Effects of balanced deep-sea water on adipocyte hypertrophy and liver steatosis in high-fat, diet-induced obese mice

Magnesium-enriched deep-sea water inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation and dampens inflammation

The NLRP3 inflammasome is an essential component of the innate immune system, but excessive activation can lead to inflammatory diseases. Ion fluxes across the plasma membrane or from intracellular stores are known to regulate NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Deep-sea water (DSW) contains high concentrations of many mineral ions, which could potentially influence NLRP3 inflammasome activation. However, the impact of DSW on NLRP3 inflammasome activation has not been investigated. Here, we demonstrated that DSW with water hardness levels up to 500 mg/L did not affect cell viability or the expression of NLRP3 inflammasome components in macrophages derived from THP-1 cells. However, the DSW significantly inhibited IL-1β secretion and caspase-1 activation in response to NLRP3 activators such as nigericin, ATP, or monosodium urate (MSU) crystals. Mechanically, it was discovered that the presence of 5 mM magnesium ions (Mg2+), equivalent to the Mg2+ concentration found in the DSW with a water hardness of 500 mg/L, inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation. This indicates that Mg2+ contributes to the mechanism by which DSW mitigates NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Moreover, DSW administration effectively lessens MSU-triggered peritonitis in mice, a commonly used model for examining the impacts of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. These results show that DSW enriched with Mg2+ could potentially be beneficial in modulating NLRP3 inflammasome-associated diseases.

Magnesium from Deep Seawater as a Potentially Effective Natural Product against Insulin Resistance: A Randomized Trial

Background and Objectives: Deep seawater has been shown to restore pancreatic function in obese diabetic mice and considerably improve the homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations in patients with impaired fasting glucose or glucose tolerance. In this study, the effect of 12-week daily consumption of magnesium (Mg2+)-containing deep seawater mineral extracts on blood glucose concentration and insulin metabolism-associated indicators was investigated in patients with impaired glucose tolerance. Materials and methods: In this 12-week randomized, double-blind trial, patients (n = 37) with impaired glucose tolerance consumed deep seawater mineral extracts. Changes in blood glucose concentration and related indicators were compared between the treatment group and placebo group (n = 38). Results: The fasting insulin, C-peptide, homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance, quantitative insulin sensitivity check index, homeostatic model assessment of beta-cell function, and Stumvoll insulin sensitivity index values in the deep seawater mineral extract group showed improvements compared with the placebo group. However, no significant differences between groups were observed in fasting blood glucose, postprandial blood glucose, glycated hemoglobin, or incremental area under the curve values. Conclusions: Oral supplementation with deep seawater mineral extracts enriched in Mg2+ markedly improves insulin sensitivity in patients with pre-diabetes. This study illustrates the potential clinical application of natural Mg2+ from deep seawater to alleviate insulin resistance in patients with pre-diabetes. Trial registration: This trial was retrospectively registered with Clinical Research information Service (CRIS), No. KCT0008695, on 8 August 2023.

Effects of a Diet Containing Sources of Prebiotics and Probiotics and Modification of the Gut Microbiota on the Reduction of Body Fat

In 2022, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) report, overweight and obesity have reached epidemic proportions in the WHO European Region, affecting almost 60% of adults. Based on the assessment of BMI (Body Mass Index), a group of 56 women aged 25-45 years (31 women group A average BMI 34.9 ± 4.86 kg/m2 and 25 women group B average BMI 33.4 ± 4.02 kg/m2) were qualified for the study. In a multi-center, two-arm, parallel, non-randomized study, two types of weight-reduction diets (A and B) were used over a 3-month period. In group A, a standard low-energy diet was used with individually adjusted caloric intake of 1100-1300 kcal, with an increase in the amount and frequency of consumption of sauerkraut and groats and a daily intake of fermented milk drinks (300-400 g), fermented cucumbers (100 g), mineral water (1 L) and cod liver oil (5 mL). In group B, a standard low-energy diet with individually adjusted caloric intake of 1100-1300 kcal with daily intake of fermented milk products (150 g), highly mineralized water (0.5 L), once a week fermented cucumbers, and once a week buckwheat groats was used. The following measurements were taken: body weight, body fat mass, water content, body height, waist circumference, and hip circumference. Body weight and body composition were measured using the Tanita MC-780 MA and TANITA BC-601 analyzer using the bioelectric bioimpedance method. The stool samples were analyzed in the microbiology laboratory where quantification of Bifidobcaterium spp., Bacteroides spp., Faecalibacterium prausnitzii species, Akkermansia muciniphila and total bacterial count (TBC) was performed. Under the influence of the introduced nutritional intervention, a statistically significant reduction in body weight, body fat, waist circumference, and hip circumference was demonstrated after 3 months. Under the influence of weight reduction, as well as dietary changes, there was an increase in the number of Akkermansia muciniphila bacteria in the women studied. The low-energy diet containing sources of natural prebiotics and probiotics had a more favorable effect on the number of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii bacteria compared to the standard diet.

Deep Sea Water Inhibited Pancreatic β-Cell Apoptosis and Regulated Glucose Homeostasis by Affecting Lipid Metabolism in Db/Db Mice

PURPOSE

Deep sea water (DSW) is a natural resource rich in minerals, which participates in biological processes such as energy metabolism, regulates serum glucose and lipids levels, and has a certain protective effect on endocrine and metabolism-related diseases. Studies have shown that the improvement of glucose tolerance in diabetic mice by DSW may be associated with the protective effect on the structure and function of pancreatic islets, and the specific mechanism is still unclear. Other studies have shown that long-term exposure to high concentrations of fatty acids can lead to apoptosis and dysfunction of pancreatic β-cell, increasing the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Down-regulation of plasma fatty acid levels may reduce pancreatic β-cell dysfunction, thereby improving glucose homeostasis. Understanding the specific mechanism of DSW regulating blood glucose is of great significance for its clinical application.

METHODS

In the present study we used db/db mice as a T2DM model and treated mice with deep ocean mineral concentration (DOMC, a commercial product of DSW) for 4 and 12 weeks. Basic information, serum biochemical indicators, and pathological tissues were gathered for exploration.

RESULTS

The db/db mice treated with 4 weeks' DOMC (db/db+DOMC) showed decreased plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Tests implied that in adipose tissues, the db/db+DOMC group's lipolysis process was inhibited, and the β-fatty acid oxidation process was promoted. Besides, DOMC reduced lipogenesis and encouraged β-oxidation in the liver, as a result, improved fatty liver in db/db mice. Further measurements showed DOMC improved glucose homeostasis slightly in db/db animals after a 12-week treatment by preventing pancreatic β-cell apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

DOMC inhibited pancreatic β-cell apoptosis and regulated glucose homeostasis in db/db mice by lowering the lipid levels via regulation of fatty acid β-oxidation, lipolysis, and lipogenesis processes.

Effect of Extract-Added Water Derived from Deep-Sea Water with Different Hardness on Cognitive Function, Motor Ability and Serum Indexes of Obese Mice

Deep-sea water (DSW) contains multiple minerals and is widely used as drinking water, for cosmetic purposes, and as seasoning. In this study, several types of extract-added water with different levels of hardness (200, 300, 500) were prepared from DSW collected off the coast of Muroto City, Kochi Prefecture. We administrated it to obese mice for two months and tested it for several effects. Although there was no anti-obesity effect for any hardness level in obese mice, the cognitive functions of each DSW-extract-added water-treated group were significantly improved compared to control obese mice in the water maze test. Time-to-fall by the rota-rod test was also dramatically improved in the DSW-extract-added water-treated groups. The levels of triglycerides and blood urea nitrogen were significantly decreased in DSW-extract-added water-treated obese mice. However, these results did not depend on the hardness. Hardness levels of 200 or 300 of DSW-extract-added water had greater effects on cognitive function and serum scores compared to a level of 500. We analyzed DSW using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. High concentrations of magnesium and potassium were detected, but sodium was not detected at very high concentrations. Although the detailed mechanisms of its effects are not yet understood, chronic intake of DSW-extract-added water may have a beneficial effect on health.

Health Effects of Drinking Water Produced from Deep Sea Water: A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Trial

Global trends focus on a balanced intake of foods and beverages to maintain health. Drinking water (MIU; hardness = 88) produced from deep sea water (DSW) collected offshore of Muroto, Japan, is considered healthy. We previously reported that the DSW-based drinking water (RDSW; hardness = 1000) improved human gut health. The aim of this randomized double-blind controlled trial was to assess the effects of MIU on human health. Volunteers were assigned to MIU (n = 41) or mineral water (control) groups (n = 41). Participants consumed 1 L of either water type daily for 12 weeks. A self-administered questionnaire was administered, and stool and urine samples were collected throughout the intervention. We measured the fecal biomarkers of nine short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), as well as urinary isoflavones. In the MIU group, concentrations of three major SCFAs and sIgA increased postintervention. MIU intake significantly affected one SCFA (butyric acid). The metabolic efficiency of daidzein-to-equol conversion was significantly higher in the MIU group than in the control group throughout the intervention. MIU intake reflected the intestinal environment through increased production of three major SCFAs and sIgA, and accelerated daidzein-to-equol metabolic conversion, suggesting the beneficial health effects of MIU.

Comparison of the Improvement Effect of Deep Ocean Water with Different Mineral Composition on the High Fat Diet-Induced Blood Lipid and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in a Mouse Model

Accumulated lipid droplets in liver cause nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Deep ocean water (DOW) containing high levels of magnesium, calcium, and potassium, etc. was proven to suppress hepatic lipid in obese rats fed high fat diet in the previous study. However, the effect of mineral compositions of DOW on the prevention of NAFLD is still unclear. This study removed calcium and potassium from DOW for modulating the mineral composition, and further compared the effects of DOW (D1(Mg + Ca + K)), DOW with low potassium (D2(Mg + Ca)), and DOW with low calcium and potassium (D3(Mg)) on the prevention of NAFLD in the mice model fed with high fat diet. In these results, DOW with high magnesium levels reduced serum and liver triglyceride and cholesterol levels and serum AST and ALT activities. However, when the calcium and/or potassium minerals were removed from DOW, the effects of reduction of triglyceride level, inhibition of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), fatty acid synthase (FAS), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-α) expressions, and activation of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione reductase activities would be weaker. In conclusion, DOW including magnesium, calcium and potassium minerals has the strongest preventive effect on NAFLD in a mouse model by increasing the antioxidant system and inhibiting fatty acid biosynthesis.

Hepatic autophagy fluctuates during the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

Autophagy has emerged as a critical regulatory pathway in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, the variability of hepatic autophagy during NAFLD development remains controversial. This study aimed to elucidate the dynamics of hepatic autophagy and its underlying mechanism during NAFLD development both in vivo and in vitro.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Autophagy markers were evaluated in the livers of mice fed a high fat diet or a methionine-choline-deficient diet and in HepG2 cells treated with palmitic acid (PA) by western blotting. Intrahepatic and intracellular triacylglycerol levels were assessed using biochemical quantification and lipid staining. Autophagic flux was monitored using an LC3 turnover assay and tandem mRFP-GFP-LC3 fluorescence analysis.

RESULTS

Hepatic autophagy was enhanced in early stages but blocked at later stages of NAFLD development both in vivo and in vitro. Analysis of autophagic flux revealed that both autophagic synthesis and degradation were initially activated and progressively inhibited afterwards. The activation of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1), a central regulator of autophagy, was found to be negatively correlated with autophagic synthesis; moreover, pharmacological inhibition of mTORC1 by rapamycin alleviated hepatic steatosis through recovery of autophagic flux in hepatocytes with prolonged PA treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Hepatic autophagy fluctuates during the development of NAFLD in which mTORC1 signalling plays a critical regulatory role, suggesting a therapeutic potential of autophagy modulation by targeting the mTORC1 signalling pathway in NAFLD.

Drinking Refined Deep-Sea Water Improves the Gut Ecosystem with Beneficial Effects on Intestinal Health in Humans: A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Trial

World health trends are focusing on a balanced food and beverage intake for healthy life. Refined deep-sea water (RDSW), obtained from deep-sea water collected offshore in Muroto (Japan), is mineral-rich drinking water. We previously reported that drinking RDSW improves human gut health. Here, we analyzed the effect of drinking RDSW on the gut ecosystem to understand this effect. This was a randomized double-blind controlled trial. Ninety-eight healthy adults were divided into two groups: RDSW or mineral water (control). The participants consumed 1 L of either water type daily for 12 weeks. A self-administered questionnaire and stool and urine samples were collected through the intervention. The following were determined: fecal biomarkers of secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA), five putrefactive products, and nine short-chain-fatty-acids (SCFAs) as the primary outcomes; and three urinary isoflavones and the questionnaire as secondary outcomes. In post-intervention in the RDSW group, we found increased concentrations of five SCFAs and decreased concentrations of phenol and sIgA (p < 0.05). The multiple logistic analysis demonstrated that RDSW significantly affected two biomarkers (acetic and 3-methylbutanoic acids) of the five SCFAs mentioned above (p < 0.05). Similarly, the concentrations of urinary isoflavones tended to increase in post-intervention in the RDSW group. Constipation was significantly alleviated in the RDSW group (94%) compared with the control group (60%). Drinking RDSW improves the intestinal environment, increasing fecal SCFAs and urinary isoflavones, which leads to broad beneficial effects in human.

C2C12 cell model: its role in understanding of insulin resistance at the molecular level and pharmaceutical development at the preclinical stage

OBJECTIVES

The myoblast cell line, C2C12, has been utilised extensively in vitro as an examination model in understanding metabolic disease progression. Although it is indispensable in both preclinical and pharmaceutical research, a comprehensive review of its use in the investigation of insulin resistance progression and pharmaceutical development is not available.

KEY FINDINGS

C2C12 is a well-documented model, which can facilitate our understanding in glucose metabolism, insulin signalling mechanism, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species and glucose transporters at cellular and molecular levels. With the aid of the C2C12 model, recent studies revealed that insulin resistance has close relationship with various metabolic diseases in terms of disease progression, pathogenesis and therapeutic management. A holistic, safe and effective disease management is highly of interest. Therefore, significant efforts have been paid to explore novel drug compounds and natural herbs that can elicit therapeutic effects in the targeted sites at both cellular (e.g. mitochondria, glucose transporter) and molecular level (e.g. genes, signalling pathway).

SUMMARY

The use of C2C12 myoblast cell line is meaningful in pharmaceutical and biomedical research due to their expression of GLUT-4 and other features that are representative to human skeletal muscle cells. With the use of the C2C12 cell model, the impact of drug delivery systems (nanoparticles and quantum dots) on skeletal muscle, as well as the relationship between exercise, pancreatic β-cells and endothelial cells, was discovered.

Mineral-Enriched Deep-Sea Water Modulates Lactate Metabolism via PGC-1α-Mediated Metabolic Reprogramming

Metabolic disorders such as diabetes and obesity are serious global health issues. These diseases are accelerated by mineral deficiencies, emphasizing the importance of addressing these deficiencies in disease management plans. Lactate metabolism is fundamentally linked to glucose metabolism, and several clinical studies have reported that blood lactate levels are higher in obese and diabetic patients than in healthy subjects. Balanced deep-sea water contains various minerals and exhibits antiobesity and antidiabetic activities in mice; however, the impact of balanced deep-sea water on lactate metabolism is unclear. Thus, we evaluated the effects of balanced deep-sea water on lactate metabolism in C2C12 myotubes, and found that balanced deep-sea water mediated lactate metabolism by regulating the gene expression levels of lactate dehydrogenases A and B, a monocarboxylate transporter, and a mitochondrial pyruvate carrier. The activities of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) and signaling molecules involved in PGC-1α activation were also upregulated by treatment with balanced deep-sea water. These results suggest that balanced deep-sea water, which can mediate lactate metabolism, may be used to prevent or treat obesity and diabetes mellitus.

Deep Ocean Minerals Minimize Eccentric Exercise-Induced Inflammatory Response of Rat Skeletal Muscle

Background: We have previously shown an accelerated recovery from muscle fatigue in men challenged by prolonged exercise after oral deep ocean minerals (DOM) supplementation. Here, we hypothesized a decrease in eccentric exercise-induced muscle inflammation in rats regularly consuming DOM-containing drinks (hardness 600 mg/L and fructose 11%).

Methods: Forty-seven male Sprague Dawley rats were randomized into 4 groups: Control (C, N = 12), Fructose (F, N = 12), Fructose+Exercise (FE, N = 12), and Fructose+Exercise+DOM (FED, N = 11). Since fructose is a commonly used ingredient in beverages, 11% of fructose was added as a vehicle of the study. Soleus muscles of rats were analyzed 24 h after an acute bout of downhill running following 9 weeks of DOM supplementation.

Results: Leukocyte infiltration and TNF-α mRNA of muscle in the FE group were 5 times and 4 times greater the F group, respectively, (P < 0.05). Both markers in the FED group were significantly lower than those in the FE group (P < 0.05). IL-10 mRNA of muscle in the F group was >eight fold greater than the C group (P < 0.05). The reduced glutathione (GSH) of muscle in the F group was 34% lower than that in the C group (P < 0.05). However, GSH levels were similar for the C and FED groups.

Conclusion: Prolonged fructose supplementation modulates inflammatory balance of rat skeletal muscle. The results of the study suggest that DOM can minimize eccentric exercise-induced inflammatory cytokine responses in rat skeletal muscle.

Effect of Minerals on Intestinal IgA Production Using Deep Sea Water Drinks

Minerals are essential for life, as they are a vital part of protein constituents, enzyme cofactors, and other components in living organisms. Deep sea water is characterized by its cleanliness and stable low temperature, and its possible health- and medical benefits are being studied. However, no study has yet evaluated the physical properties of the numerous commercially available deep sea water products, which have varying water sources and production methods. We analyzed these products' mineral content and investigated their effect on living organism, focusing on immune functions, and investigated the relation between physiological immunoactivities and mineral intake. We qualitatively analyzed the mineral compositions of the deep sea water drinks and evaluated the drinks' physical properties using principal component analysis, a type of multivariate analysis, of their mineral content. We create an iron and copper-deficient rat model and administered deep sea water drinks for 8 weeks. We then measured their fecal immunoglobulin A (IgA) to evaluate immune function. Principal component analysis suggested that physical properties of deep sea water drinks could be determined by their sources. Administration of deep sea water drinks increased fecal IgA, thus tending to stimulate immune function, but the extent of this effect varied by drink. Of the minerals contained in deep sea water, iron showed positive correlations with the fecal IgA. The principal component analysis used in this study is suitable for evaluating deep sea water containing many minerals, and our results form a useful basis for comparative evaluations of deep sea water's bioactivity.

Deep Sea Water Improves Abnormalities in Lipid Metabolism through Lipolysis and Fatty Acid Oxidation in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Rats

Deep sea water (DSW) is a natural marine resource that has been utilized for food, agriculture, cosmetics, and medicine. The aim of this study was to investigate whether DSW has beneficial lipid metabolic effects in an animal model. Our previous in vitro study indicated that DSW significantly decreased the intracellular triglyceride and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. DSW also inhibited the gene levels of adipocyte differentiation, lipogenesis, and adipocytokines, and up-regulated gene levels of lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation. In the present study, the results showed that body weight, liver, adipose tissue, hepatic triglycerides and cholesterol, and serum parameters in the high-fat diet (HFD) + DSW groups were significantly lower compared to the HFD group. Moreover, the fecal output of total lipids, triglycerides, and cholesterol in the HFD + DSW groups was significantly higher than that of the HFD group. Regarding gene expression, DSW significantly increased the gene levels of lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation, and decreased the gene levels of adipocytokine in the adipose tissue of rats with HFD-induced obesity. These results indicate a potential molecular mechanism by which DSW can suppress obesity in rats with HFD-induced obesity through lipolysis and fatty acid oxidation.

Refined Deep-Sea Water Suppresses Inflammatory Responses via the MAPK/AP-1 and NF-κB Signaling Pathway in LPS-Treated RAW 264.7 Macrophage Cells

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a type of inflammatory skin disease caused by genetics, immune system dysfunction, and environmental stresses. It is, however, still considered to be a refractory disease. Macrophages are inflammatory immune cells that infiltrate the skin and induce inflammation. We investigated the effect of refined deep-sea water (RDSW) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. The results showed that RDSW suppressed the expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2. Furthermore, nitric oxide, a product of iNOS, and prostaglandin (PG) D₂ and PGE₂, products of COX-2, were significantly inhibited by RDSW in a hardness-dependent manner. Moreover, we found that RDSW reversed the release of histamines and regressed the mRNA expressions and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-10, and vascular endothelial growth factor, in a hardness-dependent manner. We also found that the suppressive effect of RDSW on LPS-induced inflammatory responses was regulated by the inhibition of NF-κB nuclear translocation, and ERK 1/2 and JNK 1/2 mediated the suppression of c-Jun and c-Fos expressions. In conclusion, the present investigation suggests the possibility that RDSW may be used to treat and/or prevent inflammatory diseases, including AD.

Potential Health Benefits of Deep Sea Water: A Review

Deep sea water (DSW) commonly refers to a body of seawater that is pumped up from a depth of over 200 m. It is usually associated with the following characteristics: low temperature, high purity, and being rich with nutrients, namely, beneficial elements, which include magnesium, calcium, potassium, chromium, selenium, zinc, and vanadium. Less photosynthesis of plant planktons, consumption of nutrients, and organic decomposition have caused lots of nutrients to remain there. Due to this, DSW has potential to become a good source for health. Research has proven that DSW can help overcome health problems especially related to lifestyle-associated diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, cancer, and skin problems. This paper reviews the potential health benefits of DSW by referring to the findings from previous researches.

Stimulatory Effect of Balanced Deep-Sea Water Containing Chitosan Oligosaccharides on Glucose Uptake in C2C12 Myotubes

Deep-sea water (DSW) and chitosan oligosaccharides (COS) have recently drawn much attention because of their potential medical and pharmaceutical applications. Balanced DSW (BDSW) was prepared by mixing DSW mineral extracts and desalinated water. This study investigated the effects of BDSW, COS, and BDSW containing COS on glucose uptake and their mode of action in mature C2C12 myotubes. BDSW and COS increased glucose uptake in a dose-dependent manner. BDSW containing COS synergistically increased glucose uptake; this was dependent on the activation of insulin receptor substrate 1 and protein kinase C in insulin-dependent signaling pathways as well as liver kinase B1, AMP-activated protein kinase, and mammalian target of rapamycin in insulin-independent signaling pathways. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed that the expressions of the following genes related to glucose uptake were elevated: glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4), insulin-responsive aminopeptidase, and vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 for abundant proteins of GLUT4 storage vesicles (GSVs); syntaxin 4 and soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein 23 for trafficking between the plasma membrane and GSVs; and syntaxin 6 and syntaxin 16 for trafficking between GSVs and the trans-Golgi network. Taken together, these results suggest BDSW containing COS has a greater stimulatory effect on glucose uptake than BDSW or COS alone. Moreover, this effect is mediated by the stimulation of diverse signaling pathways via the activation of main signaling molecules related to GSV trafficking.

Magnesium and calcium-enriched deep-sea water promotes mitochondrial biogenesis by AMPK-activated signals pathway in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes

Recent studies showed that deficiencies of essential minerals including Mg, Ca, and K, and trace minerals including Se, Zn, and V, have implications for the development, prevention, and treatment of several chronic diseases including obesity and type 2 diabetes. Our previous studies revealed that balanced deep-sea water (BDSW), which is composed of desalinated water enriched with Mg and Ca, has potential as a treatment for diabetes and obesity. In this study, to determine whether BDSW regulates mitochondrial biogenesis and function, we investigated its effects on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content, mitochondrial enzyme activity, expression of key transcription factors and mitochondria-specific genes, phosphorylation of signaling molecules associated with mitochondrial biogenesis, and mitochondrial function in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. BDSW increased mitochondrial biogenesis in a dose-dependent manner. Quantitative real-time PCR revealed that BDSW enhances expression of PGC1-α, NRF1, and TFAM genes. Upregulation of these genes was supported by increased mitochondria staining, CytC oxidase activity, and AMPK phosphorylation. The stimulatory effect of BDSW on mitochondrial biogenesis and function suggests a novel mechanism for BDSW-induced anti-diabetic and anti-obesity action.

Metals of Deep Ocean Water Increase the Anti-Adipogenesis Effect of Monascus-Fermented Product via Modulating the Monascin and Ankaflavin Production

Deep ocean water (DOW) obtained from a depth of more than 200 m includes abundant nutrients and minerals. DOW was proven to positively increase monascin (MS) and ankaflavin (AK) production and the anti-adipogenesis effect of Monascus-fermented red mold dioscorea (RMD). However, the influences that the major metals in DOW have on Monascus secondary metabolite biosynthesis and anti-adipogenesis remain unknown. Therefore, the major metals in DOW were used as the culture water to produce RMD. The secondary metabolites production and anti-adipogenesis effect of RMD cultured with various individual metal waters were investigated. In the results, the addition of water with Mg, Ca, Zn, and Fe increased MS and AK production and inhibited mycotoxin citrinin (CT). However, the positive influence may be contributed to the regulation of pigment biosynthesis. Furthermore, in the results of cell testing, higher lipogenesis inhibition was seen in the treatments of various ethanol extracts of RMD cultured with water containing Mg, K, Zn, and Fe than in those of RMD cultured with ultra-pure water. In conclusion, various individual metals resulted in different effects on MS and AK productions as well as the anti-adipogenesis effect of RMD, but the specific metals contained in DOW may cause synergistic or comprehensive effects that increase the significantly positive influence.

Deep sea water improves exercise and inhibits oxidative stress in a physical fatigue mouse model

Physical fatigue is extremely common and occurs daily, and is considered to be associated with oxidative stress. The diverse functions of deep sea water (DSW) have recently gained increasing attention. Previous studies have emphasized the anti-fatigue effect of DSW, but the intrinsic mechanism behind the effect remains to be elucidated. In the imprinting control region (ICR) mice model, DSW delayed the exhaustive swimming time. In addition, DSW decreased the area under the blood lactate (BLA) curve, which was associated with the area under the BLA curve of pre-swimming, post-swimming and post-rest. Furthermore, DSW reduced the basal levels of malondialdehyde and the post-swimming concentration of blood urea nitrogen, lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase after swimming, along with an increase in the normal level of antioxidant enzyme activity such as superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. However, no significant effect on body weight, hepatic glycogen and muscle glycogen was observed between any group. In conclusion, DSW can improve the athletic ability and alleviate physical fatigue of ICR mice. This effect is achieved by enhancing the antioxidant capacity.

Combination of deep sea water and Sesamum indicum leaf extract prevents high-fat diet-induced obesity through AMPK activation in visceral adipose tissue

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the protective effects of a combination of deep sea water (DSW) and Sesamum indicum leaf extract (SIE) against high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity and investigate its molecular mechanisms in adipose tissue. ICR mice were randomly divided into three groups: HFD control (HFC), DSW and DSW + 125 mg/kg SIE (DSS) groups. The mice in the HFC group had free access to drinking water while those in the DSW and DSS groups had free access to DSW. The mice in the DSS group were treated with SIE once per day for 8 weeks. The mice in all three groups were allowed to freely access a HFD. Compared with the HFC group, the DSS group showed lower body weight gain and serum levels of glucose, triglycerides and leptin. Histological analyses of the epididymal white, retroperitoneal white and scapular brown adipose tissue of mice in the DSS group revealed that the adipocytes were markedly decreased in size compared with those in the HFC group. Moreover, DSS significantly increased the levels of phosphorylated adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and its substrate, acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) in mice epididymal adipose tissues. Furthermore, DSS upregulated the expression levels of lipolysis-associated mRNA, specifically peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α) and cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36), and energy expenditure-associated mRNA, namely uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) and carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 (CPT1) in the epididymal adipose tissues. By contrast, DSS suppressed the expression of the lipogenesis-related gene sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP1) at the mRNA level. These results suggest that DSS is effective for suppressing body weight gain and enhancing the lipid profile.

Stimulatory Effects of Balanced Deep Sea Water on Mitochondrial Biogenesis and Function

The worldwide prevalence of metabolic diseases, including obesity and diabetes, is increasing. Mitochondrial dysfunction is recognized as a core feature of these diseases. Emerging evidence also suggests that defects in mitochondrial biogenesis, number, morphology, fusion, and fission, contribute to the development and progression of metabolic diseases. Our previous studies revealed that balanced deep-sea water (BDSW) has potential as a treatment for diabetes and obesity. In this study, we aimed to investigate the mechanism by which BDSW regulates diabetes and obesity by studying its effects on mitochondrial metabolism. To determine whether BDSW regulates mitochondrial biogenesis and function, we investigated its effects on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content, mitochondrial enzyme activity, and the expression of transcription factors and mitochondria specific genes, as well as on the phosphorylation of signaling molecules associated with mitochondria biogenesis and its function in C₂C₁₂ myotubes. BDSW increased mitochondrial biogenesis in a time and dose-dependent manner. Quantitative real-time PCR revealed that BDSW enhances gene expression of PGC-1α, NRF1, and TFAM for mitochondrial transcription; MFN1/2 and DRP1 for mitochondrial fusion; OPA1 for mitochondrial fission; TOMM40 and TIMM44 for mitochondrial protein import; CPT-1α and MCAD for fatty acid oxidation; CYTC for oxidative phosphorylation. Upregulation of these genes was validated by increased mitochondria staining, CS activity, CytC oxidase activity, NAD⁺ to NADH ratio, and the phosphorylation of signaling molecules such as AMPK and SIRT1. Moreover, drinking BDSW remarkably improved mtDNA content in the muscles of HFD-induced obese mice. Taken together, these results suggest that the stimulatory effect of BDSW on mitochondrial biogenesis and function may provide further insights into the regulatory mechanism of BDSW-induced anti-diabetic and anti-obesity action.

The advantages of deep ocean water for the development of functional fermentation food

Deep ocean water (DOW) is obtained from 600 m below the sea surface. In recent years, DOW has been applied in the development of fermentation biotechnologies and functional foods. DOW is rich in trace minerals, comprises multiple physiological and health functions, and is able to promote microbe growth; therefore, the application of DOW directly benefits the development of the fermentation industry and functional foods. This study integrated the current health functions and applications of DOW with the latest results from studies related to fermentation biotechnology. Subsequently, the influence of applying DOW in fermented functional food development and the effects in health function improvements were summarized. According to the previous studies, the main reasons for the increased effect of fermented functional foods through the application of DOW are increased generation of functional metabolite contents in the microbes, intrinsic health functions of DOW, and the microbial use of mechanisms of converting the absorbed inorganic ions into highly bioavailable organic ions for the human body. These combined advantages not only enhance the health functions of fermentation products but also provide fermentation products with the intrinsic health functions of DOW.

Modulation of glucose metabolism by balanced deep-sea water ameliorates hyperglycemia and pancreatic function in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice

The aim of this study was to determine the effects of balanced deep-sea water (BDSW) on hyperglycemia and glucose intolerance in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice. BDSW was prepared by mixing DSW mineral extracts and desalinated water to yield a final hardness of 1000–4000 ppm. Male ICR mice were assigned to 6 groups; mice in each group were given tap water (normal and STZ diabetic groups) or STZ with BDSW of varying hardness (0, 1000, 2000, and 4000 ppm) for 4 weeks. The STZ with BDSW group exhibited lowered fasting plasma glucose levels than the STZ-induced diabetic group. Oral glucose tolerance tests showed that BDSW improves impaired glucose tolerance in STZ-induced diabetic mice. Histopathological evaluation of the pancreas showed that BDSW restores the morphology of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans and increases the secretion of insulin in STZ-induced diabetic mice. Quantitative real-time PCR assay revealed that the expression of hepatic genes involved in gluconeogenesis, glucose oxidation, and glycogenolysis was suppressed, while the expression of the genes involved in glucose uptake, β-oxidation, and glucose oxidation in muscle were increased in the STZ with BDSW group. BDSW stimulated PI3-K, AMPK, and mTOR pathway-mediated glucose uptake in C₂C₁₂ myotubes. BDSW increased AMPK phosphorylation in C₂C₁₂ myotubes and improved impaired AMPK phosphorylation in the muscles of STZ-induced diabetic mice. Taken together, these results suggest that BDSW is a potential anti-diabetic agent, owing to its ability to suppress hyperglycemia and improve glucose intolerance by modulating glucose metabolism, recovering pancreatic islets of Langerhans and increasing glucose uptake.