Peer victimization and depression in children with and without motor coordination difficulties

Paediatric motor difficulties and internalising problems: an integrative review on the environmental stress hypothesis

The current study aims to provide an in-depth analysis and extension of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis (ESH) framework, focusing on the complex interplay between poor motor skills and internalising problems like anxiety and depression. Using an integrative research review methodology, this study synthesises findings from 38 articles, both empirical and theoretical, building upon previous foundational works. The hypothesis posits that poor motor skills serve as a primary stressor, leading to internalising problems through various secondary stressors. A rigorous comparison of data was conducted, considering study design, findings, and methodologies-while exploring variables such as age, sex, and comorbidities. The study also enhances the ESH framework by including intrapersonal stressors and introducing resource buffers, including optimism and familial support as additional influencing factors. This multi-level approach yields a more nuanced and comprehensive ESH framework, highlighting the need for future studies to consider variables that intersect across multiple domains and how the relationship between poor motor skills and internalising problems may vary across different life stages.

The effectiveness of exergames in improving physical activity behaviour and physical literacy domains in adolescents with developmental coordination disorder and cerebral palsy: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

A large proportion of adolescents with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are physically inactive. Physical literacy has been described as an important determinant in promoting health behaviours. The potential of exergames to improve physical literacy and activity has been recognized in typically developing children. The aim of the present scoping review was to identify and map the available evidence of this potential for adolescents with DCD.

METHODS

A scoping review was performed via a literature search in PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, ERIC and CINHAIL.

RESULTS

From 2860 search records, six studies (two studies in DCD and four studies in cerebral palsy [CP]) assessed physical activity, 12 studies discussed exergame features and 16 studies assessed physical literacy domains. In DCD, one study showed positive effects of exergaming on physical activity and the other failed to show any significant effects of exergaming. In CP, all four studies demonstrated positive effects of exergaming on energy expenditure and daily physical activity. Furthermore, positive effects of exergames on the different physical literacy domains were shown, namely motor competence, self-concept and affect, motivation and social/experiential. Finally, exergame features including multiplayer modes, realism, game rewards, challenges and enjoyment were shown to have a significant effect on motivating and encouraging adolescents to exert more effort while playing.

CONCLUSION

Based on the positive effects of exergaming on physical activity in other populations, more in-depth research in adolescents with DCD is warranted such that the decline in physical activity behaviour that is present in individuals with DCD can be counteracted. Physical literacy should be regarded as an important determinant in this regard.

Impact of a Service-Learning Program Using Soccer Training on the Emotional and Behavioral Problems of Children with Developmental Disabilities

Children with developmental disabilities may develop emotional and behavioral problems that arise from difficulties in social interaction, and therefore, a process of providing and testing intervention activities for emotional and behavioral issues in the early stages of development is required. This study evaluated the effects of a 12-week service-learning exercise program on children with developmental disabilities, contrasting it with a control group not engaged in specific physical activities. The participants included 18 children with developmental disabilities who participated in the service-learning exercise program (SLG) and 18 children with developmental disabilities (Non-SLG) who did not participate. The Korean Behavior Assessment System for Children-2 was used to evaluate children's emotional and behavioral problems. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to verify the interaction effect between the group and period according to program participation. The results showed the positive internalization of problem behaviors in the emotional domain (F = 4.291, p = 0.011), attention deficit/hyperactivity (F = 4.761, p = 0.012), and personal adjustment (F = 4.116, p = 0.023) in the SLG group. These results suggest that participation in a service-learning exercise program positively affected emotional and behavioral problems in children with developmental disabilities. This could provide a basis for future research on service-learning exercise programs for children with developmental disabilities.

Investigating the impact of developmental coordination difficulties across home, school, and community settings: Findings from the Australian Impact for DCD survey

AIM

To evaluate the participation difficulties experienced by children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) in home, school, and community environments.

METHODS

The Impact for DCD survey was completed by primary caregivers of 4-18-year-old children with DCD (or synonymous diagnosis) (n = 429).

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

The greatest participation difficulties experienced at home included dressing, eating with utensils, self-care tasks and drawing/writing reported by over 70% of families. At school, fine motor difficulties were also frequently reported, with additional difficulties keeping up or completing tasks, and not feeling supported at school. Socialisation challenges and bullying were also commonly reported (34.9%). As a result of participation difficulties at school, 5.4% were home schooled. Many children engaged in community activity, with 72.0% currently engaged in at least one organised sports-based activity.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Increased recognition of the widespread impact of DCD in a child's life is crucial at an individual and societal level. Parents reported their children experiencing significant participation restrictions and difficulties. The findings of this large-scale study have revealed that most children with DCD are not receiving the support they need to thrive, especially at school. This largely reflects a lack of understanding and recognition of the condition and its associated challenges.

Awareness about developmental coordination disorder

The present paper is designed to promote awareness of DCD outside the academic world. With a prevalence of 5-6% it is one of the most common disorders of child development. It is therefore surprising that so little is known about it among professionals in child healthcare and education. Parents have expressed frustration about this lack of awareness, including the general public. The general aim of this paper was to describe those critical aspects of DCD that will promote awareness.

Psychosocial wellbeing, parental concerns, and familial impact of children with developmental coordination disorder

BACKGROUND

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition impacting motor skill acquisition and competence. While previous studies have identified adverse psychosocial outcomes in DCD, they are limited by small or population-screened, community-based samples.

AIMS

To understand the psychosocial difficulties, parental concerns, and familial impacts of childhood DCD in a large population-based sample.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Parents of 310 children aged 4 - 18 years with a diagnosis of DCD (or synonymous term) completed the Impact for DCD survey. Parent-rated measures of emotional problems, peer problems, and prosocial behaviour were compared to normative data. Parental concerns for the impact of DCD on participation, interaction, emotional well-being, and the family system were examined.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Compared to typically developing children, children with DCD were rated significantly higher for emotional and peer problems, and significantly lower for prosocial behaviours. Parents most commonly reported concerns for their child's future and withdrawal from physical activity. The presence of one or more co-occurring disorders did not significantly influence outcomes.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Findings highlight the poor psychosocial outcomes for children with DCD. Crucially, poor psychosocial outcomes were just as likely in those with a single diagnosis of DCD as those with DCD and multiple co-occurring diagnoses. Parents reported concerns for their child (i.e., non-participation and social withdrawal) that are not targeted in existing DCD intervention modalities and emphasised the impact of DCD on the whole family unit.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

This paper presents data from the largest parent-reported survey of children with a known diagnosis of DCD (or synonymous labels). It highlights the significant impact of DCD on psychosocial outcomes in children across age groups. The children in this study were rated by their parents to have significantly higher levels of emotional and peer problems, and lower prosocial behaviours, than similarly aged Australian children without DCD. It also challenges the misconception that poor psychosocial outcomes in DCD are the result of co-occurring disorders, with outcomes observed to be as poor in children with a sole diagnosis of DCD in this sample. Furthermore, findings highlighted the significant worry and concern that parents with DCD face, particularly around their child's participation and their emotional health. Finally, parents reported on the considerable impact that DCD had on their family unit, regularly causing worry and concern, influencing their choice of activities, and causing financial strain. These concerns and impacts are not addressed in current intervention models for DCD and highlight the need for support mechanisms moving forward.

Social responsiveness in children with developmental coordination disorder

BACKGROUND

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by deficits in performing motor tasks. Research suggests social skills are also altered.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate (1) whether the presence of DCD affects social responsiveness, (2) whether the co-occurrence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects social responsiveness in children with DCD, and (3) whether there is an association between motor performance and social responsiveness in children with DCD.

METHODS

Based on parental reports, children aged 5 to 15.5 years were assigned to one of three groups: DCD only (noASD, n = 67), DCD and suspected ASD (sASD, n = 13), and DCD and confirmed ASD (cASD, n = 22). Parental answers to the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS-2) and the DCD-Questionnaire (DCD-Q) were compared to norm values using one sample t-tests, and between groups using ANOVA and MANOVA. Pearson correlation coefficients explored the relationship between the SRS-2 and DCD-Q in the total group and per group.

RESULTS

Compared to norm values, difficulties in all areas of social responsiveness were reported in children with DCD, regardless of group (p<0.001). Compared to the noASD group, more unfavorable SRS-2 total T-scores and poorer DCD-Q scores were observed in sASD and cASD groups. Only in the total group, motor performance showed significant weak to moderate associations with the SRS-2 total T-score and all subscales except for 'social motivation' (r=-0.306 to -0.405; p ≤ 0.02).

CONCLUSION

Social responsiveness difficulties are more common in children with DCD and are more severe in the ASD groups. Motor performance and social responsiveness are weak to moderately associated.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT05092893 (https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05092893).

A systematic review of behavioral and neurobiological profiles associated with coexisting attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and developmental coordination disorder

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and developmental coordination disorder (DCD) co-occur in approximately 50% of cases. This study aimed to characterize the behavioral, cognitive, and neurobiological profiles of co-occurring ADHD and DCD diagnoses by mapping, synthesizing, and providing a critical appraisal of the existing literature. A systematic search was conducted across four databases (MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Embase, and Scopus) to identify studies comparing a coexisting ADHD+DCD diagnosis to ADHD and DCD alone. From 2353 screened articles, 15 behavioral and 10 neuroimaging studies were included. Collectively, these studies suggest that the comorbid ADHD+DCD presentation constitutes a more severe phenotype characterized by neurocognitive differences associated with both conditions. Despite sharing some common neural features, our findings support the separate etiology hypothesis indicating that neural network alterations in individuals with ADHD+DCD represent a unique neural pattern rather than a sum of ADHD and DCD characteristics. Considering the heterogeneity inherent to both ADHD and DCD, future studies should involve rigorous and comprehensive assessment procedures to delineate how different subtypes of each diagnosis relate to distinct performance characteristics.

Cultural Adaptation of the MABC-2 Checklist as a Screening Tool for Developmental Coordination Disorder in Schools

The purpose of this study was to adapt the MABC-2 Checklist to Czech primary schools by examining of its content validity and feasibility. The content validity achieved the satisfactory level in the second round of panels of experts on child motor development. The evidence on feasibility was obtained from classroom teachers who described this tool as clear, objective and having logical structure and its administration as comprehensible and fast. The MABC-2 Checklist is applicable instrument for the Czech school environment, but its adaptation to various countries should consider the items representing the common motor skills in local children.

Self-esteem, self-efficacy, and social support mediate the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in adults: Exploring the environmental stress hypothesis in adulthood

The Environmental Stress Hypothesis (ESH) is a theoretical model used to understand the factors mediating the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems. The aim of this study is to explore a potential extension of the ESH by examining whether BMI, physical activity levels, self-esteem, self-efficacy and social support are potential mediators between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in young adults. 290 adults aged between 18 and 30 years old (150 women, 140 men) were evaluated with the following instruments: Adult Developmental Coordination Disorders Checklist (ADC), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS 21), Social Support Satisfaction Scale (SSSS), Perceived General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), and self-reported body mass index (BMI). The results indicated that self-esteem, self-efficacy, and social support mediate the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in this sample. Thus, the findings reinforce the notion that early intervention and preventive psychological care can serve as protective aspects of mental health in adults at risk for low motor proficiency.

Holistic Functioning from a Developmental Perspective: A New Synthesis with a Focus on a Multi-tiered System Support Structure

While research in specific academic disciplines has individually advanced knowledge and practice for promoting multiple aspects of health and well-being in children and adolescents, still missing is an understanding of the interconnectedness of many critical aspects of development and how to intentionally weave these factors to advance a more holistic approach. The need for a more holistic and inclusive approach to child and adolescent development is increasingly evident to promote long-term health and well-being as the overall percentage of children, adolescents, and adults who suffer from mental health disorders is increasing. To address this issue, our authorship team consists of researchers in the areas of developmental psychology, neuroscience, motor development, exercise science, and mental health. The collective ideas outlined in this paper are aligned to address the need to remove disciplinary-specific boundaries and elucidate synergistic linkages across multiple research domains that support holistic development and lifespan health and wellness. We propose a conceptual framework that comprehensively addresses the integration of physical, cognitive, psychological, social, and emotional domains of child and adolescent development. In addition, we also provide a holistic preventative approach that is aligned with a contemporary intervention structure (i.e., Multi-tiered Systems of Support) to promote, from a developmental perspective, positive trajectories of health and well-being across childhood and adolescence.

Emotional distress and quality of life among adults with developmental coordination disorder during COVID-19

Introduction

Individuals with developmental coordination disorder frequently report emotional and functional difficulties. A stressful era as COVID-19 pandemic may enhance emotional load. The present study aimed to (1) examine the emotional distress and quality of life among adults with developmental coordination disorder during COVID-19 as compared to typical controls, and (2) examine the relationships between these factors in adults with developmental coordination disorder.

Method

Participants were 317 adults, aged 18-66, recruited during the first year of COVID-19: 227 were included in the developmental coordination disorder group, and 90 in the control group (normal motor performance) based on the Adult Developmental Co-ordination Disorders/Dyspraxia Checklist cutoff score. Participants completed a sociodemographic health status/daily life under COVID-19 questionnaire and self-reports about their emotional status (depression, anxiety, stress) and a quality of life.

Results

The developmental coordination disorder group had significantly greater depression, anxiety, stress, and lower quality of life. Participants with developmental coordination disorder who were infected by COVID-19 or reported reduction of working hours due to COVID-19 had the lowest social and environmental quality of life. Depression significantly predicted reduced quality of life and mediated between developmental coordination disorder severity and quality of life.

Conclusions

Prevention and intervention programs for adults with developmental coordination disorder should be elaborated, with reference to emotional load and to implications on daily life, especially in times of crisis, like COVID-19.

Gait Variability Relates to Prosocial, Emotional and Risk-Taking Behavior in Typically Developing Children

Motor skills enable multi-facetted interactions with the environment and allow children to develop social skills and respond appropriately to situational social demands when interacting with peers and adults. Previous research with clinical samples (e.g., children diagnosed with Developmental Coordination Disorder) showed that children's motor skills are closely linked to their psychosocial behavior (e.g., prosocial, hyperactive, inattentive, interpersonal), but studies with typically developing children are rare. We sought to fill this research gap by examining relationships between gait variability as an indicator of motor skills and prosocial behavior, problem behavior, and risk-taking behavior in typically developing children. Participants were a large cross-section of 7-13-year-olds (N = 221). They were asked to walk normally across an electronic pathway (GAITRite). We assessed their gait variability (i.e., stride time, stride length and stride velocity). Their parents completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire that assessed their child's prosocial behavior, hyperactivity, emotional symptoms, and any conduct or peer relationship problems. Parents also provided information on an adapted scale of the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire assessing risk-taking behavior. We used multilevel modeling to account for individual interdependence and to analyze the maximum number of strides for each participant. Children with greater stride length variability and velocity showed significantly less prosocial behavior, had more emotional symptoms and demonstrated less risk-taking behavior. Stride time variability was not significantly related to any variables. These results align with past findings that gait is sensitive to motor skill differences, and they extend past findings of these associations between gait and facets of intra- and interpersonal characteristics among children within clinical disorders to typically developing children.

Distinct mental health profiles in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A latent class analysis and associations

BACKGROUND

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) show indications for mental health problems. However, these problems are poorly understood.

AIMS

To identify patterns (profiles) of mental health in this population and to analyze the associations between profiles and child characteristics.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Parents of 119 children with DCD completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Results indicated that a four latent class was the best model. Profile 1 was defined as "no" mental health problems (n = 28; 24 %), Profile 2 was defined as "hyperactivity" problems (n = 53; 43.3 %), for clinical indications for hyperactivity, Profile 3 was defined as "internalizing" problems (n = 8; 7.3 %), for clinical indications for emotional symptoms and peer problems, and Profile 4 was defined as "internalizing and externalizing problems" (n = 30; 25.4 %), for clinical indications for problems in both areas. In addition, having a co-occurring disorder, accommodation plans, and using medications were associated with the profiles.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

There are distinct and unique profiles that children with DCD exhibit. Clinicians can use these profiles to better understand the presentation of mental health symptoms in this population and provide adequate services or support if mental health difficulties are present.

Linking fine motor skills with theory of mind in school-age children

Motor skills have been linked to language and social development with implications for theory of mind. This study examined theory of mind (attribution of intentions task) in school-age children ( N = 62, mean age 8 years; 2 months, standard deviation [ SD] = 1;3) in relation to fine motor skills (grooved pegboard), receptive vocabulary (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test), receptive grammar (Test for the Reception of Grammar), reading comprehension (Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests), verbal short-term (nonword repetition), and visual-spatial working memory (one-shape array memory). All variables except verbal short-term memory correlated with accuracy on theory of mind. In regression models, fine motor skills accounted for variance in theory of mind after controlling for age, language, and working memory. The results add to research linking fine motor skills with faux pas understanding, indicating the potentially broad impact of motor skills on social cognition. Given the cross-sectional study design, longitudinal research is warranted to address causality.

Examining frustration intolerance beliefs among adults with dyslexia or developmental coordination disorder

BACKGROUND

Research suggests that adults diagnosed with specific learning disorders, such as dyslexia or developmental coordination disorder (DCD), are at greater risk of emotional problems related to frustration and anger.

AIMS

The purpose of this study was to investigate patterns of frustration intolerance beliefs among two groups of adults with a specific learning disorder (dyslexia or DCD), compared with typical adults.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Participants were 235 French adults (students or in employment) with dyslexia (M_age = 35.8 years, SD = 13.3; females = 63 %), DCD (M_age = 32.9 years, SD = 11.8; females = 58 %) or typical development (M_age = 33.2 years, SD = 12.7; females = 65 %), who completed an online self-report questionnaire.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Analysis of variance revealed a significant between-groups difference, as both learning disorder groups had higher frustration intolerance beliefs than the typical adults. Post hoc analysis showed that participants with DCD scored higher than those with dyslexia on each type of frustration intolerance belief, while participants with dyslexia scored higher than typical adults on achievement frustration and discomfort intolerance.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

These results underline the usefulness of distinguishing between frustration intolerance dimensions, and of using rational emotive behavior therapy to reduce the irrational beliefs of people with DCD or dyslexia.

Parent-Reported Motivators and Barriers to Participation in a Community-Based Intervention Designed for Children With Motor Skill Difficulties: A Qualitative Program Evaluation

INTRODUCTION

Parents play a critical role in their child's participation in community-based intervention programs. Yet, their perspectives remain largely overlooked in the literature. This qualitative program evaluation used social cognitive theory to understand parents' motivators and barriers to participation in a community-based intervention program designed for children with motor skill difficulties.

METHOD

Parents (n = 15) of children with motor skill difficulties enrolled in a community-based intervention program participated in semistructured interviews.

RESULTS

Thematic analysis revealed six motivators (child needs, satisfaction, perceived impact, affordability, design, and program culture) and three perceived barriers (parent knowledge, access, and accommodations).

DISCUSSION

Parents' motivators and barriers reflected a combination of personal and environmental factors consistent with social cognitive theory. This study revealed novel insight into program-related environmental motivators and barriers. Program leaders should consider ongoing evaluation and application of parental perspectives to optimize family participation and retention in community-based interventions.

Motor abnormalities, depression risk, and clinical course in adolescence

Background

Motor abnormalities, such as psychomotor agitation and retardation, are widely recognized as core features of depression. However, it is not currently known if motor abnormalities connote risk for depression.

Methods

Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, a nationally representative sample of youth (n=10,835, 9-11 years old), the present paper examines whether motor abnormalities are associated with (a) depression symptoms in early adolescence, (b) familial risk for depression (familial risk loading), and (c) future depression symptoms. Motor abnormalities measures included traditional (DSM) motor signs such as psychomotor agitation and retardation as well as other motor domains such as developmental motor delays and dyscoordination.

Results

Traditional motor abnormalities were less prevalent (agitation=3.2%, retardation=0.3%) than non-traditional domains (delays=13.79%, coordination=35.5%) among adolescents. Motor dysfunction was associated with depression symptoms (Cohen's ds=0.02 to 0.12). Familial risk for depression was related to motor abnormalities (Cohen's ds=0.08 to 0.27), with the exception of motor retardation. Family vulnerability varied in sensitivity to depression risk (e.g., retardation: .53%; dyscoordination: 32.05%). Baseline endorsement of motor abnormalities predicted future depression symptoms at one-year follow-up.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that motor signs reflect a novel, promising future direction for examining vulnerability to depression risk in early adolescence.

Externalizing problems mediate the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in children: An extension of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis

The Environmental Stress Hypothesis (ESH) is a causal theoretical framework that provides a flexible context for understanding factors that mediate the relationship between low motor proficiency and internalizing problems in children. The purpose of the present study was to use the ESH framework to determine whether body mass index (BMI), physical activity levels, psychosocial health and physical health, self-efficacy, perceived social status, prosocial behavior and externalizing problems were potential mediators between motor proficiency and internalizing factors in a population of Brazilian children. 431 children aged 7- to 10 years (240 females, 191 males) participated in the study. The variables were measured with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2^nd ed. (MABC-2), the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory (PedsQL), the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), the MacArthur Subjective Social Status Scale (MacArthur SSS), the Self-efficacy Sense Assessment Roadmap (RASAE), and the Physical Activity Questionnaire (PAQ). The results indicated a direct relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems in a population of Brazilian children, with externalizing problems being the only variable mediating that relationship. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that externalizing problems were tested in the context of the ESH. Understanding and evaluating potential mediators in the relationship between motor proficiency and internalizing problems using the ESH framework is essential to promote prevention policies and interventions for school-age children.

Social skills of kindergarten children with Global Developmental Delay (GDD), with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)

AIM

A high prevalence of co-occurring Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) has been noted in the population of children with global developmental delays (GDD). The presence of developmental disabilities in general, and DCD in particular, constitute a risk factor for difficulties in social skills. However, to the best of our knowledge, no studies, have examined the unique contribution of DCD to social skills, over and above the effect of other general developmental impairments. The aim of this study was to compare the social skills of kindergarten children with Global Developmental Delay, with and without DCD.

METHODS

Participants included 26 kindergarten children with Global Developmental Delay and DCD (Mage = 4.92, 61 % boys), and 26 children with Global Developmental Delay without DCD (Mage = 5.09, 69.25 % boys). All participants' parents and kindergarten teachers completed the Social Skills Improvement System Questionnaire (SSIS).

RESULTS

Children with GDD only performed significantly better on social skills compared to children with GDD and DCD. Parents in general reported better social skills and less behavioral problems compared to kindergarten teachers.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings contribute to the accumulating body of knowledge regarding social abilities of children with developmental disabilities and present new information as to the unique effect of DCD in this domain. Routine evaluation of social skills should be conducted among children with GDD and DCD, taking into account the negative influence that motor dysfunction has in this domain. Furthermore, children's social performance in different environments needs to be considered by relating to both parents and kindergarten teachers' perspective. Subsequent intervention programs should then address the unique profile of this population.

Associations between poor gross and fine motor skills in pre-school and peer victimization concurrently and longitudinally with follow-up in school age - results from a population-based study

BACKGROUND

Children with poor motor skills are at increased risk of peer victimization. However, it is unclear whether poor gross and fine motor skills are differently linked to peer victimization among pre-school and schoolchildren.

AIMS

To investigate associations between poor gross and fine motor skills measured in pre-school and the associations to peer victimization measured concurrently and in school age.

SAMPLE

Data from the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), and the Medical Birth Registry of Norway were used. Participants with complete questionnaires at 3, 5, and 8 years (n = 23 215) were included.

METHODS

A longitudinal design and an autoregressive cross-lagged model were used to investigate if poor gross and fine motor skills at 3 and 5 years predicted peer victimization at 5 and 8 years. Because emotional difficulties are associated with both motor skills and peer victimization, the results were adjusted for emotional difficulties.

RESULTS

Only poor fine motor skills at 3 years had a significant association to peer victimization at 5 years. Poor gross motor skills at 5 years had a stronger association to peer victimization measured concurrently compared to poor fine motor skills, and only poor fine motor skills at 5 years was significantly linked to peer victimization at 8 years. No gender difference was found between these paths.

CONCLUSIONS

Teachers and parents should be aware that motor skills predict peer victimization, and that poor gross and fine motor skills have different associations to peer victimization measured at different ages.

The Prevalence of Bullying Among Pediatric Orthopaedic Patients

BACKGROUND

Bullying is destructive and pervasive. Although the literature suggests children with chronic health conditions are at higher risk of being bullied, there is minimal research regarding the prevalence of bullying among children with orthopaedic conditions. Our study aimed to assess the prevalence of bullying among pediatric orthopaedic outpatients and evaluate the association of orthopaedic conditions and use of orthopaedic devices with perceptions of bullying.

METHODS

Patients in outpatient pediatric orthopaedic clinics, ages 10 to 17 and their parents were surveyed using the Child-Adolescent Bullying Scale-9. Basic demographic, information about the child's orthopaedic condition, and parent's perception of their child being subject to bullying were also collected. Children were asked if they had used any orthopaedic devices in the last 3 months, whether they were bullied because of their device, and if bullying affected their compliance with device use. The analysis utilized a t test or analysis of variance to compare mean Child-Adolescent Bullying Scale-9 scores across different groups.

RESULTS

Among the 198 patients surveyed, 61% (N=121) perceived no-to-minimal exposure to bullying, 36% (N=72) moderate exposure, and 3% (N=5) severe exposure. Children ages 10 to 13 (N=100) and children ages 14 to 17 (N=98) reported similar rates of bullying (P=0.97). Higher rates of moderate to severe bullying were reported by patients with foot deformity (80%), multiple orthopaedic diagnoses (55%), chronic pain (39%), fracture/acute injury (37%), and scoliosis (33%). Moderate to severe bullying was reported by 37% of patients who wore a cast, 40% who wore a brace/orthotic, and 52% who used multiple orthopaedic devices. Parental concern that their child was being bullied was highly correlated with their child's bullying score (P=0.0002).

CONCLUSIONS

More than one third of our pediatric orthopaedic outpatients (39%) experience moderate to severe levels of bullying, which is higher than the general population's reported rates of 20% to 35%. Exposure to bullying may be higher in certain diagnoses or with use of certain orthopaedic devices. Further research is needed to delineate who is at highest risk.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV.

Fine and gross motor skills predict later psychosocial maladaptation and academic achievement

BACKGROUND

Difficulties in fine and gross motor skills are often overlooked as developmental problems, although approximately 6-13% of all school-age children have poor motor coordination. Understanding motor coordination is important from the perspective of school adaptation. This longitudinal cohort study aimed to determine whether fine and gross motor skills in preschool children predict later academic achievement and psychosocial maladaptation.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

Participants were 2,501 children from nursery and elementary schools (5-13 years old). The motor skills of preschool children were assessed by their nursery teacher immediately before entering elementary school. The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and a standardized Japanese test were administered annually throughout elementary school.

RESULTS

Early motor difficulties in preschool children had significant effects on their academic achievement and psychosocial maladaptation up until the sixth grade. Gross motor difficulties in preschool were associated with the later peer problems and worsened emotional symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Motor skills in preschool children are useful as a predictor of later psychosocial maladaptation and academic achievement.

Autonomous nervous system modulation in supine and standing postures in children with probable developmental coordination disorder

Background

Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) are known to have poor physical fitness and psychosocial problems. The autonomous nervous system (ANS) plays an essential role in the regulation of human neurophysiological processes. Inadequate ANS modulation has been associated with harmful health conditions such as poor aerobic power, high body mass index, and symptoms of stress and anxiety. Modulation of ANS in children with DCD needs to be further investigated taking into consideration variables that may influence its function. For instance, would the level of physical fitness or the symptoms of stress and anxiety affect the ANS modulation of children with DCD?

Aims

To examine the ANS modulation during supine and standing postures, and stress/anxiety with questionnaire data from children with probable-DCD (p-DCD).

Methods

and procedures: Thirty children, 8–12 years old, composed two groups paired by age, gender, peak volume of oxygen uptake (aerobic power), and body mass index (BMI): p-DCD (9 boys, mean age 10.8 y) and typically developing (TD). Both groups were compared for stress/anxiety assessment by questionnaire and spectral, symbolic, and complexity heart rate variability (HRV) analyses during posture changes.

Outcomes and results

p-DCD group showed higher stress symptoms than TD group for stress/anxiety assessment in the questionnaire's data, but HRV analyses showed no differences between the two groups. Both groups showed parasympathetic prevalence during supine posture and sympathetic prevalence during standing posture.

Conclusions and implications

Children with p-DCD had similar autonomic control function as TD children during posture change (supine to standing). Symptoms of stress and anxiety demonstrated by p-DCD did not impact their ANS modulation. These results indicate that aerobic power and BMI are probable protective factors of ANS modulation for these children.

Internalising symptoms in Developmental Coordination Disorder: The indirect effect of everyday executive function

BACKGROUND

Individuals with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) report elevated executive function (EF) difficulties and internalising symptoms. Previous research suggests EF is important for wellbeing, yet no research has examined its role in internalising symptoms in DCD.

AIMS

To explore an indirect relationship between DCD and internalising symptoms, through everyday EF difficulties.

METHOD AND PROCEDURES

Thirty-two children with a DCD diagnosis and 51 typically-developing children (ages 8-15) participated. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to collect parent-reported EF and self-reported internalising symptoms.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Internalising symptoms and everyday EF difficulties were significantly higher in the DCD group. A bias-corrected, bootstrapped mediation analysis identified an indirect effect of everyday EF difficulties on the relationship between DCD diagnosis and internalising symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

This supports previous research indicating that individuals with DCD experience greater levels of internalising symptoms and EF difficulties than peers. It is the first to suggest an indirect effect of everyday EF difficulties in the pathway between DCD and internalising symptoms. This highlights hypotheses for future research into the role of EFs in understanding mental health in DCD. It suggests benefits from increased awareness, routine screening, and intervention for mental health and EF in people with poor motor skills.

What Do We Know about Bullying in Schoolchildren with Disabilities? A Systematic Review of Recent Work

Bullying is a serious problem that particularly affects schoolchildren with disabilities. However, studies in this group have been carried out on smaller cohorts and the results obtained are, therefore, less representative and sometimes inconclusive. The purpose of this paper is to perform a systematic review of the work carried out in recent years, including the analysis of several variables related to the sample, the methodology applied and the type of bullying. The guidelines set down by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement were followed in three phases. The total sample consisted of 55 children who fulfilled the inclusion criteria. The results reveal that half the studies were conducted in cohorts of less than 250 schoolchildren and drew no distinctions between the different types of disabilities. Furthermore, there is no consensus regarding the methodology used, and no specialized instruments were used. Hardly any specific interventions have been performed into the type of bullying investigated, in which victimization is the predominant mode. We concluded that there is an urgent need to increase the number of studies, including a larger number of individuals and using specialized instruments, in order to obtain more solid results. Such studies will allow us to create specific prevention and intervention programs to address the bullying of schoolchildren with disabilities.

International clinical practice recommendations on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of developmental coordination disorder - Chinese (Mandarin) translation

目的

本国际临床指南由欧洲残疾儿童学会（the European Academy of Childhood Disability，EACD）牵头制定，旨在解决发育性协调障碍（developmental coordination disorder，DCD）的定义、诊断、评估、干预以及与社会心理方面的临床应用关键问题。

方法

本指南针对五个领域的关键问题，通过文献综述和专家团队的正式讨论达成共识。为保证指南的循证基础，以“机制”、“评估”和“干预”为检索词, 对2012年更新以来提出的最新建议以及新增的“社会心理问题”和“青少年/成人”为检索词进行检索。根据牛津大学循证医学中心证据等级 (证据水平 [level of evidence, LOE]1–4) 将结果进行分类，最终转化为指南建议。并由国际、多学科专家小组举行了两次会议，5个回合的Delphi 专家问卷调查，制定了高质量临床应用实践 (good clinical practice，GCP) 。

结果

本指南共制定35条建议。其中8条以文献综述为依据 (3 条涉及“评估”，5条涉及“干预”)； 22 条在 2012 年指南的基础上进行了更新；其他为涉及诊断、评估 (3条GCP) 及社会心理问题 (2 条 GCP) 的新建议。此外，其中有1条(LOE)新建议提出视频游戏可作为以活动和参与为导向的传统干预措施的辅助手段，并针对青少年和成人DCD提出了 2 条新建议 (1 条 GCP，1 条 LOE)。

结论

本指南是基于当前的研究证据和专家共识对DCD进行全面概述。它反映了不同学科临床和科研人员的最新科技水平。本国际指南可作为各国制定指南的基础。

Correlation between Motor Coordination Skills and Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties in Children with and without Developmental Coordination Disorder

The purpose of this study was to compare whole factors of emotional and behavioral problems between children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and investigate the interrelationship between motor coordination skills and emotional and behavioral problems among the children. As a result of screening participants (288 children) based on DSM-5 standard, participants were classified as DCD and typically developing (TD) groups. A total of 60 children (mean age: 8.8 years ± 3.5 months; DCD group n = 30, TD group n = 30) were assessed using the Korean Behavior Assessment System for Children, Second Edition for emotional and behavioral problems. Children with DCD showed significantly poor scores in internalizing problems (p = 0.009), inattention/hyperactivity (p = 0.004), and emotional symptoms index (p = 0.001) among the criteria of emotional problems and in personal adjustment (p = 0.000) among the criteria of behavioral problems. The MABC-2 composite percentile score of participants showed a significant correlation with internalizing problem behavior (r = −0.382, p = 0.003), inattention / hyperactivity disorder (r = −0.409, p = 0.001), emotional symptoms index (r = −0.483, p = 0.000), and personal adjustment (r = 0.474, p < 0.01). Our results validated that children with DCD have more emotional and behavioral difficulties than TD children. Our results revealed that the motor coordination skills have correlated with emotional and behavioral difficulties among children.

Occupational therapy practice with children with developmental coordination disorder: An online qualitative vignette survey

Introduction

Children and young people with developmental coordination disorder experience multiple occupational performance and participation challenges across environments. Research to date has not fully explored occupational therapy practice with children with developmental coordination disorder and their families. This study aims to describe current occupational therapy practice with children with developmental coordination disorder.

Method

This study used a cross-sectional, online qualitative vignette survey methodology. International occupational therapists who were working with or had worked with children with developmental coordination disorder within the previous 5 years were invited to participate. Following a case vignette, clinicians were asked questions prompting them to describe their practice based upon the vignette. The data were analysed thematically. The Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research and Checklist for Reporting Results of Internet E-Surveys reporting guidelines were adhered to.

Findings

Fifty-three valid responses were analysed. Analysis identified three themes describing occupational therapy practice with children with developmental coordination disorder: (a) a collaborative approach to establish occupation-focused goals; (b) occupation-focused assessment to guide therapy and diagnose developmental coordination disorder; and (c) the use of occupation-based interventions incorporating multiple strategies to enhance occupational engagement.

Conclusion

This study suggests that current occupational therapy practice with children with developmental coordination disorder is collaborative, occupation-focused, and multi-component. Findings highlight a gap between the complexity of practice and the nature of interventions evaluated in research to date.

Construct validity of the PERF-FIT, a test of motor skill-related fitness for children in low resource areas

BACKGROUND

Given the relationship between physical fitness and motor performance a test battery was developed that measures both components combined.

AIM

Following the development of the Performance and Fitness (PERF-FIT) battery, this study investigated the construct validity with the ultimate aim of identifying attributes that discriminate between different levels of motor abilities and anaerobic or musculoskeletal fitness.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, 34 children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and 34 matched typically developing children participated (7-10 years). The PERF-FIT was used to examine known group validity. The PERF-FIT items were also compared to test items of well-known standardized tests to examine concurrent validity.

RESULTS

Concurrent validity was found to be of the expected low to moderate magnitude. Children with DCD were consistently found to have lower levels of motor skill-related fitness compared to typically developing children.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The PERF-FIT seems to be a valid test to measure movement skills, musculoskeletal fitness and agility in children between the ages of 7 and 10 years in low resourced communities. The test seems to discriminate between gross motor skills, and agility and power in children with and without DCD.

Physical Literacy, Physical Activity and Health: Toward an Evidence-Informed Conceptual Model

Physical literacy (PL) provides a powerful lens for examining movement in relation to physical activity (PA) and motor skill outcomes, environmental context, and broader social and affective learning processes. To date, limited consideration has been given to the role PL plays in promoting positive health behaviours. There is no clear conceptual framework based on existing empirical evidence that links PL to health, nor has an evidence-informed case been made for such a position. The purpose of this paper is to (1) present a conceptual model positioning PL as a health determinant, and (2) present evidence in support of PL as a health determinant, drawing on research largely from outside physical education. Viewing PL from the perspective of a multidimensional, experiential convergence process enables it to be differentiated from other models. However, parallels between our model and existing models that focus on movement competence are also drawn. Arguing from a pragmatic perspective on PL, we present evidence for positioning PL as a determinant of health from two literature sources: research on motor coordination disorders in children, and associations between motor competence, PA and health in typically developing children. Statistical modelling approaches consistent with the concept of PL are discussed. Results from these approaches-confirmatory factor analysis and cluster analysis-support the idea that measures related to motor competence, motivation and positive affect work in an integrative manner to produce differences in PA and subsequent health outcomes in children. There is increasing interest in PL, particularly in the field of public health. Presenting a model that explicitly links PL to health can lead to the generation of new research questions and the possibility of broadening impact beyond the context of physical education alone. To date, there has been little conceptual attention to what positioning PL as a determinant of health means. By providing an evidence-based model of PL as a determinant of health, we hope to further the discussion and stimulate increased empirical research in the field.

Do motor coordination and sleep difficulties predict peer functioning in children and adolescents with attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder after accounting for existing ADHD symptomology?

Children with attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are more likely to experience peer problems compared to their non-ADHD peers, though ADHD-specific symptoms only partially explain this association. This study examined whether sleep difficulties and motor coordination problems are additional predictors of peer problems in an ADHD population. An ADHD sample of 72 participants aged 6-14 years (M = 9.86 years, SD = 1.79 years) was evaluated for an association of peer problems with measures of motor coordination, sleep difficulties as well as ADHD and comorbidity symptoms. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis (HMRA) was used to test the current study aims. Motor coordination, but not sleep difficulties, predicted additional variance in peer problems after controlling for inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, internalizing problems, oppositionality, and conduct problems. Poor motor coordination predicts peer problems beyond ADHD symptoms. Clinicians seeking to improve peer functioning in children with ADHD should also consider motor coordination difficulties in addition to existing treatment strategies. Statement of contribution What is already known Children with attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience greater peer problems (i.e., making friends, being victimized, participating in play) than their typically developing peers. Previous studies have attributed this association between ADHD and peer problems to the symptoms of ADHD (i.e., inattention and/or hyperactivity) disrupting the typical trajectory of social development. However, quantitative studies have identified that symptoms of ADHD predict only portion of the variance in a child's peer problems - highlighting that there may be other unique factors that contribute to the higher incidence of peer problems typically observed in this population. What this study adds This study tested whether additional theoretically relevant factors could predict levels of peer problems in children with ADHD beyond the primary symptoms of the disorder. Internalizing symptomatology, conduct problems, oppositionality, motor coordination, and sleep difficulties were added to a regression model already including inattention and hyperactivity symptoms. These factors explained 51% of the variability in peer problems. In this sample of 72 ADHD children, the results of the final model highlighted that only motor coordination and conduct problems remained significant predictors of peer problems - highlighting two potentially important target areas for screening and intervention.

The synergistic effect of poor motor coordination, gender and age on self-concept in children: A longitudinal analysis

BACKGROUND

Self-concept is a critical psychosocial outcome in childhood that is shaped by many factors. Gender, motor coordination and age have been identified as three important contributors.

AIM

The present study examined whether poor motor coordination (i.e., being classified as at risk for Developmental Coordination Disorder [rDCD]), gender and age have a synergistic effect on domains of self-concept and self-worth in children.

METHODS

Data were derived from the Physical Health and Activity Study Team longitudinal open cohort project. Children enrolled in grade 4 (M_age = 9.88 ± 0.35) at baseline (n = 1978) completed the Self-Perception Profile for Children 7 times over 4 years to evaluate their competence across multiple domains. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency - Short Form was completed once to evaluate children's motor coordination. Participants scoring ≤15th percentile were classified as rDCD.

RESULTS

A significant 3-way interaction between rDCD, gender and age was observed for athletic ability, physical appearance and academic competence, but not social competence, behavioural conduct or global self-worth. Findings revealed developmental trajectories for self-perceptions of athletic ability, physical appearance, and academic competence were lowest among rDCD girls. Boys classified as rDCD also demonstrated lower athletic, academic and physical self-perceptions in comparison to typically developing children.

CONCLUSIONS

Age intensifies disparities in self held athletic, physical and academic perceptions attributable to differences in gender and rDCD status, however, differences in these domains appear to be independent of children's overall views of themselves.

Identifying Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder via Parental Questionnaires. Spanish Reference Norms for the DCDDaily-Q-ES and Correlation with the DCDQ-ES

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders in school-aged children, with major consequences in psychosocial and physical health. Adequate identification of this disorder is necessary to prompt effective interventions. The aims of this study were to develop the Spanish adjusted reference norms for the DCDDaily-Q and to test the correlation and agreement between the Spanish versions of the DCDDaily-Q (DCDDaily-Q-ES) and the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ-ES), two reliable instruments to assess motor performance and DCD. Clinically relevant percentiles were calculated for the DCDDaily-Q-ES using a representative sample of Spanish children aged 5 to 10 years (n = 356; M = 7.3 years, SD = 1.8; boys = 50%). Pearson's correlation coefficient and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) were used to determine correlation and agreement between questionnaires, respectively. A moderate and significant correlation and agreement between DCDDaily-Q-ES and DCDQ-ES was found (r = 0.406; ICC = 0.381; p < 0.001). Differences in daily participation and performance were found between age groups, but not between boys and girls. Spanish age-adjusted percentiles and cutoff scores for DCDDaily-Q-ES are provided. This study offers further validation and relevant information regarding assessment of DCD and has practical implications for clinical practice and research.

Research Review: Internalising symptoms in developmental coordination disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) affects 5%-6% of children. There is growing evidence that DCD is associated with greater levels of internalising symptoms (i.e. depression and anxiety). This is the first systematic review and meta-analysis to explore the magnitude of this effect, the quality of the evidence and potential moderators.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted to identify studies reporting a comparison between individuals with DCD/probable DCD and typically developing (TD) individuals on measures of internalising symptoms. A pooled effect size (Hedges g) was calculated using random-effects meta-analysis. Study quality, publication bias and potential moderators of the effect were explored.

RESULTS

Twenty studies, including a total of 23 subsamples, met the inclusion criteria, of which 22 subsamples were included in the meta-analysis (DCD: n = 1123; TD: n = 7346). A significant, moderate effect of DCD on internalising symptoms was found (g = 0.61). This effect remained robust after accounting for publication bias and excluding lower quality studies. The effect was significantly larger in studies utilising a cross-sectional design (vs. longitudinal), convenience sampling (vs. population screening) and a majority male sample.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings demonstrate that individuals with DCD experience greater levels of internalising symptoms than their peers. This highlights the importance of routine screening for emotional difficulties in DCD, raising awareness of the condition in mental health services and developing psychosocial interventions that extend beyond a focus on motor impairments. However, there is a need for higher quality, longitudinal studies to better understand the causal relationship between DCD and internalising symptoms.

International clinical practice recommendations on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of developmental coordination disorder

AIM

These international clinical practice recommendations (CPR) for developmental coordination disorder (DCD), initiated by the European Academy of Childhood Disability (EACD), aim to address key questions on the definition, diagnosis, assessment, intervention, and psychosocial aspects of DCD relevant for clinical practice.

METHOD

Key questions in five areas were considered through literature reviews and formal expert consensus. For recommendations based on evidence, literature searches on 'mechanisms', 'assessment', and 'intervention' were updated since the last recommendations in 2012. New searches were conducted for 'psychosocial issues' and 'adolescents/adults'. Evidence was rated according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (level of evidence [LOE] 1-4) and transferred into recommendations. For recommendations based on formal consensus, two meetings of an international, multidisciplinary expert panel were conducted with a further five Delphi rounds to develop good clinical practice (GCP) recommendations.

RESULTS

Thirty-five recommendations were made. Eight were based on the evidence from literature reviews (three on 'assessment', five on 'intervention'). Twenty-two were updated from the 2012 recommendations. New recommendations relate to diagnosis and assessment (two GCPs) and psychosocial issues (three GCPs). Additionally, one new recommendation (LOE) reflects active video games as adjuncts to more traditional activity-oriented and participation-oriented interventions, and two new recommendations (one GCP, one LOE) were made for adolescents and adults with DCD.

INTERPRETATION

The CPR-DCD is a comprehensive overview of DCD and current understanding based on research evidence and expert consensus. It reflects the state of the art for clinicians and scientists of varied disciplines. The international CPR-DCD may serve as a basis for national guidelines.

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

Updated international clinical practice guidelines on developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Refined and extended recommendations on clinical assessment and intervention for DCD. A critical synopsis of current research on mechanisms of DCD. A critical synopsis of psychosocial issues in DCD, with implications for clinical practice. The first international recommendations to consider adolescents and adults with DCD.

Motor coordination problems and psychological distress in young adults: A test of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The Environmental Stress Hypothesis (ESH) has been used to examine how the relationship between poor motor coordination and psychological distress is affected by physical health and psychosocial factors. However, work applying the ESH is still limited, and no studies have used this framework with adults. The current investigation aims to examine the association between motor coordination and psychological distress among emerging adults, and examine potential mediators to this relationship based on the ESH.

METHODS

225 young adults aged 17-23 years completed a survey of motor coordination, physical activity, secondary stressors (i.e., general stress and global relationships), perceived social support, self-concept, and psychological distress. Structural equation modeling was conducted to examine mediating pathways and overall model fit.

RESULTS

The final model of the ESH showed good model fit (x² = 83.24, p < .01; RMSEA=0.056; NNFI = 0.927; CFI = 0.954; GFI = 0.947), and indicated that the relationship between poor motor coordination and psychological distress was mediated by secondary stressors, perceived social support, and self-concept.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the effect of poor motor coordination on psychological distress in young adults, and suggests that interventions should target psychosocial well-being, in addition to motor coordination, to prevent psychological distress.

Does 'Animal Fun' improve aiming and catching, and balance skills in young children?

AIM

The Animal Fun program, a universal early intervention program that aims to promote the motor skills and social-emotional development of young children, has shown to improve overall motor proficiency and social and behavioural outcomes. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the program's impact on children's aiming and catching, and balance skills.

METHODS

A cluster randomised control trial was employed, with six intervention and six control (following normal curriculum) schools. A total sample of 511 children (257 boys and 254 girls), aged 4-6 years presented at pre-test. Children were tested across three time points, pre-test, post intervention (six months later) and follow-up (18 months after pre-test), using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 Aiming and Catching, and Balance tasks. The study also tested for potential moderators including pre-test motor proficiency, age, gender, and cognitive performance.

RESULTS

Participation in Animal Fun improved children's one leg balance at post-test and follow-up compared to control children, regardless of pre-test motor proficiency, age, gender, or pre-test cognitive performance. Participation in Animal Fun also improved throwing skills for those children with poorer motor proficiency compared to the controls with poorer motor performance. Interestingly, it was found that the control group's catching skills improved more than the intervention group at follow up.

CONCLUSIONS

The study provides some promising results regarding the efficacy of the Animal Fun program in improving one-leg balance for all children, and throwing skills for those children with poorer motor proficiency, while also suggesting potential confounding factors, such as maturational issues and other individual factors (e.g., a child's participation in extracurricular activity).

Motor skills and internalizing problems throughout development: An integrative research review and update of the environmental stress hypothesis research

BACKGROUND

The Environmental Stress Hypothesis provides a conceptual framework detailing the complex relationship between poor motor skills and internalizing problems.

AIMS

This integrative research aimed to synthesize studies that have evaluated complex pathways posited in the framework.

METHOD

This study followed the four stages of an integrative research review: (i) problem formation and research aims, (ii) literature search and data collection, (iii) data evaluation and analysis, and (iv) results and discussion.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Twelve peer-reviewed, English language studies published within 2010-2018 were identified. These used mostly cross-sectional, correlational methods and provided varying levels of support for relationships posited in the framework in samples spanning early childhood to adulthood. Compared to intrapersonal factors (e.g., self-esteem/ perceived competence), interpersonal factors (e.g., social support, peer problems) were found to more strongly and consistently mediate the relationship between motor skills and internalizing problems.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

There is growing empirical support for many of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis pathways. However, research to date is limited in the ability to establish causal relationships between variables, which is integral to the Environmental Stress Hypothesis. Intervention studies provide a useful type of experimental research that could establish causality between variables, while working to improve the physical and psychosocial functioning of people with poor motor skills.

Empathy, social relationship and co-occurrence in young adults with DCD

Empathy is defined as an emotional or cognitive response to another's emotional state. It is considered essential for navigating meaningful social interactions and is closely linked to prosocial behavior. Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is characterized by an impairment of motor coordination that has a marked impact on both academic and day-to-day living activities. Children and adolescents with DCD have been shown to have less developed social support and friendships. The research linking empathy and DCD is scarce. The aims of this study are to gain an understanding of the relationship between DCD and empathy in young adults with DCD only, and with DCD coupled with other neurodevelopmental disorders, in comparison with typically developing adults.

METHODS

The study included 212 young adults aged 18-40 years. The subjects in this study were from mainstream populations in the UK. The study groups included: (a) "DCD only" with 42 individuals; (b) "DCD + ASD" with 21 individuals; (c) "DCD + ADHD" with 45 individuals; (d) "DCD + ASD + ADHD" with 29 individuals; and (e) the control group of 75 individuals.

RESULTS

ANOVA on the Empathy Questionnaire (EQ) showed a statistically significant difference between groups (F [4,257] = 35.63; p < 0.001; η_p² = 0.409). No significant differences were found between the DCD-only and the control. MANOVA was performed to assess differences in the Socialising and Friendship Questionnaire (SAF-Q) scores. The results showed a statistically significant difference between groups (F [8,257] = 9.98; p < 0.001; η = 0.162). Pearson correlation coefficients were performed, revealing significant high correlations between the EQ and the two parts of the SAF-Q ("past" and "currently").

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicate that social difficulties in the DCD-only group are not due to lack of empathy, but may be driven by an accumulation of external factors. In this study we also concluded that DCD does not appear to be the factor that reduces the ability to empathize, but rather the presence of ADHD and/or ASD.

Factors Contributing to Australian Adolescents’ Self-Report of Their Motor Skill Competence

An adolescent’s motor skill competence can affect areas such as sports participation, social activities, and future academic or employment decisions. The Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire (AMCQ) is a 26-item questionnaire that uses a four-point Likert scale response (never, sometimes, frequently, always) to assess motor-related activities during adolescence. This study aims to provide evidence of the construct validity of the AMCQ using Principle Component Analysis (PCA) and to identify factors that contributed to Australian adolescent self-reported motor competence. A final aim was to determine whether individual item responses differed between males and females. The AMCQ was completed by 160 adolescents (12 to 16 years old, Mage = 14.45 years, SD = .75). The PCA using varimax rotation extracted four factors (Eiqenvalue of ≥1.21) explaining 52% of variance and representing Participation in Physical Activity and Sports, Activities of Daily Living, Public Performance, and Peer Comparison. Overall, males reported higher AMCQ scores compared to females. Females responded negatively (sometimes/never) to all items, particularly those on Physical Activity and Sports and Public Performance. Males who responded negatively had lower AMCQ scores than the females. These findings indicate male and female adolescents may judge their motor competence on different factors, which should be considered when planning physical activity interventions.

Moderating Effects of Physical Activity and Global Self-Worth on Internalizing Problems in School-Aged Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder

School-aged children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) are at greater risk for physical inactivity, lower global self-worth, and internalizing problems, such as depression and anxiety. Based on the environmental stress hypothesis (ESH), recent research has shown that physical inactivity and lower global self-worth sequentially mediate the relationship between DCD and internalizing problems, suggesting that DCD leads to lower levels of physical activity, which in turn leads to lower levels of global self-worth, and ultimately, a greater amount of internalizing problems. However, physical activity and global self-worth may also buffer (i.e., moderate) the adverse effect of DCD on internalizing problems. To date, this has yet to be tested. Participants were 1206 children aged 12–14 years [611 boys, 79 with probable DCD (pDCD)]. All children received assessments of motor coordination, physical activity, global self-worth, and internalizing problems. Children with pDCD were less physically active, had lower self-worth, and experienced more internalizing problems compared to typically developing (TD) children (p’s < 0.05). Furthermore, the moderated moderating effect (three-way interaction) of physical activity and global self-worth was also evident (p < 0.05), indicating that internalizing problems in both TD and pDCD groups decreased with concurrent increases in physical activity and global self-worth. Importantly, when compared to TD children, increases in physical activity and global self-worth were associated with a greater reduction in internalizing problems among children with pDCD. The findings support several pathways in the ESH and highlight that, in addition to improving motor skills, interventions should also target both physical activity and global self-worth to mitigate potential mental health issues for children with motor difficulties.

The Relationship Between Motor Skills, Social Problems, and ADHD Symptomatology: Does It Vary According to Parent and Teacher Report?

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the relationship between motor performance; attentional, hyperactive, and impulsive symptoms; and social problems. Correlations between parents' versus teachers' ratings of social problems and ADHD symptomatology were also examined.

METHOD

A total of 129 children aged 9 to 12 years were included. ADHD symptoms and social problems were identified based on Conners' Rating Scales-Revised: L, and the McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development was used to assess motor skills.

RESULTS

After controlling for ADHD symptomatology, motor skills remained a significant predictor of social problems in the teacher model but not in the parent model. After controlling for motor skills, inattentive (not hyperactive-impulsive) symptoms were a significant predictor of social problems in the parent model, whereas hyperactive-impulsive (not inattentive) symptoms were a significant predictor of social problems in the teacher model.

CONCLUSION

The findings suggested that intervention strategies should consider the interaction between symptoms and environmental contexts.

Fine motor ability and psychiatric disorders in youth

Impaired fine motor ability has been linked to several domains of psychopathology. However, studies validating the specificity of this association among several categorical psychiatric disorders are still needed. The aim of this study was to assess differences in fine motor ability performance among four non-overlapping groups of psychiatric disorders and a group of typical developing comparisons (TDC). Our sample consisted of 2035 subjects aged 6-14-year-old. Diagnoses of psychiatric disorders were performed with the Development and Well-Being Assessment (DAWBA). Five non-overlapping groups without comorbidity were formed: phobic disorders (n = 101), distress disorders (n = 82), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (n = 133), oppositional defiant disorder/conduct disorder (ODD/CD) (n = 52) and one group of typical developing comparisons (TDC) (n = 1667). Fine motor ability was evaluated by three tasks: sequential finger-thumb opposition, Oseretsky, and pronation/supination tests. Each task was assessed by total time to perform the movement and levels of accuracy, fluency, symmetry, precision, and coordination. We found that, when compared to TDC, the ADHD group performed more poorly in total fine motor ability (mean difference = - 0.28; p = 0.014), time to complete the task (mean difference = 0.36; p < 0.001), accuracy (mean difference = - 0.30; p = 0.005), fluency (mean difference = - 0.26; p = 0.03), symmetry (mean difference - 0.25; p = 0.04), precision (mean difference = - 0.26; p = 0.026), and coordination (mean difference = - 0.25; p = 0.042). The ADHD group also took more time to complete the task than the ODD/CD group (mean difference = 0.45; p = 0.037). No other significant between-group differences were found. Additional analyses showed those differences were statistically significant for all ADHD dimensions. Our results suggest that children with ADHD present impairments in all aspects of fine motor abilities compared to TDC, a difference not found in other psychiatric disorders.

Understanding Organisational Ability and Self-Regulation in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

This paper examines physical and emotional coherence in young people with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Specifically, the transactional relationship between motor and non-motor/executive dysfunction in children with DCD and its impact on psychosocial functioning is explored.

RECENT FINDINGS

This paper integrates the subjective reported experiences of young people with DCD with objective measurements and findings from neuroimaging studies.

SUMMARY

Consideration of the transactional relationship between the person, the activity and the environment, whether these factors be physical, social, attitudinal or virtual, will be fundamental to our understanding of the mechanisms underpinning organisational and emotional issues presenting in DCD. Integrating the experiences of young people with research evidence will be essential to improve outcomes for young people with DCD in clinical practice.

The impact of developmental coordination disorder on educational achievement in secondary school

BACKGROUND

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is a common developmental disorder but its long term impact on health and education are poorly understood.

AIM

To assess the impact of DCD diagnosed at 7 years, and co-occurring developmental difficulties, on educational achievement at 16 years.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). National General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exam results and Special Educational Needs provision were compared for adolescents with DCD (n=284) and controls (n=5425).

RESULTS

Adolescents with DCD achieved a median of 2 GCSEs whilst controls achieved a median of 7 GCSEs. Compared to controls, adolescents with DCD were much less likely to achieve 5 or more GCSEs in secondary school (OR 0.27, 95% CI 0.21-0.34), even after adjustment for gender, socio-economic status and IQ (OR 0.6, 95% CI 0.44-0.81). Those with DCD were more likely to have persistent difficulties with reading, social communication and hyperactivity/inattention, which all affected educational achievement. Nearly 40% of adolescents with DCD were not in receipt of additional formal support during school.

CONCLUSIONS

DCD has a significant impact on educational achievement and therefore life chances. Co-occurring problems with reading skills, social communication difficulties and hyperactivity/inattention are common and contribute to educational difficulties. Greater understanding of DCD among educational and medical professionals and policy makers is crucial to improve the support provided for these individuals.