epimerization confer durable resistance to Fusarium head blight in wheat

Fusarium head blight (FHB) and the presence of mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) pose serious threats to wheat production and food safety worldwide. DON, as a virulence factor, is crucial for the spread of FHB pathogens on plants. However, germplasm resources that are naturally resistant to DON and DON-producing FHB pathogens are inadequate in plants. Here, detoxifying bacteria genes responsible for DON epimerization were used to enhance the resistance of wheat to mycotoxin DON and FHB pathogens. We characterized the complete pathway and molecular basis leading to the thorough detoxification of DON via epimerization through two sequential reactions in the detoxifying bacterium Devosia sp. D6-9. Epimerization efficiently eliminates the phytotoxicity of DON and neutralizes the effects of DON as a virulence factor. Notably, co-expressing of the genes encoding quinoprotein dehydrogenase (QDDH) for DON oxidation in the first reaction step, and aldo-keto reductase AKR13B2 for 3-keto-DON reduction in the second reaction step significantly reduced the accumulation of DON as virulence factor in wheat after the infection of pathogenic Fusarium, and accordingly conferred increased disease resistance to FHB by restricting the spread of pathogenic Fusarium in the transgenic plants. Stable and improved resistance was observed in greenhouse and field conditions over multiple generations. This successful approach presents a promising avenue for enhancing FHB resistance in crops and reducing mycotoxin contents in grains through detoxification of the virulence factor DON by exogenous resistance genes from microbes.

Natural resorcylic lactones derived from alternariol

In this overview, naturally occurring resorcylic lactones biosynthetically derived from alternariol and almost exclusively produced by fungi, are discussed with view on their isolation, structure, biological activities, biosynthesis, and total syntheses. This class of compounds consists until now of 127 naturally occurring compounds, with very divers structural motifs. Although only a handful of these toxins (i.e., alternariol and its 9-O-methyl ether, altenusin, dehydroaltenusin, altertenuol, and altenuene) were frequently found and isolated as fungal contaminants in food and feed and have been investigated in significant detail, further metabolites, which were much more rarely found as natural products, similarly show interesting biological activities.

What are the 100 most cited fungal genera?

The global diversity of fungi has been estimated between 2 to 11 million species, of which only about 155 000 have been named. Most fungi are invisible to the unaided eye, but they represent a major component of biodiversity on our planet, and play essential ecological roles, supporting life as we know it. Although approximately 20 000 fungal genera are presently recognised, the ecology of most remains undetermined. Despite all this diversity, the mycological community actively researches some fungal genera more commonly than others. This poses an interesting question: why have some fungal genera impacted mycology and related fields more than others? To address this issue, we conducted a bibliometric analysis to identify the top 100 most cited fungal genera. A thorough database search of the Web of Science, Google Scholar, and PubMed was performed to establish which genera are most cited. The most cited 10 genera are Saccharomyces, Candida, Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Botrytis, Pichia, Cryptococcus and Alternaria. Case studies are presented for the 100 most cited genera with general background, notes on their ecology and economic significance and important research advances. This paper provides a historic overview of scientific research of these genera and the prospect for further research. Citation: Bhunjun CS, Chen YJ, Phukhamsakda C, Boekhout T, Groenewald JZ, McKenzie EHC, Francisco EC, Frisvad JC, Groenewald M, Hurdeal VG, Luangsa-ard J, Perrone G, Visagie CM, Bai FY, Błaszkowski J, Braun U, de Souza FA, de Queiroz MB, Dutta AK, Gonkhom D, Goto BT, Guarnaccia V, Hagen F, Houbraken J, Lachance MA, Li JJ, Luo KY, Magurno F, Mongkolsamrit S, Robert V, Roy N, Tibpromma S, Wanasinghe DN, Wang DQ, Wei DP, Zhao CL, Aiphuk W, Ajayi-Oyetunde O, Arantes TD, Araujo JC, Begerow D, Bakhshi M, Barbosa RN, Behrens FH, Bensch K, Bezerra JDP, Bilański P, Bradley CA, Bubner B, Burgess TI, Buyck B, Čadež N, Cai L, Calaça FJS, Campbell LJ, Chaverri P, Chen YY, Chethana KWT, Coetzee B, Costa MM, Chen Q, Custódio FA, Dai YC, Damm U, de Azevedo Santiago ALCM, De Miccolis Angelini RM, Dijksterhuis J, Dissanayake AJ, Doilom M, Dong W, Alvarez-Duarte E, Fischer M, Gajanayake AJ, Gené J, Gomdola D, Gomes AAM, Hausner G, He MQ, Hou L, Iturrieta-González I, Jami F, Jankowiak R, Jayawardena RS, Kandemir H, Kiss L, Kobmoo N, Kowalski T, Landi L, Lin CG, Liu JK, Liu XB, Loizides M, Luangharn T, Maharachchikumbura SSN, Makhathini Mkhwanazi GJ, Manawasinghe IS, Marin-Felix Y, McTaggart AR, Moreau PA, Morozova OV, Mostert L, Osiewacz HD, Pem D, Phookamsak R, Pollastro S, Pordel A, Poyntner C, Phillips AJL, Phonemany M, Promputtha I, Rathnayaka AR, Rodrigues AM, Romanazzi G, Rothmann L, Salgado-Salazar C, Sandoval-Denis M, Saupe SJ, Scholler M, Scott P, Shivas RG, Silar P, Souza-Motta CM, Silva-Filho AGS, Spies CFJ, Stchigel AM, Sterflinger K, Summerbell RC, Svetasheva TY, Takamatsu S, Theelen B, Theodoro RC, Thines M, Thongklang N, Torres R, Turchetti B, van den Brule T, Wang XW, Wartchow F, Welti S, Wijesinghe SN, Wu F, Xu R, Yang ZL, Yilmaz N, Yurkov A, Zhao L, Zhao RL, Zhou N, Hyde KD, Crous PW (2024). What are the 100 most cited fungal genera? Studies in Mycology 108: 1-411. doi: 10.3114/sim.2024.108.01.

Recent advances and challenges in the analysis of natural toxins

Natural toxins (NTs) are poisonous secondary metabolites produced by living organisms developed to ward off predators. Especially low molecular weight NTs (MW<∼1 kDa), such as mycotoxins, phycotoxins, and plant toxins, are considered an important and growing food safety concern. Therefore, accurate risk assessment of food and feed for the presence of NTs is crucial. Currently, the analysis of NTs is predominantly performed with targeted high pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) methods. Although these methods are highly sensitive and accurate, they are relatively expensive and time-consuming, while unknown or unexpected NTs will be missed. To overcome this, novel on-site screening methods and non-targeted HPLC high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) methods have been developed. On-site screening methods can give non-specialists the possibility for broad "scanning" of potential geographical regions of interest, while also providing sensitive and specific analysis at the point-of-need. Non-targeted chromatography-HRMS methods can detect unexpected as well as unknown NTs and their metabolites in a lab-based approach. The aim of this chapter is to provide an insight in the recent advances, challenges, and perspectives in the field of NTs analysis both from the on-site and the laboratory perspective.

Assessing several fungal contaminants and their associated mycotoxins in maize cultivated on cornfields of Republic of Moldova

Maize is an important crop for the Republic of Moldova and one of the crops most contaminated with mycotoxins. Maize grain obtained from plants cultivated on Moldavian cornfields in 2021 and 2022 were tested for mycotoxigenic risk using qPCR with primers to several fungal genome sequences engaged in mycotoxin synthesis and ELISA test to screen total aflatoxins, fumonisin B1, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin. Except for T-2 toxin, the mycotoxin concentrations were under the limits of detection and did not exceed maximum admissible levels for unprocessed grain. Concentrations of T-2 toxin in grain samples did not correlate significantly with the quantity of toxigenic F. sporotrichioides. All of the analysed grain samples were contaminated with at least one toxigenic fungus, and 20% of the samples were infected with seven different species of toxigenic fungi. Accumulation of fungi in maize kernels was affected significantly by the season, and generally a decrease was observed in fungal frequency and quantity under drought conditions. However, several toxigenic Aspergillus and Fusarium fungi that are able to produce aflatoxins and fumonisins under improper storage conditions were found in the kernels during the whole period of monitoring.

Actinobacteria as Promising Biocontrol Agents for In Vitro and In Planta Degradation and Detoxification of Zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a prevalent mycotoxin found in grains and grain-derived products, inducing adverse health effects in both animals and humans. The in-field application of microorganisms to degrade and detoxify ZEN is a promising strategy to enhance the safety of food and feed. In this study, we investigated the potential of three actinobacterial strains to degrade and detoxify ZEN in vitro and in planta on wheat ears. The residual ZEN concentration and toxicity in the samples were analysed with UHPLC-MS/MS and a bioluminescence BLYES assay, respectively. Streptomyces rimosus subsp. rimosus LMG19352 could completely degrade and detoxify 5 mg/L ZEN in LB broth within 24 h, along with significant reductions in ZEN concentration both in a minimal medium (MM) and on wheat ears. Additionally, it was the only strain that showed a significant colonisation of these ears. Rhodococcus sp. R25614 exhibited partial but significant degradation in LB broth and MM, whereas Streptomyces sp. LMG16995 degraded and detoxified ZEN in LB broth after 72 h by 39% and 33%, respectively. Although all three actinobacterial strains demonstrated the metabolic capability to degrade and detoxify ZEN in vitro, only S. rimosus subsp. rimosus LMG19352 showed promising potential to mitigate ZEN in planta. This distinction underscores the importance of incorporating in planta screening assays for assessing the potential of mycotoxin-biotransforming microorganisms as biocontrol agents.

Quantitative Analysis of Fungal Contamination of Different Herbal Medicines in China

Herbal medicines are widely used for clinical purposes worldwide. These herbs are susceptible to phytopathogenic fungal invasion during the culturing, harvesting, storage, and processing stages. The threat of fungal and mycotoxin contamination requires the evaluation of the health risks associated with these herbal medicines. In this study, we collected 138 samples of 23 commonly used herbs from 20 regions in China, from which we isolated a total of 200 phytopathogenic fungi. Through morphological observation and ITS sequencing, 173 fungal isolates were identified and classified into 24 genera, of which the predominant genera were Fusarium (27.74%) and Alternaria (20.81%), followed by Epicoccum (11.56%), Nigrospora (7.51%), and Trichocladium (6.84%). Quantitative analysis of the abundance of both Fusarium and Alternaria in herbal medicines via RT-qPCR revealed that the most abundant fungi were found on the herb Taraxacum mongolicum, reaching 300,000 copies/μL for Fusarium and 700 copies/μL for Alternaria. The in vitro mycotoxin productivities of the isolated Fusarium and Alternaria strains were evaluated by using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and it was found that the Fusarium species mainly produced the acetyl forms of deoxynivalenol, while Alternaria species mainly produced altertoxins. These findings revealed widely distributed fungal contamination in herbal medicines and thus raise concerns for the sake of the quality and safety of herbal medicines.

Occurrence and fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in a wastewater treatment plant with Bacillus bio-reactor treatment

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have attracted wide attention due to their environmental impacts and health risks. PPCPs released through wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are estimated to be 80 %. Nevertheless, the occurrence of PPCPs in the WWTPs equipped with Bacillus spec.-based bioreactors (BBR) treatment system remains unclear. In this study, sludge and waste water samples were collected during separate winter and summer sampling campaigns from a typical BBR treatment system. The results indicate that out of 58 target PPCPs, 27 compounds were detected in the waste water (0.06-1900 ng/L), and 23 were found in the sludge (0.6-7755 ng/g dw). Paraxanthine was the chemical of the highest abundance in the influent due to the high consumption of the parent compounds caffeine and theobromine. The profile for PPCPs in the wastewater and sludge exhibited no seasonal variation. Overall, the removal of target PPCPs in summer is more effective than the winter. In the BBR bio-reactor, it was found that selected PPCPs (at ng/L level) can be completely removed. The efficiency for individual PPCP removal was increased from 1.0 % to 50 % in this unit, after target specific adjustments of the process. The effective removal of selected PPCPs by the BBR treatment system is explained by combined sorption and biodegradation processing. The re-occurrence of PPCPs in the wastewater was monitored. Negative removal efficiency was explained by the cleavage of Phase II metabolites after the biotransformation process, and the lack of equilibrium for PPCPs in the sludge of the second clarifier. A compound specific risk quotient (RQ) was calculated and applied for studying the potential environmental risks. Diphenhydramine is found with the highest environmental risk in wastewater, and 15 other PPCPs show negligible risks in sewage sludge.

Impact of Environmental Conditions on the Concentrations of Trichothecenes, Their Glucosides, and Emerging Fusarium Toxins in Naturally Contaminated, Irradiated, and Fusarium langsethiae Inoculated Oats

Trichothecenes produced by Fusarium species are commonly detected in oats. However, the ratios of the concentrations of free trichothecenes and their conjugates and how they are impacted by different interacting environmental conditions are not well documented. This study aims to examine the effect of water activity (0.95 and 0.98 aw) and temperature (20 and 25 °C) stress on the production of T-2 and HT-2 toxins, deoxynivalenol and their conjugates, as well as diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS). Multiple mycotoxins were detected using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry from 64 contaminated oat samples. The highest concentrations of HT-2-glucoside (HT-2-Glc) were observed at 0.98 aw and 20 °C, and were higher than other type A trichothecenes in the natural oats' treatments. However, no statistical differences were found between the mean concentrations of HT-2-Glc and HT-2 toxins in all storage conditions analysed. DAS concentrations were generally low and highest at 0.95 aw and 20 °C, while deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside levels were highest at 0.98 aw and 20 °C in the naturally contaminated oats. Emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin, moniliformin, and enniatins mostly increased with a rise in water activity and temperature in the naturally contaminated oats treatment. This study reinforces the importance of storage aw and temperature conditions in the high risk of free and modified toxin contamination of small cereal grains.

Computational methods meet in vitro techniques: A case study on fusaric acid and its possible detoxification through cytochrome P450 enzymes

Mycotoxins are known environmental pollutants that may contaminate food and feed chains. Some mycotoxins are regulated in many countries to limit the trading of contaminated and harmful commodities. However, the so-called emerging mycotoxins are poorly understood and need to be investigated further. Fusaric acid is an emerging mycotoxin, noxious to plants and animals, but is known to be less toxic to plants when hydroxylated. The detoxification routes effective in animals have not been elucidated yet. In this context, this study integrated in silico and in vitro techniques to discover potential bioremediation routes to turn fusaric acid to its less toxic metabolites. The toxicodynamics of these forms in humans have also been addressed. An in silico screening process, followed by molecular docking and dynamics studies, identified CYP199A4 from the bacterium Rhodopseudomonas palustris HaA2 as a potential fusaric acid biotransforming enzyme. Its activity was confirmed in vitro. However, the effect of hydroxylation seemed to have a limited impact on the modelled toxicodynamics against human targets. This study represents a starting point to develop a hybrid in silico/in vitro pipeline to find bioremediation agents for other food, feed and environmental contaminants.

Changing climate, shifting mycotoxins: A comprehensive review of climate change impact on mycotoxin contamination

Climate change (CC) is a complex phenomenon that has the potential to significantly alter marine, terrestrial, and freshwater ecosystems worldwide. Global warming of 2°C is expected to be exceeded during the 21st century, and the frequency of extreme weather events, including floods, storms, droughts, extreme temperatures, and wildfires, has intensified globally over recent decades, differently affecting areas of the world. How CC may impact multiple food safety hazards is increasingly evident, with mycotoxin contamination in particular gaining in prominence. Research focusing on CC effects on mycotoxin contamination in edible crops has developed considerably throughout the years. Therefore, we conducted a comprehensive literature search to collect available studies in the scientific literature published between 2000 and 2023. The selected papers highlighted how warmer temperatures are enabling the migration, introduction, and mounting abundance of thermophilic and thermotolerant fungal species, including those producing mycotoxins. Certain mycotoxigenic fungal species, such as Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium graminearum, are expected to readily acclimatize to new conditions and could become more aggressive pathogens. Furthermore, abiotic stress factors resulting from CC are expected to weaken the resistance of host crops, rendering them more vulnerable to fungal disease outbreaks. Changed interactions of mycotoxigenic fungi are likewise expected, with the effect of influencing the prevalence and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in the future. Looking ahead, future research should focus on improving predictive modeling, expanding research into different pathosystems, and facilitating the application of effective strategies to mitigate the impact of CC.

Biocontrol Agents of Fusarium Head Blight in Wheat: A Meta-Analytic Approach to Elucidate Their Strengths and Weaknesses

The use of biocontrol agents (BCAs) coping with fungal pathogens causing Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a compelling strategy for disease management, but a better elucidation of their effectiveness is crucial. Meta-analysis is the analysis of the results of multiple studies, which is typically performed to synthesize evidence from many possible sources in a formal probabilistic manner. This meta-analytic study, including 30 pathometric, biometric, physiochemical, genetic, and mycotoxin response variables reported in 56 studies, evidences the BCA effects on FHB in wheat. The effectiveness of BCAs of FHB in wheat in terms of pathogen abundance and disease reductions, biomass and yield conservation, and mycotoxin prevention/control was confirmed. BCAs showed higher efficacy (i) in studies published more recently; (ii) under controlled conditions; (iii) in high susceptible wheat cultivars; (iv) when Fusarium inoculation and BCA treatment did not occur directly on the plant (i.e., at the seed and kernel levels) in terms of disease development and mycotoxin control, and vice versa in terms of biomass conservation; (v) if Fusarium inoculation and BCA treatment occurred by spraying spikes in terms of yield; (vi) at 15 to 21 days post Fusarium inoculation or BCA treatment; and (vii) if they were filamentous fungi. However, BCAs overall were less efficacious than conventional agrochemicals, especially in terms of pathogen abundance and FHB reductions, as well as of mycotoxin prevention/control, although inconsistencies were reported among the investigated moderator variables. This study also highlights the complexity of reaching a good balance among BCA effects, and the need for further research.

Bacterial Lactonases ZenA with Noncanonical Structural Features Hydrolyze the Mycotoxin Zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogenic polyketide produced by Fusarium graminearum and other phytopathogenic members of the genus Fusarium. Contamination of cereals with ZEN is frequent, and hydrolytic detoxification with fungal lactonases has been explored. Here, we report the isolation of a bacterial strain, Rhodococcus erythropolis PFA D8-1, with ZEN hydrolyzing activity, cloning of the gene encoding α/β hydrolase ZenA encoded on the linear megaplasmid pSFRL1, and biochemical characterization of nine homologues. Furthermore, we report site-directed mutagenesis as well as structural analysis of the dimeric ZenARe of R. erythropolis and the more thermostable, tetrameric ZenAScfl of Streptomyces coelicoflavus with and without bound ligands. The X-ray crystal structures not only revealed canonical features of α/β hydrolases with a cap domain including a Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad but also unusual features including an uncommon oxyanion hole motif and a peripheral, short antiparallel β-sheet involved in tetramer interactions. Presteady-state kinetic analyses for ZenARe and ZenAScfl identified balanced rate-limiting steps of the reaction cycle, which can change depending on temperature. Some new bacterial ZEN lactonases have lower KM and higher kcat than the known fungal ZEN lactonases and may lend themselves to enzyme technology development for the degradation of ZEN in feed or food.

Pathological consequences, metabolism and toxic effects of trichothecene T-2 toxin in poultry

Contamination of feed with mycotoxins has become a severe issue worldwide. Among the most prevalent trichothecene mycotoxins, T-2 toxin is of particular importance for livestock production, including poultry posing a significant threat to animal health and productivity. This review article aims to comprehensively analyze the pathological consequences, metabolism, and toxic effects of T-2 toxin in poultry. Trichothecene mycotoxins, primarily produced by Fusarium species, are notorious for their potent toxicity. T-2 toxin exhibits a broad spectrum of negative effects on poultry species, leading to substantial economic losses as well as concerns about animal welfare and food safety in modern agriculture. T-2 toxin exposure easily results in negative pathological consequences in the gastrointestinal tract, as well as in parenchymal tissues like the liver (as the key organ for its metabolism), kidneys, or reproductive organs. In addition, it also intensely damages immune system-related tissues such as the spleen, the bursa of Fabricius, or the thymus causing immunosuppression and increasing the susceptibility of the animals to infectious diseases, as well as making immunization programs less effective. The toxin also damages cellular processes on the transcriptional and translational levels and induces apoptosis through the activation of numerous cellular signaling cascades. Furthermore, according to recent studies, besides the direct effects on the abovementioned processes, T-2 toxin induces the production of reactive molecules and free radicals resulting in oxidative distress and concomitantly occurring cellular damage. In conclusion, this review article provides a complex and detailed overview of the metabolism, pathological consequences, mechanism of action as well as the immunomodulatory and oxidative stress-related effects of T-2 toxin. Understanding these effects in poultry is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impact of the T-2 toxin on avian health and food safety in the future.

Mycotoxins evaluation of total mixed ration (TMR) in bovine dairy farms: An update

The total mixed ration (TMR) is currently a widespread method to feed dairy cows. It is a mixture of raw fodder and concentrate feed that can be contaminated by several mycotoxins. The main aim of this paper was to provide a critical review on TMR mycotoxin occurrence and its usefulness to monitor and control them on-farm. Aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin and fumonisins (regulated mycotoxins) are the most prevalent mycotoxins evaluated in TMR. Nonetheless, several emerging mycotoxins represent a health risk at the animal level regarding their prevalence and level in TMR. Even when measured at low levels, the co-occurrence of mycotoxins is frequent and synergistic effects on animal health are still underevaluated. Similar to the animal feed industry, on-farm plans monitoring mycotoxin feed contamination can be developed as a herd health management program. The estimated daily intake of mycotoxins should be implemented, but thresholds for each mycotoxin are not currently defined in dairy farms.

Co-occurrence of T-2 and HT-2 Mycotoxins and α and β Anomers of Their Glucosides in Wheat and Oat Grains

The aim of this study was to simultaneously determine T-2 and HT-2 toxins and the α and β anomers of their glucosides to assess their content in wheat and oat grains harvested in Poland (2020-2022). Of 298 wheat samples, only 14 (5%) contained the sum of the T-2 and HT-2 toxins (average 34.2 μg/kg; 10.6-67.7 μg/kg). In oat (n = 129), these compounds were detected much more frequently (70% of samples) at an average level of 107.5 μg/kg (6.9-949.1 μg/kg). The sum of T-2 and HT-2 glucosides was detectable in 3% of the wheat (average 16.3 μg/kg; 7.1-39.4 μg/kg) and 65% of the oat samples (average 35.1 μg/kg; 4.0-624.1 μg/kg). Following the study, T-2-3-α-glucoside was identified as the only naturally occurring anomer, while both anomers of HT-2-3-glucosides were detected with higher contents and occurrence rates of HT-2-3-β-glucoside than the α anomer of this compound.

Investigating Metabolic Plant Response toward Deoxynivalenol Accumulation in Four Winter Cereals

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a phytotoxic agent supporting the spread of fungal diseases in cereals worldwide, i.e., fusarium head blight. It is known that DON accumulation may elicit changes in plant secondary metabolites in response to pathogen attack. This study maps the changes in selected secondary metabolite classes upon DON contamination occurring in fifteen Triticum spp. genotypes, among them emmer, spelt, and soft wheat, and 2 tritordeum varieties, cultivated in two different sites and over two harvest years. The main phenolic classes (i.e., alkylresorcinols, soluble, and cell-wall bound phenolic acids) were targeted analyzed, while changes in the lipidome signature were collected through untargeted HRMS experiments. The results, obtained across multiple Triticum species and in open fields, confirmed the modulation of first-line biological pathways already described in previous studies involving single cereal species or a limited germplasm, thus reinforcing the involvement of nonspecific chemical defenses in the plant response to pathogen attack.

Mycotoxin occurrence in kernels and straws of wheat, barley, and tritordeum

Thirty-two varieties of common and durum wheat, hordeum, barley, and tritordeum collected over two harvesting years (2020 and 2021) were investigated for the presence of multiple Fusarium-related mycotoxins in asymptomatic plants. DON, 3-AcDON, 15-AcDON, T-2, HT-2, and ZEN together with the emerging mycotoxin ENN B and the major modified form of DON, namely DON3Glc, were quantified by means of UHPLC-MS/MS. Overall, DON and ENN B were the most frequently detected mycotoxins, albeit large inter-year variability was observed and related to different climate and weather conditions. Straws had higher mycotoxin contents than kernels and regarding DON occurrence tritordeum was found to be the most contaminated group on average for both harvesting years, while barley was the less contaminated one. Emerging mycotoxin ENN B showed comparable contents in kernels compared to straw, with a ratio close to 1 for tritordeum and barley. Regarding the occurrence of the other evaluated mycotoxins, T-2 and HT-2 toxins have been spotted in a few tritordeum samples, while ZEN has been frequently found only in straw from the harvesting year 2020. The data collected confirms the occurrence of multiple Fusarium mycotoxins in straws also from asymptomatic plants, highlighting concerns related to feed safety and animal health. The susceptibility of Tritordeum, hereby reported for the first time, suggests that careful measures in terms of monitoring, breeding, and cultural choices should be applied when dealing with his emerging crop.

Interactions among the composition changes in fungal communities and the main mycotoxins in simulated stored wheat grains

BACKGROUND

There are significant food safety risks associated with wheat spoilage due to fungal growth and mycotoxin contamination. Nevertheless, a few studies have examined how stored wheat grain microbial communities and mycotoxins vary in different storage conditions. In this study, changes in deoxynivalenol (DON) and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (D3G) content were measured with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS), and an amplicon sequence analysis of fungi was performed on stored wheat grains from different storage conditions using high-throughput sequencing. The detailed interactions among the composition changes in the fungal community and the DON content of simulated stored wheat grains were also analyzed.

RESULTS

Alternaria, Fusarium, Mrakia, and Aspergillus were the core fungal taxa, and the fungal communities of samples stored under different conditions were observed to be different. Aspergillus relative abundances increased, whereas Fusarium decreased. This led to an increase in the content of DON. The content of DON increased about 67% with 12% moisture and at 25 °C after 2 months of storage, which was influenced by the stress response of Fusarium. Correlations in fungal and mycotoxins changes were observed. There may be potential value in these findings for developing control strategies to prevent mildew infestations and mycotoxins contamination during grain storage.

CONCLUSION

In storage, the more the fungal community composition and the relative abundance of Fusarium change, the more mycotoxins will be produced. We should therefore reduce competition between fungal communities through pre-storage treatment and through measures during storage. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

What Is Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) Resistance and What Are Its Food Safety Risks in Wheat? Problems and Solutions-A Review

The term "Fusarium Head Blight" (FHB) resistance supposedly covers common resistances to different Fusarium spp. without any generally accepted evidence. For food safety, all should be considered with their toxins, except for deoxynivalenol (DON). Disease index (DI), scabby kernels (FDK), and DON steadily result from FHB, and even the genetic regulation of Fusarium spp. may differ; therefore, multitoxin contamination is common. The resistance types of FHB form a rather complex syndrome that has been the subject of debate for decades. It seems that resistance types are not independent variables but rather a series of components that follow disease and epidemic development; their genetic regulation may differ. Spraying inoculation (Type 1 resistance) includes the phase where spores land on palea and lemma and spread to the ovarium and also includes the spread-inhibiting resistance factor; therefore, it provides the overall resistance that is needed. A significant part of Type 1-resistant QTLs could, therefore, be Type 2, requiring the retesting of the QTLs; this is, at least, the case for the most effective ones. The updated resistance components are as follows: Component 1 is overall resistance, as discussed above; Component 2 includes spreading from the ovarium through the head, which is a part of Component 1; Component 3 includes factors from grain development to ripening (FDK); Component 4 includes factors influencing DON contamination, decrease, overproduction, and relative toxin resistance; and for Component 5, the tolerance has a low significance without new results. Independent QTLs with different functions can be identified for one or more traits. Resistance to different Fusarium spp. seems to be connected; it is species non-specific, but further research is necessary. Their toxin relations are unknown. DI, FDK, and DON should be checked as they serve as the basic data for the risk analysis of cultivars. A better understanding of the multitoxin risk is needed regarding resistance to the main Fusarium spp.; therefore, an updated testing methodology is suggested. This will provide more precise data for research, genetics, and variety registration. In winter and spring wheat, the existing resistance level is very high, close to Sumai 3, and provides much greater food safety combined with sophisticated fungicide preventive control and other practices in commercial production.

Food Safety Aspects of Breeding Maize to Multi-Resistance against the Major (Fusarium graminearum, F. verticillioides, Aspergillus flavus) and Minor Toxigenic Fungi (Fusarium spp.) as Well as to Toxin Accumulation, Trends, and Solutions-A Review

Maize is the crop which is most commonly exposed to toxigenic fungi that produce many toxins that are harmful to humans and animals alike. Preharvest grain yield loss, preharvest toxin contamination (at harvest), and storage loss are estimated to be between 220 and 265 million metric tons. In the past ten years, the preharvest mycotoxin damage was stable or increased mainly in aflatoxin and fumonisins. The presence of multiple toxins is characteristic. The few breeding programs concentrate on one of the three main toxigenic fungi. About 90% of the experiments except AFB1 rarely test toxin contamination. As disease resistance and resistance to toxin contamination often differ in regard to F. graminearum, F. verticillioides, and A. flavus and their toxins, it is not possible to make a food safety evaluation according to symptom severity alone. The inheritance of the resistance is polygenic, often mixed with epistatic and additive effects, but only a minor part of their phenotypic variation can be explained. All tests are made by a single inoculum (pure isolate or mixture). Genotype ranking differs between isolates and according to aggressiveness level; therefore, the reliability of such resistance data is often problematic. Silk channel inoculation often causes lower ear rot severity than we find in kernel resistance tests. These explain the slow progress and raise skepticism towards resistance breeding. On the other hand, during genetic research, several effective putative resistance genes were identified, and some overlapped with known QTLs. QTLs were identified as securing specific or general resistance to different toxicogenic species. Hybrids were identified with good disease and toxin resistance to the three toxigenic species. Resistance and toxin differences were often tenfold or higher, allowing for the introduction of the resistance and resistance to toxin accumulation tests in the variety testing and the evaluation of the food safety risks of the hybrids within 2-3 years. Beyond this, resistance breeding programs and genetic investigations (QTL-analyses, GWAM tests, etc.) can be improved. All other research may use it with success, where artificial inoculation is necessary. The multi-toxin data reveal more toxins than we can treat now. Their control is not solved. As limits for nonregulated toxins can be introduced, or the existing regulations can be made to be stricter, the research should start. We should mention that a higher resistance to F. verticillioides and A. flavus can be very useful to balance the detrimental effect of hotter and dryer seasons on aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination. This is a new aspect to secure food and feed safety under otherwise damaging climatic conditions. The more resistant hybrids are to the three main agents, the more likely we are to reduce the toxin losses mentioned by about 50% or higher.

Recent Advances in the Detection of Food Toxins Using Mass Spectrometry

Edibles are the only source of nutrients and energy for humans. However, ingredients of edibles have undergone many physicochemical changes during preparation and storage. Aging, hydrolysis, oxidation, and rancidity are some of the major changes that not only change the native flavor, texture, and taste of food but also destroy the nutritive value and jeopardize public health. The major reasons for the production of harmful metabolites, chemicals, and toxins are poor processing, inappropriate storage, and microbial spoilage, which are lethal to consumers. In addition, the emergence of new pollutants has intensified the need for advanced and rapid food analysis techniques to detect such toxins. The issue with the detection of toxins in food samples is the nonvolatile nature and absence of detectable chromophores; hence, normal conventional techniques need additional derivatization. Mass spectrometry (MS) offers high sensitivity, selectivity, and capability to handle complex mixtures, making it an ideal analytical technique for the identification and quantification of food toxins. Recent technological advancements, such as high-resolution MS and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), have significantly improved sensitivity, enabling the detection of food toxins at ultralow levels. Moreover, the emergence of ambient ionization techniques has facilitated rapid in situ analysis of samples with lower time and resources. Despite numerous advantages, the widespread adoption of MS in routine food safety monitoring faces certain challenges such as instrument cost, complexity, data analysis, and standardization of methods. Nevertheless, the continuous advancements in MS-technology and its integration with complementary techniques hold promising prospects for revolutionizing food safety monitoring. This review discusses the application of MS in detecting various food toxins including mycotoxins, marine biotoxins, and plant-derived toxins. It also explores the implementation of untargeted approaches, such as metabolomics and proteomics, for the discovery of novel and emerging food toxins, enhancing our understanding of potential hazards in the food supply chain.

A Study of a New Certified Reference Material for Accurate Determination of the Main Fusarium Mycotoxins in Whole-Wheat Flour

Matrix certified reference materials (CRMs) play a critical role in analytical method validation and the assurance of reliable measurement results. A certified reference material (GBW(E)100813) for whole-wheat flour was developed to ensure an accurate and reliable measurement of the main Fusarium mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3G), and zearalenone (ZEN)). CRM candidates were prepared using sun-drying, grinding, sieving, homogenising, packaging, and gamma irradiation. The final produced CRM was packaged at 50 g per unit and stored at 20 °C. Certification was performed using isotope dilution-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. CRM characterization was performed in eight laboratories in accordance with the requirements of ISO Guide 35. The certified values and expanded uncertainties (at a confidence of 95%, k = 2) for DON, NIV, DON-3G, and ZEN were determined to be 0.98 ± 0.12 mg/kg, 1.37 ± 0.20 mg/kg, 242 ± 35 μg/g, and 382 ± 50 μg/g. The CRM was sufficiently homogeneous between and within bottles, and remained stable for up to 12 months at 20 °C and 9 days below 40 °C for transportation. Thus, CRM can be used for quality control and method validation to ensure the accurate and reliable quantification of the main Fusarium mycotoxins in whole-wheat flour.

Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Foods: Unraveling the Knowledge Gaps on Their Persistence in Food Production Systems

In this review, the intricate issue about the occurrence levels of mycotoxins in foods is discussed aiming to underline the main knowledge gaps on the persistence of these toxicants in the food production system. Mycotoxins have been a key challenge to the food industry, economic growth, and consumers' health. Despite a breadth of studies over the past decades, the persistence of mycotoxins in foods remain an overlooked concern that urges exploration. Therefore, we aimed to concisely underline the matter and provide possible biochemical and metabolic details that can be relevant to the food sector and overall public health. We also stress the application of computational modeling, high-throughput omics, and high-resolution imaging approaches, which can provide insights into the structural and physicochemical characteristics and the metabolic activities which occur in a stored cereal grain's embryo and endosperm and their relationship with storage fungi and mycotoxins on a cellular level. In addition, there is a need for extensive collaborative network and funding, which will play a key role in finding effective solutions against the persistence of mycotoxins at the genetic and molecular to metabolic levels in the food system.

A Dynamic and Pseudo-Homogeneous MBs-icELISA for the Early Detection of Aflatoxin B1 in Food and Feed

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is one of the most toxic and harmful fungal toxins to humans and animals, and the fundamental way to prevent its entry into humans is to detect its presence in advance. In this paper, the monoclonal antibody mAbA2-2 was obtained via three-step sample amplification and multi-concentration standard detection using a subcloning method based on the limited dilution method with AFB1 as the target. A dynamic and pseucdo-homogeneous magnetic beads enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (MBs-icELISA) was established using the prepared antibody as the recognition element and immunomagnetic beads as the antigen carrier. The MBs-icELISA showed good linear correlation in the concentration range of 0.004-10 ng/mL with R2 = 0.99396. The limit of detection (LOD) of the MBs-icELISA for AFB1 was 0.0013 ng/mL. This new ELISA strategy significantly shortened AFB1 detection time through improved sensitivity compared to the conventional ELISA method.

The bitter side of toxicity: A big data analysis spotted the interaction between trichothecenes and bitter receptors

The bitter taste perception evolved in human and animals to rapidly perceive and avoid potential toxic compounds. This is mediated by taste receptors type 2 (TAS2R), expressed in various tissues, which recently proved to be involved in roles beyond the bitter perception itself. With this study, the interaction between food-related toxic compounds and TAS2R46 has been investigated via computational approaches, starting with a virtual screening and moving to molecular docking and dynamics simulations. The virtual screening analysis identified trichothecolone and the trichothecenes class it belongs to, which includes mycotoxins widespread in several commodities raising food safety concerns, as possible TAS2R46 binders. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations were performed to further explore the trichotecenes-TAS2R46 interaction. The results indicated that deoxynivalenol and its 15-acetylated derivative could activate TAS2R46. Eventually, this study provided initial evidence supporting the involvement of TAS2R46 in the underpinning mechanisms of deoxynivalenol action highlighting the need of digging into the involvement of TAS2R46 and TAS2Rs in the adverse effects of deoxynivalenol and congeners.

The intestinal microbiota as mediators between dietary contaminants and host health

The gut microbiota sit at an important interface between the host and the environment, and are exposed to a multitude of nutritive and non-nutritive substances. These microbiota are critical to maintaining host health, but their supportive roles may be compromised in response to endogenous compounds. Numerous non-nutritive substances are introduced through contaminated foods, with three common groups of contaminants being bisphenols, phthalates, and mycotoxins. The former contaminants are commonly introduced through food and/or beverages packaged in plastic, while mycotoxins contaminate various crops used to feed livestock and humans alike. Each group of contaminants have been shown to shift microbial communities following exposure; however, specific patterns in microbial responses have yet to be identified, and little is known about the capacity of the microbiota to metabolize these contaminants. This review characterizes the state of existing research related to gut microbial responses to and biotransformation of bisphenols, phthalates, and mycotoxins. Collectively, we highlight the need to identify consistent, contaminant-specific responses in microbial shifts, whether these community alterations are a result of contaminant effects on the host or microbiota directly, and to identify the extent of contaminant biotransformation by microbiota, including if these transformations occur in physiologically relevant contexts.

A comparative review on methods of detection and quantification of mycotoxins in solid food and feed: a focus on cereals and nuts

Many emerging factors and circumstances urge the need to develop and optimize the detection and quantification techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. The diversity of mycotoxins, which have different properties and affinities, makes the standardization of the analytical procedures and the adoption of a single protocol that covers the attributes of all mycotoxins a tedious or even an impossible mission. Several modifications and improvements have been undergone in order to optimize the performance of these methods including the extraction solvents, the extraction methods, the clean-up procedures, and the analytical techniques. The techniques range from the rapid screening methods, which lack sensitivity and specificity such as TLC, to a spectrum of more advanced protocols, namely, ELISA, HPLC, and GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. This review aims at assessing the current studies related to these analytical techniques of mycotoxins in solid food and feed. It discusses and evaluates, through a critical approach, various sample treatment techniques, and provides an in-depth examination of different mycotoxin detection methods. Furthermore, it includes a comparison of their actual accuracy and a thorough analysis of the observed benefits and drawbacks.

Modified Mycotoxins and Multitoxin Contamination of Food and Feed as Major Analytical Challenges

Mycotoxins, as natural products of molds, are often unavoidable contaminants of food and feed, to which the increasingly evident climate changes contribute a large part. The consequences are more or less severe and range from economic losses to worrying health problems to a fatal outcome. One of the best preventive approaches is regular monitoring of food and feed for the presence of mycotoxins. However, even under conditions of frequent, comprehensive, and conscientious controls, the desired protection goal may not be achieved. In fact, it often happens that, despite favorable analytical results that do not indicate high mycotoxin contamination, symptoms of their presence occur in practice. The most common reasons for this are the simultaneous presence of several different mycotoxins whose individual content does not exceed the detectable or prescribed values and/or the alteration of the form of the mycotoxin, which renders it impossible to be analytically determined using routine methods. When such contaminated foods enter a living organism, toxic effects occur. This article aims to shed light on the above problems in order to pay more attention to them, work to reduce their impact, and, eventually, overcome them.

Microfluidizing Technique Application for Algerian Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Effects Enhanced Volatile Content, Antimicrobial, and Anti-Mycotoxigenic Properties

Medicinal plant extracts are a promising source of bioactive minor contents. The present study aimed to evaluate the distinguished volatile content of Algerian Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf before and after the microfluidization process and their related antimicrobial and anti-mycotoxigenic impacts and changes. The GC-MS apparatus was utilized for a comparative examination of Algerian lemongrass essential oil (LGEO) with its microfluidization nanoemulsion (MF-LGEO) volatile content. The MF-LGEO was characterized using Zetasizer and an electron microscope. Cytotoxicity, antibacterial, and antifungal activities were determined for the LGEO and MF-LGEO. The result reflected changes in the content of volatiles for the MF-LGEO. The microfluidizing process enhanced the presence of compounds known for their exceptional antifungal and antibacterial properties in MF-LGEO, namely, neral, geranial, and carvacrol. However, certain terpenes, such as camphor and citronellal, were absent, while decanal, not found in the raw LGEO, was detected. The droplet diameter was 20.76 ± 0.36 nm, and the polydispersity index (PDI) was 0.179 ± 0.03. In cytotoxicity studies, LGEO showed higher activity against the HepG2 cell line than MF-LGEO. Antibacterial LGEO activity against Gram-positive bacteria recorded an inhibitory zone from 41.82 ± 2.84 mm to 58.74 ± 2.64 mm, while the zone ranged from 12.71 ± 1.38 mm to 16.54 ± 1.42 mm for Gram-negative bacteria. Antibacterial activity was enhanced to be up to 71.43 ± 2.54 nm and 31.54 ± 1.01 nm for MF-LGEO impact against Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens. The antifungal effect was considerable, particularly against Fusarium fungi. It reached 17.56 ± 1.01 mm and 13.04 ± 1.37 mm for LGEO and MF-LGEO application of a well-diffusion assay, respectively. The MF-LGEO was more promising in reducing mycotoxin production in simulated fungal growth media due to the changes linked to essential compounds content. The reduction ratio was 54.3% and 74.57% for total aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OCA) contents, respectively. These results reflect the microfluidizing improvement impact regarding the LGEO antibacterial, antifungal and anti-mycotoxigenic properties.