Engagement as flourishing: The contribution of positive emotions and coping to adolescents' engagement at school and with learning

A Psychometric Evaluation of the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire - Short Version in the Context of Italian Physical Education

Emotional states are fundamentally related to cognitive processes such as attention, perception, memory and learning, and they play a very important role in helping to assess daily challenges. Thus, we need tools that measure emotions in the context of Physical Education. In this study, we adapted and tested the factor structure of the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire - Short Version (AEQ-SV) in the Italian physical education context. We administered the AEQ-SV to 867 participants (M age = 16.43 years, SD = 1.23) enrolled in Italian physical education classes to analyze the questionnaire's psychometric properties using Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling (ESEM), an internal reliability analysis, and a criterion validity analysis. The AEQ-SV subscales consisted of eight emotions and 32 items. Reliability analyses revealed acceptable fit indices and adequate temporal stability. Linear regression analysis showed that positive emotions positively predicted academic performance, while negative emotions negatively predicted academic performance. These results are in line with research on the original scale, and these data support the use of the AEQ-SV in the Italian educational context.

Predictors of academic engagement of high school students: academic socialization and motivational beliefs

The potential of academic engagement to enhance academic outcomes and well-being has been empirically supported, yet studies addressing its predictors are too limited. Hence, the current study collected self-report cross-sectional data from randomly selected 614 (male = 323) high school students in Ethiopia and examined the relations of academic socialization (parental and peer), self-efficacy, and outcome expectations in explaining variance in academic engagement, guided by an integrative model of engagement. Structural equation modeling with the maximum likelihood method indicated that (a) the hypothesized model fit the data well, (b) direct paths from parental and peer academic socialization to self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and academic engagement were positive and significant, (c) the relationships of the constructs in the model explained a significant portion of the variance in academic engagement, and (d) self-efficacy and outcome expectations significantly and positively but partially mediated the pathway from academic socialization to academic engagement. The findings' implications for boosting student academic engagement were forwarded.

Urgency Theory in the context of broader emotion theories: a conceptual review

Negative and positive urgency are two closely related personality traits that reflect the tendency for an individual to engage in maladaptive risk-taking in response to extreme negative and positive emotions, respectively. However, other prominent emotion theories describe how emotions contribute to adaptive, rather than maladaptive, decision-making. This conceptual review considers how Urgency Theory can be integrated with these broader existing emotion theories. We proceed as follows: a) briefly define what is meant by emotions in science and summarize basic human neuroscience underlying emotions; b) briefly describe select theories and research linking emotions to adaptive decision-making, including brain correlates of this effect; c) review Urgency Theory, including contrasting evidence that emotions lead to maladaptive outcomes and brain correlates of this effect; d) discuss how urgency can be integrated into theories that view emotions as both adaptive and maladaptive for decision-making; and e) propose future directions to advance research in this field. We identified four, not mutually exclusive, viable options to integrate Urgency Theory into existing theories: urgency as model-free emotion regulation, urgency as being driven by incidental emotions, urgency as a reflexive response to emotions, or urgency as an individual difference factor. We conclude that although all four options are viable, individual difference and model-free emotion regulation have the most empirical support to date. Importantly, the other two options are less well-researched. Direct tests comparing these integrations is necessary to determine the most accurate way to integrate urgency with existing emotion theories. We believe that this research can identify mechanisms underlying urgency and help inform future intervention and prevention development to reduce negative effects of urgency across numerous maladaptive behaviors and clinical disorders.

Impact of Adverse Childhood Experiences and Mental Health on School Success in Autistic Children: Findings from the 2016-2021 National Survey of Children's Health

PURPOSE

School is an important developmental setting for children. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are linked to overall lower educational attainment and are more prevalent in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) than in their neurotypical peers. The aim of this study is to test the association between ACEs and school outcomes among autistic children and whether mental health conditions explain this association.

METHODS

We combined 2016-2021 data from the National Surveys of Children's Health for children, ages 6-17, identified by parents as having ASD (N = 4,997), to examine the relationship between ACEs and school outcomes (grade progression, school attendance, and engagement). We analyzed depression and anxiety variables to investigate the extent to which mental health can explain the relationships between ACEs and school outcomes.

RESULTS

ACEs were significantly associated with school outcomes. With increased ACEs, autistic children experienced a significant decrease in the odds of school attendance, grade progression and school engagement (p < .05). Furthermore, although depression and anxiety symptoms were significantly associated with school outcomes, they cannot explain away the enduring, strong relationship between ACEs and level of grade progression, engagement, and school success index.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest ACEs predict school success among autistic children, with mental health conditions appearing to mediate the relationship between ACEs and key factors in school success. Efforts should be made to proactively identify and address the impact of ACEs and associated mental health conditions among autistic students.

The Relationship Between Trait Mindfulness and Depression in Elementary Pre-Service Teachers: The Sequential Mediating Role of Flow Experience and Learning Engagement

Objective

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between trait mindfulness, flow experience, learning engagement, and depression among elementary pre-service teachers.

Methods

We employed the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, Flow Experience Scale, Learning Engagement Scale, and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale to assess 614 elementary pre-service teachers.

Results

Trait mindfulness in elementary pre-service teachers negatively predicts depression. Trait mindfulness indirectly impacts depression through flow experience and learning engagement. Furthermore, flow experience and learning engagement serve as mediating factors in the relationship between trait mindfulness and depression among elementary pre-service teachers.

Conclusion

Flow experience and learning engagement play a mediating role in the relationship between trait mindfulness and depression among elementary pre-service teachers. This study enriches our understanding of depression cognitive theory, emphasizing the positive influence of internal resources on depression prevention. Additionally, it provides a deeper explanation of the mechanism through which trait mindfulness affects depression, offering valuable insights for future depression intervention programs.

Student psychological well-being in higher education: The role of internal team environment, institutional, friends and family support and academic engagement

Psychological well-being of students is an area of concern in higher education institutes across the world. Although several studies have explored the factors associated with students' psychological well-being, limited research has focused on the relation between the overall support for students and psychological well-being. Students of higher education may get formal support, in the form of team environment and institutional support; and informal support, in the form of family and friends' support. The purpose of this study is to examine the relation of these four kinds of support with psychological well-being of management students. We also examine the intervening role of academic engagement in this relationship. Analysis using structural equation modeling and hierarchical regression on data collected from 309 management students from Indian universities, shows that positive internal team environment, and institutional and family support positively relate to students' psychological well-being. Academic engagement partially mediates the relation between positive internal team environment and psychological well-being, and family support and psychological well-being. Also, academic engagement fully mediates the relation between institutional support and psychological well-being. The study highlights the significance of internal team environment and institutional support for students' academic engagement and psychological well-being, and the role of academic engagement in determining well-being. Based on these findings, we suggest interventions that can be undertaken by educational institutions to enhance psychological well-being of students. Theoretical implications and research avenues are discussed.

The detrimental effects of student-disordered behavior at school: evidence from using the cusp catastrophe

Introduction

The purpose of the present study is to examine the potentially complex relationship between disordered behavior at school and students' engagement with reading activities given that they enjoy reading. Of particular interest is the role of disordered behavior which we believe moderated the relationship between liking reading and reading engagement.

Methods

Participants were 2,420 fourth graders who participated in the 2021 PIRLS study from Saudi Arabia and were selected using stratified random sampling from 117 schools in the Kingdom. Data were analyzed using linear and nonlinear means such as the linear model, the logistic model, and the cusp catastrophe.

Results

Results pointed to the superiority of the cusp catastrophe towards predicting student engagement in reading by highlighting the splitting role of students' disruptive classroom behavior.

Discussion

It was evident that exceeding a critical upward level in disruptive classroom behavior was associated with unpredictable and sudden changes in reading engagement. It is concluded that the application of non-linear means may be conducive to understanding complex educational phenomena.

The relationship between a growth mindset and the learning engagement of nursing students: A structural equation modeling approach

AIMS

To explore the relationship among a growth mindset, well-being and learning engagement of nursing students and the mediating effect of well-being.

BACKGROUND

Reduced well-being and learning burnout are common among nursing students. From the perspective of positive psychology, a positive education can help students obtain well-being, improve their academic performance and be actively involved in learning. The core of positive education is a growth mindset. However, few studies have explored the causal relationship among a growth mindset, learning engagement and well-being.

DESIGN

Correlational design based on cross-sectional data from a multicenter survey study.

METHODS

A web-based survey was completed by 1065 nursing students from 5 schools in China between August 2022 and December 2022. The Growth Mindset Scale, the PERMA profiler and the Learning Engagement Scale were used to investigate the effect of a growth mindset on learning engagement and the mediating effect of well-being.

RESULTS

Both a growth mindset (r = 0.272, p < 0.01) and well-being (r = 0.693, p < 0.01) were positively correlated with learning engagement, and a growth mindset (r = 0.363, p < 0.01) was positively correlated with well-being. Well-being completely mediated the relationship between a growth mindset and learning engagement.

CONCLUSIONS

The growth mindset and well-being of nursing students are related to learning engagement. Therefore, schools can change students' thinking mode by carrying out positive education to enable students to acquire the ability to maintain their well-being and to improve their well-being and learning engagement.

Survey of students' learning experience using a virtual slaughterhouse simulator in three UK veterinary schools during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

Although visiting an abattoir is mandatory for all UK veterinary students, this was challenging during the COVID-19 pandemic and virtual simulators were temporarily approved by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Subsequently, the virtual slaughterhouse simulator (VSS) was used by the University of Nottingham School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, the University of Liverpool School of Veterinary Science and the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies in Edinburgh. This study aimed to evaluate the student learning experience using the VSS.

METHODS

An online survey containing satisfaction and assessment questions was distributed to all final-year students who used the VSS from September 2020 to August 2021.

RESULTS

A total of 207 students completed the survey (n = 207/488, 42%). Students were mostly highly satisfied and found the VSS very useful for their learning (n = 164/207,79%); however, anxiety levels to visit a real abattoir lowered for less than half of the students (n = 97/207, 46%). Most students obtained an overall mark over 50% in the assessment questions (n = 197/207, 95%).

LIMITATIONS

Although the findings were very positive, extrapolation to other veterinary schools and postgraduate curricula should be done cautiously.

CONCLUSION

The VSS is a valid tool for training veterinary students. However, more research is advised to compare virtual and real experiences and assess students' long-term performance.

How do teacher support trajectories influence primary and lower-secondary school students' study well-being

Effective long term teacher support is key to promoting and sustaining students' study well-being at school. However, little is known about individual variations in the development of perceived teacher support and how such variations are associated with study engagement and study-related burnout. Also, understanding of the differences between age cohorts across school levels is still limited. To address this limitation, we used latent growth mixture (LGM) modeling to study whether teacher support trajectories influenced study engagement and study-related burnout among Finnish primary and lower-secondary school students. Two cohorts of students, namely primary school students from the 4th to 6th grades (N = 2,204) and lower-secondary school students from the 7th to 9th grades (N = 1,411), were followed for three years. LGM revealed four latent trajectories for teacher support, which were labeled high stable (72%), low stable (12%), decreasing (11%) and increasing (5%). The teacher support trajectories were strongly associated with students' study engagement and study burnout. Moreover, heightened study-related burnout symptoms and decreased study engagement were associated with a decline in perceived teacher support, while higher levels of study engagement and low levels of study burnout symptoms were associated with a continuum of positive teacher support experience. Primary school students were more likely to employ stable and high levels of teacher support, compared with lower-secondary school students, highlighting the importance of improving conditions in lower-secondary school so that the teacher support will better reach all their students.

Student athlete well-being framework: an empirical examination of elite college student athletes

The current study proposes a multidimensional student athlete well-being framework (SAWBF). The authors used 12 items to capture SAWBF comprised of four well-being dimensions (i.e., physical, hedonic, psychological, and social well-being). To empirically assess the reliability and validity of the framework, data from elite collegiate student athletes in Japan (N = 546) were procured. The results indicated sufficient convergent and discriminant validities of SAWBF. The authors also assessed predictive validity correlations of the framework by focusing on the oft-supported well-being outcome-organizational citizenship behavior, which were also found to be associated with SAWBF. The findings indicated the usefulness of SAWBF; and coaches and staff members can utilize the framework to multi-dimensionally understand well-being status of their student athletes, potentially boosting adaptive behaviors.

The longitudinal development of students' well-being in adolescence: The role of perceived teacher autonomy support

Although a decline in adolescents' well-being has repeatedly been reported, longitudinal evidence for this development is rare and time-varying factors like teacher autonomy support that could be associated with this trend have sparsely been investigated. Therefore, the present study examined how the temporal development of perceived autonomy support from their German language arts teachers is related to changes in four different facets of students' well-being. Longitudinal data from 3446 adolescents from Germany (N_Schools  = 178) on five measurement points (Grades 5-9) were analyzed using latent growth curve models. Satisfaction with school, enjoyment of school, and self-rated health decreased over time, while social integration remained stable. Perceived teacher autonomy support also declined between Grades 5 and 9. Furthermore, baseline levels of perceived teacher autonomy support and facets of well-being were positively related. Finally and most importantly, our results indicated that changes in perceived teacher autonomy support were positively associated with the development of satisfaction with school, enjoyment of school, and self-rated health, but not social integration. The findings suggest that perceived teacher autonomy support plays an important role in the development of students' well-being in adolescence.

The effect of overall parental satisfaction on Chinese students' learning engagement: Role of student anxiety and educational implications

Learning engagement is one of the important research contents of learning psychology. The level of learning engagement directly affects students' academic performance and future development. Based on the survey data of primary and secondary school parents and students collated at the beginning of 2019, control factors such as students' gender, school location, parents' education level, total annual family income, parental rearing methods, etc. The study found that parental overall satisfaction can significantly and positively predict students' learning engagement. Mediation effect analysis found that students' anxiety completely mediated the effect on parental overall satisfaction and students' learning engagement. Cultivate good parent-child relationships; Establish positive teacher-student relationships; Build a harmonious relationship with classmates. Families and schools should work together to create an atmosphere conducive to the healthy growth of students.

Disentangling the personality pathways to well-being

Recent genomic, psychological, and developmental research shows that human personality is organized as a complex hierarchy that ascends from individual traits in many specific situations to multi-trait profiles in two domains that regulate emotional reactivity (temperament) or goals and values (character), and finally to three integrated temperament-character networks that regulate learning to maintain well-being in changing conditions. We carried out person-centered analyses of the components of subjective well-being (positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction) to personality in both adolescents (N = 1739) and adults (N = 897). Personality was considered at each level of its organization (trait, temperament or character profiles, and joint temperament-character networks). We show for the first time that negative affect and life satisfaction are dependent on the personality network for intentional self-control, whereas positive affect is dependent on the personality network for self-awareness that underlies the human capacities for healthy longevity, creativity, and prosocial values.

Social media use and adolescents' well-being: A note on flourishing

Background

Several large-scale studies and reviews have reported both negative and positive associations of social media use with well-being, suggesting that the findings are more complex and need more nuanced study. Moreover, there is little or no exploration of how social media use in adolescence influences flourishing, a more all-encompassing construct beyond well-being, including six sub-domains (i.e., happiness, meaning and purpose, physical and mental health, character, close social relationships, and financial stability). This paper aims to fill this gap by understanding how adolescents might flourish through social media activities by fulfilling the basic needs pointed out by the Self-Determination Theory, i.e., relatedness, autonomy, and competence.

Methods

The study is drawn on cross-sectional data collected from 1,429 Swiss adolescents (58.8% females, M_age = 15.84, SD_age = 0.83) as part of the HappyB project in Spring 2022. Self-reported measures included the Harvard Adolescent Flourishing scale, positive and negative online social experiences, self-disclosure on social media, and social media inspiration. Control variables included, among others, self-esteem, ill-being, and personality.

Results

After applying Bonferroni's correction, results of the hierarchical regression analyses showed that positive social media experiences (β = 0.112, p < 0.001) and social media inspirations from others (β = 0.072, p < 0.001) and for others (β = 0.060, p = 0.003) were positively associated with flourishing. Flourishing was inversely associated with negative social media experiences (β = -0.076, p < 0.001). Among covariates, self-esteem (β = 0.350, p < 0.001), ill-being (β = -0.252, p < 0.001), perceived school environment (β = 0.138, p < 0.001), self-reported level of physical activity (β =0.109, p < 0.001), and perceived socio-economic status (β = -0.059, p = 0.001) were all related to flourishing. In contrast, gender, high school year, age, perceived stress, and personality (extraversion and neuroticism) were not.

Conclusion

Using a well-being framework to investigate social media use in adolescents is needed to go beyond the ill-being perspective. Our results align with the needs pointed out by the Self-Determination Theory. Carrying out social media activities in a way that promotes-rather than diminishes-flourishing should be included as an additional good habit influencing adolescents' development. We suggest that interventions aiming to foster adolescents' flourishing should include curricula aiming to promote a good use of social media through positive online social relationships and inspirational contents.

Adolescents' enjoyment and effort in class: Influenced by self-directed learning intervals

Based on the control-value theory, the present study examined the development and change of enjoyment and effort among adolescents during a school year. The study analyzed 754 adolescent students (M_Age = 13.56; SD = 1.2; 49.7% female) who twice participated in a 1-week intervention of self-directed learning (SDL). The results of the bivariate latent neighbor change model showed that-contrary to previous study results-a positive development of enjoyment and effort was generally recorded over the school year and that particularly the two 1-week self-directed learning interventions were beneficial for this increase. Furthermore, the results show that enjoyment and effort were reciprocally linked over time, but only when self-directed learning was experienced first. In other words, by enlarging instruction via self-directed learning intervals, it is possible to counteract the tendency of enjoyment and effort to exhibit a downward spiral. This tendency is especially pronounced during students' entry into secondary school and the onset of adolescence.

"Intermission!" A short-term social media fast reduces self-objectification among pre-teen and teen dancers

Social media use is pervasive among youth and is associated with body image disturbance and self-objectification. The present study investigated whether a 3-day social media fast in a sample for whom social media is especially salient, female adolescent dancers, can mitigate such negative effects. Through an online survey, 65 pre-teen and teen girls, aged 10-19, completed measures of self-objectification (body surveillance and body shame), self-esteem and self-compassion both prior to and following three days of abstaining from all social media. During the fast, girls reflected on their experiences in group messages on the messaging app, WhatsApp. Overall, the fast had positive effects on participants, for whom body surveillance and body shame was significantly reduced after the fast. Self-compassion significantly mediated the change in both body surveillance and body shame, and self-esteem was a significant mediator of improvements in body shame. The content of girls' group messages revealed a number of themes, such as more positive mental states during the fast. Future research should continue to examine the potential of brief social media fasts as a means to alleviate appearance pressures adolescent girls face on these platforms in daily life.

Dynamics between perceived social support and study engagement among primary school students: A three-year longitudinal survey

Perceived high study engagement relates to higher school achievement and has been found to promote social and emotional well-being as well. Social support for studying has typically been examined as a resource for study engagement. However, the interrelation between social support and study engagement is likely to be bidirectional: engaged students might be more willing to find and share social support in their studies. The students' emotions and attitudes toward studying (i.e., study engagement) may also influence the teachers’ and guardians’ tendency to provide support for that individual student’s studies. This study explores the bidirectional interrelations between perceived social support for studying and perceived study engagement using three-wave longitudinal survey data in which students are followed from the fourth to sixth grade collected in 2017, 2018, and 2019 (N = 2401). The data are analyzed using the random-intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM). The results indicate that perceived study engagement is a stronger and more consistent predictor of later perceived social support from teachers and among peers than vice versa. Moreover, teacher support has a bidirectional interrelation with study engagement. Girls perceive more study engagement, teacher support, and peer support in the fourth and fifth grades when compared with boys.

A theoretical model of projects in motivated behavior

This article introduces a theoretical model of projects in motivated behavior. It begins with the discussion of two theoretical traditions that conceived a project as either an anticipation of action or a set of actions aimed at the same goals. The limitations of both traditions are discussed, and a project is then conceived as an integration of internal processes and actions. Next, a theoretical model of projects is presented, comprising cognitive, motivational, volitional, emotional, and behavioral components. A framework interrelating the different components of the model is presented. Considering the framework introduced, a project is then defined as a process comprising the formation, enactment, and maintenance of intentional structures and actions. The definition is comprehensive because it integrates both the previous theoretical traditions of the project in order to overcome the limitations of both. The applications of the new approach in existential theories and management sciences are discussed.

Thriving through Adversity: The Role of Passion and Emotions in the Resilience Process

Two cross-sectional (Studies 1, N = 283, and 2, N = 275) and one prospective (Study 3, N = 238) studies investigated the role of passion (for academia) and emotions in the process of resilience in the education domain and in life in general. Participants were examined when facing a stressful situation related to their passion for academia (end of term exam period, a timed education task). All three studies showed that harmonious passion, through its positive relationship with positive emotions, was positively associated with high positive outcomes in the education domain (satisfaction with one's studies, subjective and objective performance in one's studies) and in life in general via the subjective evaluation of one's life and general health indicators (subjective vitality, fewer negative physical symptoms). On the other hand, obsessive passion was related to mixed effects on resilience. Specifically, obsessive passion related to low levels of functioning (Studies 1 and 3) and also hindered the positive outcomes (Studies 1 to 3) through its positive relationships with positive and negative emotions, respectively. In sum, under stress, harmonious passion facilitates high levels of resilience across life domains, whereas obsessive passion yields low levels of resilience across life or no resilience at all.

The relationship between leisure activities and mental health: The impact of resilience and COVID-19

Engaging in leisure activities promotes mental health. The effect is likely associated with resilience as the broaden-and-build theory suggests positive emotions elicited from leisure increase mental resources for stress coping. The present research examined whether participating in different leisure activities at a given time increases the level of resilience, which in turn reduces psychological problems. It also investigated the changes in people's leisure activities due to the COVID-19 outbreak and the impact of these changes on their mental health. Japanese participants (N = 300) responded to two online surveys conducted before (January 2020) and after the outbreak (February 2021). They selected the leisure activities they had engaged in from 100 choices and reported their levels of resilience and depressive symptoms. An analysis of covariates revealed that the total number of selected activities significantly reduced in the second survey, but the levels of resilience and depressive symptoms remained constant. Regression analysis showed that the reduction in leisure activities did not predict depressive symptoms. However, structural equation modeling established that the relationship between leisure and depression was mediated by resilience, supporting the initial hypothesis. Importantly, this relationship slightly differed by age group, likely because popular activities and their psychological impacts vary depending on age.

Associations between Demographic Characteristics, Lifestyle Factors and School-Related Conditions and Symptoms of Mental Health Problems in Norwegian Upper Secondary School Students

Background: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the associations between demographic characteristics, lifestyle factors and school-related conditions, and symptoms of mental health problems in Norwegian upper secondary school students following the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: In this cross-sectional study design we used a binary logistic regression model to evaluate potential associations between the predictors and dependent variable. Results: The following six predictors had a statistically significant impact on symptoms of mental health problems; gender effect of being a girl (p < 0.001), self-perceived body image (p < 0.001), sleep problems (p < 0.001), dietary habits (p = 0.033), school satisfaction (p = 0.013), and satisfaction with physical education (PE) class participation (p = 0.025). Conclusions: Being a girl was associated with a 315% higher probability of reporting symptoms of mental health problems than boys, whereas one unit increase in sleep problems showed a 192% higher probability of symptoms of mental health problems. Furthermore, a one unit increase on the respective beneficial predictors’ scales was associated with the following percentage having a lower probability of reporting symptoms of mental health problems; self-perceived body image (59%), dietary habits (58%), school satisfaction (82%), and satisfaction with PE class participation (68%).

Adolescent, parent, and provider perspectives on school-related influences of mental health in adolescents with suicide-related thoughts and behaviors

Previous research supports a link between school-related factors, such as bullying and school connectedness, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. To deepen understanding of how school experiences may function as both protective and risk factors for youth struggling with suicidal thoughts and behaviors, this qualitative study explored multiple perspectives. Specifically, in-depth interviews were conducted with adolescents previously hospitalized for a suicidal crisis (n = 19), their parents (n = 19), and the professionals they may interact with in schools and hospitals (i.e., school professionals [n = 19] and hospital providers [n = 7]). Data were analyzed using applied thematic analysis revealing three main themes related to perceptions of how school experiences can positively or negatively impact mental health, including (a) school activities, (b) school social experiences, and (c) school interventions. An emergent theme related to the complexity of suicide-related risk identified the ways in which school experiences may intersect with other environmental, biological, and psychological factors. Findings underscore the need for school-based approaches to address the unique academic, social, and emotional needs of students with suicide-related risk that complement the supports and services provided in their home and community.

"The effects of family therapeutic interventions on mental health and quality of life of children with cancer: A systematic review"

BACKGROUND

The diagnosis of a childhood malignancy and the following period are very stressful for the little patient and the whole family. Depression, anxiety, and poor quality of life (QoL) are some of the negative effects of pediatric cancer to the children and their parents. Family therapeutic interventions aim to improve mental health and QoL of these children.

METHODS

A systematic search of the electronic database PubMed was conducted for articles that studied the effect of family therapeutic interventions on mental health and QoL of children with cancer.

RESULTS

A total of 634 articles were evaluated, of which 10 articles met the inclusion criteria. A percentage of 70% of the studies, representing seven different types of interventions, seemed to be beneficial for the participant's mental health and QoL. The remaining three studies did not significantly improve mental health and QoL.

CONCLUSION

The results of our review indicate that family psychosocial interventions are beneficial for children with cancer. These children and their families are a growing population requiring more patient-centered, time flexible interventions which may enhance family bonding and patients' positive emotions.

The Relationship Between Empowering Motivational Climate in Physical Education and Social Adaptation of Senior High School Students: An Analysis of Chain Mediating Effect

This study aims to contribute to understanding the mechanisms underlying the association between empowering motivational climate in physical education and social adaptation among senior high school students, and has important implications for interventions that aim at improving social adaptation among senior high school students. Through the quota sampling, 1,526 students (average age = 17 years, SD = 0.714 years) who came from Anhui Province and met the requirements participated and completed the Empowering Motivational Climate Questionnaire in Physical Education (EMCQ-PE), the Physical Education Engagement Scale (PEES-S), the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) (Chinese version), and the Adolescent Social Adaptation Assessment Questionnaire (ASAAQ). For data analysis, Pearson’s correlation analysis, structural equation model test, and bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method were carried out in turn. The results showed that empowering motivational climate in physical education positively predicted social adaptation (β = 0.282, p < 0.01), empowering motivational climate in physical education positively predicted physical education engagement and emotional intelligence (β = 0.169, p < 0.01; β = 0.690, p < 0.01), physical education engagement positively predicted emotional intelligence and social adaptation (β = 0.591, p < 0.01; β = 0.058, p < 0.05), and emotional intelligence positively predicted social adaptation (β = 0.365, p < 0.01). Physical education engagement and emotional intelligence played a mediating role in empowering motivational climate in physical education and social adaptation, with a total mediating effect value of 0.251. This study shows that empowering motivational climate in physical education not only directly predicts social adaptation but also indirectly predicts social adaptation through the chain mediating effect of physical education engagement and emotional intelligence.

Correlates of Positivity Among a Sample of Lebanese University Students

Background

People say it is hard to stay truly positive in Lebanon. Studies showed that 63% of Lebanese young adults are highly dissatisfied with their country. In fact, young adults are the most vulnerable population to stressors in Lebanon since their future is at stake and it is their time to shape their lives in a country that cripples them. This study aimed to assess factors (flourishing, religious coping, experiences in life, and the economic burden) associated with positivity among a sample of Lebanese university students despite the various stressors they are facing on top of the economic collapse and the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted between November and December 2021. A total of 333 participants (219 females and 114 males; mean age = 22.95 ± 4.79 years) was recruited through convenience sampling and snowball technique through several areas in Lebanon's governorates. A linear regression taking the positivity score as the dependent variable was adopted and all variables that showed a correlation > │0.24│ in absolute value were entered in the final model as independent.

Results

A linear regression taking the positivity score as the dependent variable showed that more positive experiences in life (Beta = 0.49; 95% CI 0.35-0.62), more flourishing (Beta = 0.10; 95% CI 0.05-0.14), living in rural area compared to urban (Beta = 3.06; 95% CI 2.02-4.11), and female gender (Beta = 1.56; 95% CI 0.50-2.61) were significantly associated with more positivity (Nagelkerke R ² of the model = 45.8%).

Conclusion

This study demonstrated that the youth's positivity is strongly affected by age, gender, residency, and the country they live in that will both directly and indirectly shape their life experiences and their ability to flourish and prosper. Along with all the efforts done to help during this collapse and alleviate the stress that young adults are enduring, follow-up studies are still needed to determine accurate coping techniques that pushes these young adults to think positively in a country where negativity reigns and all else fails.

Teacher-student relationships and adolescents' school satisfaction: Behavioural engagement as a mechanism of change

BACKGROUND

Teacher-student relationships have been linked to various aspects of students' school functioning, including social-emotional well-being in school, but the underlying mechanisms need more investigation.

AIMS

In this study, we analysed longitudinal data to test if students' classroom behavioural engagement was a potential mechanism of change that explained how teacher-student relationships affect student school satisfaction.

SAMPLE

We used an archival dataset with a sample of seventh graders (ages 11-14, M_age  = 12.7 year) in a middle school in the Southeastern United States.

METHODS

Adolescents completed self-report surveys across three waves over the course of 18 months.

RESULTS

Longitudinal structural equation modelling analyses revealed that teacher-student relationships were positively associated with positive classroom engagement behaviours and school satisfaction, respectively, at each time, and positive classroom behaviours at Time 2 fully mediated the longitudinal association between teacher-student relationships (Time 1) and school satisfaction (Time 3).

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, results suggested that fostering positive teacher-student relationships to increase students' positive classroom behaviours could be an effective pathway to promote students' satisfaction with school. The applications of the results in educators' and psychologists' work, such as consultation and trainings with teachers, are discussed.

Socioaffective factors related to engagement in regular classes of academically gifted adolescent students in Taiwan

Academically gifted adolescent students (N = 213) at 10 junior high schools in Taoyuan, Taiwan, completed a survey to examine the socioaffective factors associated with their engagement in regular classes. Structural equation modeling was performed for inferential statistical analysis. The results show that the students' emotional intelligence was associated with their engagement in regular classes. In addition, teacher–student and peer relationships mediated the relationship between students' emotional intelligence and engagement. Therefore, emotional competencies and interpersonal relationships may play a crucial role in promoting academically gifted adolescent students' engagement in regular classes.

The Interplay of English as a Foreign Language Learners’ Interest, Self-Efficacy, and Involvement

Founded on the advent of Positive Psychology in recent decades, the learners’ involvement has been a critical issue since the origin of teaching and learning despite it being quickly developed in previous decades. The enhancement of motivational aspects like self-efficacy and interest appears to have a high impact on learners’ success and achievement. Although both constructs are extensively investigated in various subjects, their association between and the learners’ involvement in the process of language learning have not been taken into account so far. This review intended to scrutinize the association among students’ self-efficacy, their academic interest, and their involvement. It is significant to pinpoint that the current review can help educational administrations, professional improvement centers, and policymakers to consider the above-mentioned issues in the progression of language education to develop their involvement.

Association of Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Cognitive Function with Psychological Well-Being in School-Aged Children

Background: Promotion of psychological well-being (PWB) is an emerging social, educational, and health objective, especially for school-aged children. Few studies have examined key correlates and determinants of PWB in school-aged children. This study aimed to examine associations of cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive function with psychological well-being in school-aged children. Methods: The study participants were 752 fourth-grade students (mean _age = 9.61 years, SD = 0.608) recruited from six elementary schools. Students took the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run^® test to assess their cardiorespiratory fitness, and the d2 Test of Attention to assess concentration performance, attention span, and attention accuracy. They also completed the Warwick–Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale to assess their psychological well-being (PWB). After removing missing values and outliers from the original data set, the final data set, consisting of 689 cases (370 boys vs. 319 girls), was used for data analysis. Data were analyzed by means of descriptive statistics, bivariate correlation, multiple linear regression models, and independent sample t-tests. Results: The results indicated that cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive function are significant correlates of PWB (r = −0.069, r = 0.161). Further, the results found that cardiorespiratory fitness, concentration performance, attention span, and attention accuracy were significantly collective predictors of psychological well-being (F = 13.299, p = 0.000), accounting for 12% of the total variance. Cardiorespiratory fitness was the most significantly individual predictor of PWB (β = 0.174, p = 0.000), followed by the attention accuracy (β = −0.090, p = 0.031). The Welch’s tests revealed that the high-PWB group scored significantly higher than the low-PWB group in cardiorespiratory fitness, concentration performance, and attention accuracy (t = 4.093, p = 0.000, Cohen’s d = 0.310; t = 3.340, p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = 0.256; t = −2.958, p = 0.003, Cohen’s d = 0.130). Conclusions: Cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive function are significant correlates and predictors of PWB among school-aged children. The students with a higher level of psychological well-being showed a higher cardiorespiratory fitness, concentration performance, and attention accuracy compared to the lower level of PWB group.

Educational Concerns, Health Concerns and Mental Health During Early COVID-19 School Closures: The Role of Perceived Support by Teachers, Family, and Friends

This study investigated whether school closures and health-related uncertainties in the early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic posed risk factors for adolescents’ mental health and whether perceived social support by parents, teachers, and friends functioned as protective factors. In particular, we argued that perceived social support would buffer negative associations between educational and health concerns and mental health. Based on a person-centered approach, we first examined resilience profiles. These profiles reflect configurations regarding the levels of these risk and protective factors and levels of mental health. Second, we analyzed whether these risk and protective factors predicted adolescents’ mental health differently by using a variable-centered approach. The sample consisted of 1’562 adolescents (Mage = 16.18, SD = 1.48, range = 14-20 years; 72% females) in lower and higher secondary education from three regions: German-speaking part of Switzerland, N = 486; Italian-speaking part of Switzerland, N = 760; and Northern Italy N = 316. Results from the person-centered approach revealed three latent profiles characterized by low (19%), average (47%), or high resilience (34%). Lower resilience was associated with higher educational concerns, lower perceived social support, and lower mental health, while high resilience was characterized by lower concerns, higher support, and higher mental health. Importantly, educational concerns varied more between profiles than health concerns, and perceived teacher and family support varied more than perceived friend support. Corroborating these findings, the variable-centered approach (i.e., a path analysis) revealed that educational concerns were a stronger predictor than health concerns and pointed to a higher relative importance of perceived family support for adolescents’ mental health relative to perceived teacher and friend support. Taken together, the findings suggest that adolescents’ educational concerns and perceived family support, respectively, were stronger risk and protective factors for their mental health during school closures related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, adolescents from regions being more exposed to the COVID-19 pandemic, namely, Italian-speaking part of Switzerland and Northern Italy, were more likely classified in the low or the average rather than in the high resilience profile compared to students from the region with lower exposure, that is, the German-speaking part of Switzerland.

Validity evidence for the School Subjective Well-Being Scale

Abstract This study gathered validity evidence based on relations to other variables for the School Subjective Well-being Scale. The sample consisted of 434 students of both genders, with age ranging from 12 to 19 years (M = 14.88; SD = 1.70); they were all students from the 7th grade Elementary School to the 2nd grade High School, attending a public school located in Ceará, Brazil. The School Subjective Well-being Scale, a sociodemographic and school questionnaire, was applied, as well as the Baptist Depression Scale for Children and Adolescents, the Global Life Satisfaction Scale for Adolescents, the Social Support Perception Scale for Adolescents. The scale factors showed significant positive and negative, moderate to high correlations and the measure’s scores of school well-being allowed differentiation among groups regarding gender and school issues.

Positive Family Environment, General Distress, Subjective Well-Being, and Academic Engagement among High School Students Before and During the COVID-19 Outbreak

The COVID-19 pandemic has altered the family dynamics of most people worldwide as well as the mode in which students take classes. The impact of such changes on students’ well-being, academic engagement, and general distress remains unknown. Therefore, this study aims to test the structural relations among positive family environment (a measure of Positive Home-Based Parent Involvement [HBI]), subjective well-being (SWB), general distress, and academic engagement, focusing on Mexican high school students. A longitudinal study was conducted covering two time points: before (T1) and during (T2) the COVID-19 outbreak. A sample of 502 students answered questionnaires in T1 whereas 111 did so in T2. Analyses were conducted using Mplus software. Principal results showed that the positive and significant association between positive family environment and SWB did not substantially change from T1 to T2, whereas the relation between positive family environment and academic engagement became stronger. Data revealed that a positive family environment can play an important role in promoting academic engagement among adolescent students despite the risks brought about by sanitary lockdowns and the increase of family interactions. Results are discussed highlighting the importance of positive family environments and HBI on academic outcomes for Mexican high school students.

Cognitive and Affective-Motivational Factors as Predictors of Students' Home Learning During the School Lockdown

During the COVID-19 pandemic, students were facing great challenges. Learning was shifted from the classroom to the home of the students. This implied that students had to complete their tasks in a more autonomous way than during regular lessons. As students' ability to handle such challenges might depend on certain cognitive and motivational prerequisites as well as individual learning conditions, the present study investigates students' cognitive competencies as well as affective-motivational factors as possible predictors of coping with this new learning situation at home. The study uses data of Starting Cohort 2 of the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS). Data of two measurement points are analyzed: Predictors were assessed at the earlier time point, when students (N=1,452; M _age=12years, 8months; 53.4% female) mostly attended seventh grade of a secondary school. They completed competence tests in reading as well as mathematics and rated affective-motivational aspects in terms of willingness to exert effort, learning enjoyment, and intrinsic motivation. One and a half years later - during the COVID-19 pandemic and the first period of school closures - the second measurement point took place. Students' parents rated the situation of learning at home with respect to students' coping with the new situation and parents' difficulties to motivate them. Regression analyses controlling for school track, students' gender, and parents' educational level and parental stress revealed that students' reading competencies and their willingness to exert effort were significant predictors of their coping with the new learning situation at home. Moreover, parents reported that boys were more difficult to motivate to learn during this time as compared to girls. Other predictors (e.g., learning enjoyment) turned out to be non-significant when entered simultaneously in the regression analyses. The results point to the importance of children's prerequisites for autonomous learning situations without structuring elements by teachers within the school context.

Strengthening career adaptation among school teachers in Pakistan: Test of strengths-based career intervention imparted through emotionalized learning experiences

This study demonstrated that the Exemplary Teaching intervention offered to Pakistan's school teachers through the emotionalized learning experiences (ELE) format fared better than that offered through the teacher-centered methodology as regards the development of career adaptability, teaching self-efficacy, and work engagement from Time 1 to Time 2. Analyses to explore the development of career variables from Time 2 to Time 4 revealed that only the teachers who were offered the ELE intervention effectively engaged in step-by-step career construction over the academic year. Theoretical contributions of the results and implications for offering future career interventions amid COVID-19 are also discussed.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10775-021-09502-2.

Executive Functioning and the Pursuit of Happiness

Executive functioning and happiness are each associated with successful learning and other desirable individual and societal outcomes; however, it is unclear whether a relation exists between them. Executive regulation of happiness pursuits in daily life, operationalized as hedonic (e.g., pursuing pleasure) and eudaimonic (e.g., pursuing personal growth) motives for action, may be a way the constructs relate to each other. In this initial investigation, we aimed to explore whether objectively measured executive functioning skills relate to happiness motives. A sample of 119 college students completed six objective neuropsychological measures of executive functioning and self-reported levels of hedonic and eudaimonic motives for action in daily life. Correlation and regression analyses examined the relations among temporal discounting and two latent executive functioning factors (inhibitory control and working memory) with hedonic and eudaimonic motives, as well as their interaction. Results suggested a possible association between higher levels of eudaimonic motives and preference for higher delayed rewards, as well as poorer working memory. Further analyses suggested that endorsing high levels of eudaimonic and hedonic motives simultaneously (i.e., the "full life") was associated with poorer inhibitory control and working memory performance, whereas endorsing low levels of both simultaneously (i.e., the "empty life") was associated with a preference for more immediate monetary rewards. Findings are discussed in the context of goal conflict and risk assessment among individuals who endorse the "full life". Overall, these findings suggest that complex relations may exist between executive functioning and trait-level happiness pursuits, and have implications for possible interventions aimed at enhancing happiness-related motives and cognitive processes to facilitate learning. Given the exploratory nature of the present study, further investigations are necessary.

Longitudinal Changes in Adolescents' School Bonding During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Individual, Parenting, and Family Correlates

The current study examined changes in adolescents' school bonding from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic and its individual, parenting, and family-level correlates. Participants were two adolescents (50% male; M_age  = 14 years) and one parent (85% female; M_age  = 45 years) from 682 families (N = 2046) from an ongoing longitudinal study. Adolescents reported on their school bonding, stress, and coping, while parents reported on their involvement in adolescents' education and pandemic-related financial need. A two-wave latent change score model suggested that adolescents' school bonding decreased from before to during the COVID-19 pandemic. Stress and pandemic-related financial need served as risk factors, whereas coping and parental involvement served as protective factors against declines in adolescents' school bonding.

Character strengths intervention for nurturing well-being among Pakistan's university students: A mixed-method study

A strengths intervention, The Good Life, was developed for this study to augment Pakistani university students' PERMA-oriented well-being. The intervention strategy focused on all 24 strengths, observing strengths in others, and developing the lesser strengths based on the dominant ones. Intervention best practices from positive, vocational, and educational psychology were also implemented to support greater learning capabilities among participants. Additionally, fidelity to training was observed to ensure intervention integrity. In this three-wave longitudinal study, participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group (n = 91) and a wait-list/no-treatment control group (n = 91). Quantitative results revealed that the experimental group reported greater well-being than the control group immediately after the intervention and 6 months later. Qualitative findings shed light on the character strengths demonstrated by the experimental group to build each PERMA dimension during Time 2 and Time 3. Findings also provided insights into how the experimental group experienced well-being during Time 2 and Time 3. Together, the quantitative and qualitative findings provide encouraging evidence regarding the long-term efficacy of the intervention in Pakistan's collective society. Implications for offering future strengths interventions amid the COVID-19 pandemic and recommendations for improving the Good Life intervention are also discussed.

Online Escape Room during COVID-19: A Qualitative Study of Social Education Degree Students’ Experiences

Confinement due to the COVID-19 pandemic has hastened an educational shift from face-to-face to online classrooms. This distanced education seeks to achieve learning goals mediated by technology as they would be achieved in the face-to-face classroom, without ignoring the psychological and social impact that COVID-19 has had on students and teachers. Faced with this situation, the use of online educational escape rooms has been proposed as a motivating strategy for students to review curriculum content in a cooperative and fun way. A qualitative investigation was carried out to explore the perceptions of university students in the Social Education degree program after the implementation of an educational escape room. Our main findings are that most students found that it allowed them to interact with their peers beyond traditional education, that it was useful for their learning and that it was a pleasant activity. However, it was also mentioned that it can be a stressful activity as being an online activity, some students may have connectivity problems. It is concluded that online escape rooms can be active and effective learning strategies for university students.

Variety is the spice of life: How emotional diversity is associated with better student engagement and achievement

BACKGROUND

Past studies on emotions have mostly focused on mean levels of positive and negative emotions. In recent years, the concept of emotional diversity (emodiversity) which refers to the variety and relative abundance of emotions was introduced and was found to have important implications for mental and physical health. However, its role in the educational context is unexplored.

AIMS

The current study aimed to examine how emodiversity is associated with indicators of optimal school functioning including engagement and achievement.

SAMPLE(S)

Four hundred four Filipino high school students (M = 14.34, SD = 1.47; 55% female) and 10 class teachers participated in the study.

METHODS

Students completed surveys measuring their emotions, emodiversity, and engagement, while class teachers rated their students' engagement. Finally, grades from the school were obtained at the end of the semester.

RESULTS

Positive emodiversity-diversity of positive emotional experiences-was an independent predictor of academic engagement and school achievement over and above mean levels of positive and negative emotions. These results were found to generalize to self-reported and teacher-reported outcomes as well as more objective measures of achievement. Moreover, findings remained robust after controlling for demographic variables such as gender and year level.

CONCLUSIONS

Positive emodiversity is associated with higher engagement and achievement suggesting the importance of emodiversity in the educational context.

Validation of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale in a Sample of Pakistan's University Students and Future Directions

This study determined the psychometric validation of the English version of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale (FCV-19S). Findings demonstrated robust psychometric properties for the FCV-19S. CFA results showed that the FCV-19S was a good model fit to the data in a sample of 608 university students. The FCV-19S also showed good concurrent validity, as it was significantly and positively related to the Preventive Behaviors related to COVID-19 Scale and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale as well as significantly and negatively related to the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale. The scale also showed good internal consistency reliability. Further, the association of age with FCV-19S indicated that younger students experienced greater fear of COVID-19. The analyses of mean differences revealed that women as compared to men, bachelor's and master's students as compared to post-master's students, and unemployed students as compared to employed students experienced greater fear of the outbreak. Also, those suffering from severe anxiety experienced greater fear of COVID-19 followed by those suffering from moderate, mild, and minimal anxiety. Moreover, knowing someone suffering from the coronavirus, being afraid that someone close might contract the virus, and believing that the current COVID-19 situation adversely affects academic performance were linked to higher levels of fear of the pandemic. Practice implications, limitations, and avenues for future research are also discussed.

The Walking Classroom: Measuring the Impact of Physical Activity on Student Cognitive Performance and Mood

BACKGROUND

The Walking Classroom is an education program that provides students with an opportunity to accumulate physical activity without losing instructional time.

METHOD

This research tests Kuczala's application of kinesthetic learning theory through measuring knowledge retention, postactivity information processing, and mood in students who engage in a short bout of physical activity while listening to Walking Classroom podcasts about language arts, science, and history, and those who remain seated during a podcast, compared with baseline levels. Students from 9 high-poverty fourth- and fifth-grade classrooms (n = 319) in a North Carolina county comprised the sample.

RESULTS

Utilizing multivariate analysis of covariance, the results demonstrate significantly higher levels of learning while walking compared with learning while sitting. Measures of mood utilizing the 10-item version of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale also demonstrated a significant effect in predicted directions.

CONCLUSION

The results support that coupling physical activity with instruction leads to increased performance and mood for elementary school students.

Adolescent well-being and learning in times of COVID-19-A multi-country study of basic psychological need satisfaction, learning behavior, and the mediating roles of positive emotion and intrinsic motivation

The sudden switch to distance education to contain the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has fundamentally altered adolescents' lives around the globe. The present research aims to identify psychological characteristics that relate to adolescents' well-being in terms of positive emotion and intrinsic learning motivation, and key characteristics of their learning behavior in a situation of unplanned, involuntary distance education. Following Self-Determination Theory, experienced competence, autonomy, and relatedness were assumed to relate to active learning behavior (i.e., engagement and persistence), and negatively relate to passive learning behavior (i.e., procrastination), mediated via positive emotion and intrinsic learning motivation. Data were collected via online questionnaires in altogether eight countries from Europe, Asia, and North America (N = 25,305) and comparable results across countries were expected. Experienced competence was consistently found to relate to positive emotion and intrinsic learning motivation, and, in turn, active learning behavior in terms of engagement and persistence. The study results further highlight the role of perceived relatedness for positive emotion. The high proportions of explained variance speak in favor of taking these central results into account when designing distance education in times of COVID-19.

Social networks, group exercise, and anxiety among college students

This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between group exercise membership, social network characteristics, and general state anxiety in a sample of college students. Participants: 490 undergraduates from a private university in the southern US participated in the study. Methods: An egocentric network analysis was conducted to test whether demographic variables, leisure-time physical activity, group exercise membership, flourishing scores, and network variables were related to anxiety. Results: Regression analyses (R² = .174, F = 7.650, p < .0001) suggest group exercise membership (β = -.105, p = .034) and flourishing scores (β = -.342, p < .0001) were related to lower anxiety scores, while being a racial/ethnic minority (β = .094, p = .036), and having personal networks composed of more people who exercise often (β = .100, p = .025), were related to higher anxiety scores in this sample. Conclusions: Findings suggest a connection between group exercise membership, activity habits of peers, and anxiety. Encouraging group exercise participation could be an effective way of combating anxiety for college students.