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Hauck M, Saure LM, Zeller-Plumhoff B, Kaps S, Hammel J, Mohr C, Rieck L, Nia AS, Feng X, Pugno NM, Adelung R, Schütt F. Overcoming Water Diffusion Limitations in Hydrogels via Microtubular Graphene Networks for Soft Actuators. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2302816. [PMID: 37369361 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202302816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogel-based soft actuators can operate in sensitive environments, bridging the gap of rigid machines interacting with soft matter. However, while stimuli-responsive hydrogels can undergo extreme reversible volume changes of up to ≈90%, water transport in hydrogel actuators is in general limited by their poroelastic behavior. For poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) the actuation performance is even further compromised by the formation of a dense skin layer. Here it is shown, that incorporating a bioinspired microtube graphene network into a PNIPAM matrix with a total porosity of only 5.4% dramatically enhances actuation dynamics by up to ≈400% and actuation stress by ≈4000% without sacrificing the mechanical stability, overcoming the water transport limitations. The graphene network provides both untethered light-controlled and electrically powered actuation. It is anticipated that the concept provides a versatile platform for enhancing the functionality of soft matter by combining responsive and 2D materials, paving the way toward designing soft intelligent matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarethe Hauck
- Functional Nanomaterials, Department of Materials Science, Kiel University, 24143, Kiel, Germany
| | - Lena M Saure
- Functional Nanomaterials, Department of Materials Science, Kiel University, 24143, Kiel, Germany
| | - Berit Zeller-Plumhoff
- Institute of Metallic Biomaterials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Max-Planck-Str. 1, 21502, Geesthacht, Germany
- Kiel Nano, Surface and Interface Science KiNSIS, Kiel University, 24118, Kiel, Germany
| | - Sören Kaps
- Functional Nanomaterials, Department of Materials Science, Kiel University, 24143, Kiel, Germany
| | - Jörg Hammel
- Institute of Materials Physics, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Max-Planck-Str. 1, 21502, Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Caprice Mohr
- Functional Nanomaterials, Department of Materials Science, Kiel University, 24143, Kiel, Germany
| | - Lena Rieck
- Institute of Metallic Biomaterials, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Max-Planck-Str. 1, 21502, Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Ali Shaygan Nia
- Department of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed), Technische Universität Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120, Halle, Germany
| | - Xinliang Feng
- Department of Chemistry and Food Chemistry, Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed), Technische Universität Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany
- Max Planck Institute of Microstructure Physics, Weinberg 2, 06120, Halle, Germany
| | - Nicola M Pugno
- Laboratory for Bioinspired, Bionic, Nano, Meta Materials & Mechanics, Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano 77, Trento, I-38123, Italy
- School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
| | - Rainer Adelung
- Functional Nanomaterials, Department of Materials Science, Kiel University, 24143, Kiel, Germany
- Kiel Nano, Surface and Interface Science KiNSIS, Kiel University, 24118, Kiel, Germany
| | - Fabian Schütt
- Functional Nanomaterials, Department of Materials Science, Kiel University, 24143, Kiel, Germany
- Kiel Nano, Surface and Interface Science KiNSIS, Kiel University, 24118, Kiel, Germany
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Wang Y, Chen J, Su G, Mei J, Li J. A Review of Single-Cell Microrobots: Classification, Driving Methods and Applications. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:1710. [PMID: 37763873 PMCID: PMC10537272 DOI: 10.3390/mi14091710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Single-cell microrobots are new microartificial devices that use a combination of single cells and artificial devices, with the advantages of small size, easy degradation and ease of manufacture. With externally driven strategies such as light fields, sound fields and magnetic fields, microrobots are able to carry out precise micromanipulations and movements in complex microenvironments. Therefore, single-cell microrobots have received more and more attention and have been greatly developed in recent years. In this paper, we review the main classifications, control methods and recent advances in the field of single-cell microrobot applications. First, different types of robots, such as cell-based microrobots, bacteria-based microrobots, algae-based microrobots, etc., and their design strategies and fabrication processes are discussed separately. Next, three types of external field-driven technologies, optical, acoustic and magnetic, are presented and operations realized in vivo and in vitro by applying these three technologies are described. Subsequently, the results achieved by these robots in the fields of precise delivery, minimally invasive therapy are analyzed. Finally, a short summary is given and current challenges and future work on microbial-based robotics are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Junyang Li
- School of Electronic Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266000, China; (Y.W.); (J.C.); (G.S.); (J.M.)
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López-González A, Tejada JC, López-Romero J. Review and Proposal for a Classification System of Soft Robots Inspired by Animal Morphology. Biomimetics (Basel) 2023; 8:biomimetics8020192. [PMID: 37218778 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics8020192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this article is to propose a bio-inspired morphological classification for soft robots based on an extended review process. The morphology of living beings that inspire soft robotics was analyzed; we found coincidences between animal kingdom morphological structures and soft robot structures. A classification is proposed and depicted through experiments. Additionally, many soft robot platforms present in the literature are classified using it. This classification allows for order and coherence in the area of soft robotics and provides enough freedom to expand soft robotics research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandro López-González
- Department of Engineering Studies for Innovation, Universidad Iberoamericana, Ciudad de México 01219, Mexico
| | - Juan C Tejada
- Department of Engineering Studies for Innovation, Universidad Iberoamericana, Ciudad de México 01219, Mexico
- Computational Intelligence and Automation Research Group (GIICA), Universidad EIA, Envigado 055428, Colombia
| | - Janet López-Romero
- Department of Engineering Studies for Innovation, Universidad Iberoamericana, Ciudad de México 01219, Mexico
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Xu Z, Meng S, Wei DW, Bao RY, Wang Y, Ke K, Yang W. Hierarchical network relaxation of a dynamic cross-linked polyolefin elastomer for advanced reversible shape memory effect. NANOSCALE 2023; 15:5458-5468. [PMID: 36852586 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr06902d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Reversible shape-memory polymers (RSMPs) are highly desired for soft actuators due to the repeatability of deformation. Herein, a polyolefin elastomer vitrimer (POEV) was prepared by constructing a dynamic cross-linked network based on boronic ester bonds. POEV showed varied network relaxation in a wide temperature range due to hierarchical network relaxation, and then the entropy decreased and the relaxation of POEV chains was facilely controlled by temperature. The controllable relaxation of POEV by programming the temperature enabled the actuation domain with a reduction in entropy and the skeleton domain with a relatively high entropy can be built in POEV, greatly affecting the reversible shape memory effects (RSMEs). The topological rearrangement resulted from the activated exchange of dynamic covalent bonds, which enables POEV with good shape reconfigurability, and allows for complicated 3D shapes and shape-shifting on demand. More interestingly, combining the decreasing entropy of POEV chains and fully topological rearrangement tailored by temperature, hybrid aligned carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be constructed in POEV via a two-stage training. Then, the aligned CNTs can enhance the elasticity and act as a hybrid skeleton for RSMEs, avoiding the negative impact of CNTs on the reversible actuation strain. The hierarchical network relaxation facilitates combining all these unusual properties in one shape memory network synergistically, paving new avenues for realizing smart materials with advanced RSME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Xu
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Chengdu, 610065, Sichuan, China.
| | - Sen Meng
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Chengdu, 610065, Sichuan, China.
| | - Dun-Wen Wei
- School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 611731, Sichuan, China
| | - Rui-Ying Bao
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Chengdu, 610065, Sichuan, China.
| | - Yu Wang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Chengdu, 610065, Sichuan, China.
| | - Kai Ke
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Chengdu, 610065, Sichuan, China.
| | - Wei Yang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, Sichuan University, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Chengdu, 610065, Sichuan, China.
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Tahir N, Sharifi F, Khan TA, Khan MM, Madni A, Rehman M. Microfluidics: A versatile tool for developing, optimizing, and delivering nanomedicines. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-818627-5.00017-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
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Jiao D, Zhu QL, Li CY, Zheng Q, Wu ZL. Programmable Morphing Hydrogels for Soft Actuators and Robots: From Structure Designs to Active Functions. Acc Chem Res 2022; 55:1533-1545. [PMID: 35413187 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
ConspectusNature provides abundant inspiration and elegant paradigms for the development of smart materials that can actuate, morph, and move on demand. One remarkable capacity of living organisms is to adapt their shapes or positions in response to stimuli. Programmed deformations or movements in plant organs are mainly driven by water absorption/dehydration of cells, while versatile motions of mollusks are based on contraction/extension of muscles. Understanding the general principles of these morphing and motion behaviors can give rise to disruptive technologies for soft robotics, flexible electronics, biomedical devices, etc. As one kind of intelligent material, hydrogels with high similarity to soft biotissues and diverse responses to external stimuli are an ideal candidate to construct soft actuators and robots.The objective of this Account is to give an overview of the fundamental principles for controllable deformations and motions of hydrogels, with a focus on the structure designs and responsive functions of the corresponding soft actuators and robots. This field has been rapidly developed in recent years with a growing understanding of working principles in natural organisms and a substantial revolution of manufacturing technologies to devise bioinspired hydrogel systems with desired structures. Diverse morphing hydrogels and soft actuators/robots have been developed on the basis of several pioneering works, ranging from bending and folding deformations of bilayer hydrogels to self-shaping of non-Euclidean hydrogel surfaces, and from thermoactuated bilayer gel "hands" to electrodriven polyelectrolyte gel "worms". These morphing hydrogels have demonstrated active functions and versatile applications in biomedical and engineering fields.In this Account, we discuss recent progress in morphing hydrogels and highlight the design principles and relevant applications. First, we introduce the fundamentals of basic deformation modes, together with generic structure features, actuation strategies, and morphing mechanisms. The advantages of in-plane gradient structures are highlighted for programmable deformations by harnessing the out-of-plane buckling with bistability nature to obtain sophisticated three-dimensional configurations. Next, we give an overview of soft actuators and robots based on morphing hydrogels and focus on the working principles of the active systems with different structure designs. We discuss the advancements of hydrogel-based soft robots capable of swift locomotion with different gaits and emphasize the significances of structure control and dynamic actuation. Then we summarize versatile applications of hydrogel-based actuators and robots in biomedicines, cargo delivery, soft electronics, information encryption, and so forth. Some hydrogel robots with a built-in feedback loop and self-sensing system exhibit collaborative functions and advanced intelligence that are informative for the design of next-generation hydrogel machines. Finally, concluding remarks are given to discuss future opportunities and remaining challenges in this field. For example, miniature hydrogel-based actuators/robots with therapeutic or diagnostic functions are highly desired for biomedical applications. The morphing mechanisms summarized in this Account should be applicable to other responsive materials. We hope that this Account will inspire more scientists to be involved in this emerging area and make contributions to reveal novel working principles, design multifunctional soft machines, and explore applications in diverse fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dejin Jiao
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Qing Li Zhu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Chen Yu Li
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Qiang Zheng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Zi Liang Wu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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7
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Li CY, Zheng SY, Hao XP, Hong W, Zheng Q, Wu ZL. Spontaneous and rapid electro-actuated snapping of constrained polyelectrolyte hydrogels. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022; 8:eabm9608. [PMID: 35417235 PMCID: PMC9007498 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abm9608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Venus flytrap and bladderwort, capable of rapid predation through a snapping transition, have inspired various designs of soft actuators and robots with fast actions. These designs, in contrast to their natural counterparts, often require a direct force or pressurization. Here, we report a bistable domal hydrogel structure capable of spontaneous and reversible snapping under an electric field. Unlike a mechanical force, the electric field does not drive the gel directly. Instead, it redistributes mobile ions that direct the migration of water molecules and bends the polyelectrolyte hydrogel. Subject to constraint from surrounding neutral gel, the elastic energy accumulates until suddenly released by snapping, just like the process in natural organisms. Several proof-of-concept examples, including an optical switch, a speedy catcher, and a pulse pump, are designed to demonstrate the versatile functionalities of this unit capable of articulate motion. This work should bring opportunities to devise soft robotics, biomedical devices, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Yu Li
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Si Yu Zheng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Xing Peng Hao
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Wei Hong
- Department of Mechanics and Aerospace Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Qiang Zheng
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Zi Liang Wu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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8
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Paikar A, Novichkov AI, Hanopolskyi AI, Smaliak VA, Sui X, Kampf N, Skorb EV, Semenov SN. Spatiotemporal Regulation of Hydrogel Actuators by Autocatalytic Reaction Networks. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2106816. [PMID: 34910837 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202106816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Regulating hydrogel actuators with chemical reaction networks is instrumental for constructing life-inspired smart materials. Herein, hydrogel actuators are engineered that are regulated by the autocatalytic front of thiols. The actuators consist of two layers. The first layer, which is regular polyacrylamide hydrogel, is in a strained conformation. The second layer, which is polyacrylamide hydrogel with disulfide crosslinks, maintains strain in the first layer. When thiols released by the autocatalytic front reduce disulfide crosslinks, the hydrogel actuates by releasing the mechanical strain in the first layer. The autocatalytic front is sustained by the reaction network, which uses thiouronium salts, disulfides of β-aminothiols, and maleimide as starting components. The gradual actuation by the autocatalytic front enables movements such as gradual unrolling, screwing, and sequential closing of "fingers." This actuation also allows the transmission of chemical signals in a relay fashion and the conversion of a chemical signal to an electrical signal. Locations and times of spontaneous initiation of autocatalytic fronts can be preprogrammed in the spatial distribution of the reactants in the hydrogel. To approach the functionality of living matter, the actuators triggered by an autocatalytic front can be integrated into smart materials regulated by chemical circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpita Paikar
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Alexander I Novichkov
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Anton I Hanopolskyi
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Viktoryia A Smaliak
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Xiaomeng Sui
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
- Department of Chemical Research Support, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Nir Kampf
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Ekaterina V Skorb
- Infochemistry Scientific Center, ITMO University, Saint Petersburg, 191002, Russia
| | - Sergey N Semenov
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
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Fang J, Zhuang Y, Liu K, Chen Z, Liu Z, Kong T, Xu J, Qi C. A Shift from Efficiency to Adaptability: Recent Progress in Biomimetic Interactive Soft Robotics in Wet Environments. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2104347. [PMID: 35072360 PMCID: PMC8922102 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202104347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Research field of soft robotics develops exponentially since it opens up many imaginations, such as human-interactive robot, wearable robots, and transformable robots in unpredictable environments. Wet environments such as sea and in vivo represent dynamic and unstructured environments that adaptive soft robots can reach their potentials. Recent progresses in soft hybridized robotics performing tasks underwater herald a diversity of interactive soft robotics in wet environments. Here, the development of soft robots in wet environments is reviewed. The authors recapitulate biomimetic inspirations, recent advances in soft matter materials, representative fabrication techniques, system integration, and exemplary functions for underwater soft robots. The authors consider the key challenges the field faces in engineering material, software, and hardware that can bring highly intelligent soft robots into real world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jielun Fang
- College of Mechatronics and Control EngineeringShenzhen UniversityShenzhen518000China
| | - Yanfeng Zhuang
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringSchool of MedicineShenzhen UniversityShenzhenGuangdong518000China
| | - Kailang Liu
- College of Mechatronics and Control EngineeringShenzhen UniversityShenzhen518000China
| | - Zhuo Chen
- The State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringDepartment of Chemical EngineeringTsinghua UniversityBeijing100084China
| | - Zhou Liu
- College of Chemistry and Environmental EngineeringShenzhen UniversityShenzhenGuangdong518000China
| | - Tiantian Kong
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringSchool of MedicineShenzhen UniversityShenzhenGuangdong518000China
| | - Jianhong Xu
- The State Key Laboratory of Chemical EngineeringDepartment of Chemical EngineeringTsinghua UniversityBeijing100084China
| | - Cheng Qi
- College of Mechatronics and Control EngineeringShenzhen UniversityShenzhen518000China
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Xia X, Spadaccini CM, Greer JR. Responsive materials architected in space and time. NATURE REVIEWS. MATERIALS 2022; 7:683-701. [PMID: 35757102 PMCID: PMC9208549 DOI: 10.1038/s41578-022-00450-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Rationally designed architected materials have attained previously untapped territories in materials property space. The properties and behaviours of architected materials need not be stagnant after fabrication; they can be encoded with a temporal degree of freedom such that they evolve over time. In this Review, we describe the variety of materials architected in both space and time, and their responses to various stimuli, including mechanical actuation, changes in temperature and chemical environment, and variations in electromagnetic fields. We highlight the additive manufacturing methods that can precisely prescribe complex geometries and local inhomogeneities to make such responsiveness possible. We discuss the emergent physics phenomena observed in architected materials that are analogous to those in classical materials, such as the formation and behaviour of defects, phase transformations and topologically protected properties. Finally, we offer a perspective on the future of architected materials that have a degree of intelligence through mechanical logic and artificial neural networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxing Xia
- Center for Engineered Materials and Manufacturing, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA USA
- Materials Engineering Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA USA
| | - Christopher M. Spadaccini
- Center for Engineered Materials and Manufacturing, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA USA
- Materials Engineering Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA USA
| | - Julia R. Greer
- Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA USA
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Abstract
In contrast to conventional hard actuators, soft actuators offer many vivid advantages, such as improved flexibility, adaptability, and reconfigurability, which are intrinsic to living systems. These properties make them particularly promising for different applications, including soft electronics, surgery, drug delivery, artificial organs, or prosthesis. The additional degree of freedom for soft actuatoric devices can be provided through the use of intelligent materials, which are able to change their structure, macroscopic properties, and shape under the influence of external signals. The use of such intelligent materials allows a substantial reduction of a device's size, which enables a number of applications that cannot be realized by externally powered systems. This review aims to provide an overview of the properties of intelligent synthetic and living/natural materials used for the fabrication of soft robotic devices. We discuss basic physical/chemical properties of the main kinds of materials (elastomers, gels, shape memory polymers and gels, liquid crystalline elastomers, semicrystalline ferroelectric polymers, gels and hydrogels, other swelling polymers, materials with volume change during melting/crystallization, materials with tunable mechanical properties, and living and naturally derived materials), how they are related to actuation and soft robotic application, and effects of micro/macro structures on shape transformation, fabrication methods, and we highlight selected applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indra Apsite
- Faculty of Engineering Science, Department of Biofabrication, University of Bayreuth, Ludwig Thoma Str. 36A, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Sahar Salehi
- Department of Biomaterials, Center of Energy Technology und Materials Science, University of Bayreuth, Prof.-Rüdiger-Bormann-Straße 1, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Leonid Ionov
- Faculty of Engineering Science, Department of Biofabrication, University of Bayreuth, Ludwig Thoma Str. 36A, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany.,Bavarian Polymer Institute, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany
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12
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Jiang W, Ye G, Chen B, Liu H. Light-driven untethered soft actuators based on biomimetic microstructure arrays. SOFT MATTER 2021; 17:8651-8661. [PMID: 34514490 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm02267e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Soft actuators based on smart materials and structures that can perform more diverse tasks skillfully, are being intensively sought. Despite the good progress made in the past few years, locomotion and transportation functionalities of the untethered soft-bodied devices for various natural terrains remain challenging. Inspired by a gecko crawling system, an untethered soft actuator with the abilities of picking up, transporting, and delivering objects controlled by NIR light is proposed. The soft actuator consisting of photo-responsive MWCNTs units and mushroom shaped microstructures, was fabricated by an integrative soft-lithography method with inking and imprinting processes. The integrated MWCNTs unit can convert NIR light irradiation into thermal energy, which can make the body of the soft actuator generate a strong shape deformation intrinsically in a self-contained way, leading to a combined discontinuous and continuous locomotion. Moreover, the integrated mushroom shaped microstructures can also realize grasping and manipulation of the object that was not constrained by the object's shapes and sizes, which was further addressed from experimental and theoretical perspectives. Thus, the combined use of smart materials and structures opens up new research avenues and represents a step forward toward future applications of light-driven untethered soft actuators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Jiang
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China.
| | - Guoyong Ye
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China.
| | - Bangdao Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China.
| | - Hongzhong Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing Systems Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China.
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13
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Xu Z, Fan ZY, Wei DW, Bao RY, Wang Y, Ke K, Liu ZY, Yang MB, Yang W. Tunable reversible deformation of semicrystalline polymer networks based on temperature memory effect. POLYMER 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2021.124157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Hou K, Guan D, Li H, Sun Y, Long Y, Song K. Programmable light-driven swimming actuators via wavelength signal switching. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabh3051. [PMID: 34516762 PMCID: PMC8442936 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abh3051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Light-driven swimming actuators with different motion modes could lead to many previously unachievable applications. However, controllable navigation often requires focusing light precisely on certain positions of the actuator, which is unfavorable for accurate dynamical operation or in microscale applications. Here, we present a type of programmable swimming actuators that can execute wavelength-dependent multidirectional motions via the Marangoni effect. Several multi–degree of freedom swimming motions have been realized: Forward-and-backward and zigzag actuators can execute one-dimensional (1D) and 2D linear motion, respectively; bidirectional gear rotation as angular motion can be regulated to obtain tunable speeds; and the turning actuator as a “freighter” is able to turn left, right, and go straight for precise maze navigation. A mechanical measurement system is established to quantitatively measure the driving force of the motion directly. The accessible wavelength-selective strategy presented here can inspire further explorations of simple and practical light-driven materials and systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Hou
- Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Dongshi Guan
- The State Key Laboratory of Nonlinear Mechanics, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Hangyu Li
- The State Key Laboratory of Nonlinear Mechanics, Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- School of Engineering Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Yongqi Sun
- Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang 621900, P. R. China
| | - Yue Long
- Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
| | - Kai Song
- Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
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15
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Ng CSX, Tan MWM, Xu C, Yang Z, Lee PS, Lum GZ. Locomotion of Miniature Soft Robots. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2003558. [PMID: 33338296 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202003558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Miniature soft robots are mobile devices, which are made of smart materials that can be actuated by external stimuli to realize their desired functionalities. Here, the key advancements and challenges of the locomotion producible by miniature soft robots in micro- to centimeter length scales are highlighted. It is highly desirable to endow these small machines with dexterous locomotive gaits as it enables them to easily access highly confined and enclosed spaces via a noninvasive manner. If miniature soft robots are able to capitalize this unique ability, they will have the potential to transform a vast range of applications, including but not limited to, minimally invasive medical treatments, lab-on-chip applications, and search-and-rescue missions. The gaits of miniature soft robots are categorized into terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial locomotion. Except for the centimeter-scale robots that can perform aerial locomotion, the discussions in this report are centered around soft robots that are in the micro- to millimeter length scales. Under each category of locomotion, prospective methods and strategies that can improve their gait performances are also discussed. This report provides critical analyses and discussions that can inspire future strategies to make miniature soft robots significantly more agile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea Shan Xian Ng
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Matthew Wei Ming Tan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Changyu Xu
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Zilin Yang
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Pooi See Lee
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
| | - Guo Zhan Lum
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore
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Development of an Electroactive Hydrogel as a Scaffold for Excitable Tissues. Int J Biomater 2021; 2021:6669504. [PMID: 33603789 PMCID: PMC7868160 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6669504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
For many cells used in tissue engineering applications, the scaffolds upon which they are seeded do not entirely mimic their native environment, particularly in the case of excitable tissues. For instance, muscle cells experience contraction and relaxation driven by the electrical input of an action potential. Electroactive materials can also deform in response to electrical input; however, few such materials are currently suitable as cell scaffolds. We previously described the development of poly(ethyelene glycol) diacrylate-poly(acrylic acid) as an electroactive scaffold. Although the scaffold itself supported cell growth and attachment, the voltage (20 V) required to actuate these scaffolds was cytotoxic. Here, we describe the further development of our hydrogels into scaffolds capable of actuation at voltages (5 V) that were not cytotoxic to seeded cells. This study describes the critical next steps towards the first functional electroactive tissue engineering scaffold.
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17
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Sato T, Sakuma S, Hijikuro M, Maeda S, Anyoji M, Yamanishi Y. Design of Electrohydrodynamic Devices with Consideration of Electrostatic Energy. CYBORG AND BIONIC SYSTEMS 2021; 2021:5158282. [PMID: 36285132 PMCID: PMC9494731 DOI: 10.34133/2021/5158282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of actuators that can be integrated with flexible robot structures and mechanisms has increased in recent years with the advance of soft robotics. In particular, electrohydrodynamic (EHD) actuators, which have expandable integrability to adapt to the flexible motion of soft robots, have received much attention in the field of soft robotics. Studies have deepened the understanding of steady states of EHD phenomena but nonsteady states are not well understood. We herein observe the development process of fluid in a microchannel adopting a Schlieren technique with the aid of a high-speed camera. In addition, we analyze the behavior of fluid flow in a microchannel that is designed to have pairs of parallel plate electrodes adopting a computational fluid dynamics technique. Results indicate the importance of considering flow generated by electrostatic energy, which tends to be ignored in constructing and evaluating EHD devices, and by the body force generated by the ion-drag force. By considering these effects, we estimate the development process of EHD flow and confirm the importance of considering the generation of vortices and their interactions inside the microchannel during the development of EHD devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasuku Sato
- Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Shinya Sakuma
- Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Masato Hijikuro
- Kyushu University, 6-1 Kasuga Koen, Kasuga-shi, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan
| | - Shingo Maeda
- Shibaura Institute of Technology, 3-7-5 Toyosu, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8548, Japan
| | - Masayuki Anyoji
- Kyushu University, 6-1 Kasuga Koen, Kasuga-shi, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan
| | - Yoko Yamanishi
- Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
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18
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19
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Liu D, Zhu L, Huang W, Yue K, Yang S. Polymer Complex Fiber for Linear Actuation with High Working Density and Stable Catch-State. ACS Macro Lett 2020; 9:1507-1513. [PMID: 35617077 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Fiber-based linear actuators (FLAs) are a key module in microrobots and biomimetic devices. It has been a great challenge to develop linear actuators that can balance output stress and output strain and hence provide high working density. Herein, we report the preparation and performance of a FLA system made from commercially available materials and allowed mass production at relatively low cost. The FLAs can lift up or lay down objects more than 1000 times of its own weight during active contraction and expansion under environmental stimuli. The contraction ratio and output stress can reach 30% and 0.24 MPa, respectively, and the sustainable work density is about 80 J/kg, which is 10 times the typical value of human skeletal muscles. Especially, the FLAs show stable catch-state (lock-up state) with no creeping and no further energy consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dezhong Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Center for Advanced Low-Dimension Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
| | - Liping Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Center for Advanced Low-Dimension Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
| | - Wentao Huang
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Center for Advanced Low-Dimension Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
| | - Kan Yue
- South China Advanced Institute for Soft Mater Science and Technology, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Shuguang Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Center for Advanced Low-Dimension Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
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20
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Cong Y, Liu S, Wu F, Zhang H, Fu J. Shape memory effect and rapid reversible actuation of nanocomposite hydrogels with electrochemically controlled local metal ion coordination and crosslinking. J Mater Chem B 2020; 8:9679-9685. [PMID: 32985643 DOI: 10.1039/d0tb02029j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Rapid and reversible actuation and shape memory effects are critical for biomimetic soft actuators based on polymer hydrogels. However, most conventional hydrogel actuators show very slow actuation or deformation rates in water. It remains a challenge to realize rapid actuations, particularly for hydrogels to actuate in air. Here, a novel strategy to create diverse hydrogel devices with shape memory effects and rapid reversible actuations even in air was demonstrated. This strategy relies on a precise definition of local crosslinking by using multivalent metal ion coordination. This is demonstrated by infiltrating Fe3+ ions into stretchable nanocomposite polyacrylamide hydrogels with the amide groups converted into primary amine groups for multivalent coordination and crosslinking. The Fe3+ coordination with amine groups enhanced the crosslink density and modulus, leading to deswelling. By using an iron rod electrode, the Fe3+ coordination and crosslinking were precisely controlled to generate hydrogels with heterogeneous local crosslinking, including Janus hydrogels, S-shaped hydrogels, and cross-shaped hydrogel grippers. These soft devices were reversibly actuated in tens of seconds when cyclically dehydrated in ethanol and rehydrated in water. Most interestingly, very rapid reversible actuations of a hydrogel device in air were demonstrated by using electro-redox reaction of Fe3+ and Fe2+ in the hydrogel, where the reversible local coordination crosslinking and decomposition served as a hinge to actuate the hydrogel. This strategy based on reversible local coordination and crosslinking may open an avenue for rapid fabrication of hydrogel devices with well-defined structures and actuation properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Cong
- School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo University of Technology, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Shuhui Liu
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Fengxiang Wu
- School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo University of Technology, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China
| | - Jun Fu
- Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo 315201, China and School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China.
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21
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Cabanach P, Pena-Francesch A, Sheehan D, Bozuyuk U, Yasa O, Borros S, Sitti M. Zwitterionic 3D-Printed Non-Immunogenic Stealth Microrobots. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e2003013. [PMID: 32864804 PMCID: PMC7610461 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202003013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Microrobots offer transformative solutions for non-invasive medical interventions due to their small size and untethered operation inside the human body. However, they must face the immune system as a natural protection mechanism against foreign threats. Here, non-immunogenic stealth zwitterionic microrobots that avoid recognition from immune cells are introduced. Fully zwitterionic photoresists are developed for two-photon polymerization 3D microprinting of hydrogel microrobots with ample functionalization: tunable mechanical properties, anti-biofouling and non-immunogenic properties, functionalization for magnetic actuation, encapsulation of biomolecules, and surface functionalization for drug delivery. Stealth microrobots avoid detection by macrophage cells of the innate immune system after exhaustive inspection (>90 hours), which has not been achieved in any microrobotic platform to date. These versatile zwitterionic materials eliminate a major roadblock in the development of biocompatible microrobots, and will serve as a toolbox of non-immunogenic materials for medical microrobot and other device technologies for bioengineering and biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pol Cabanach
- Physical Intelligence Department Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Stuttgart 70569, Germany; Grup d‘Enginyeria de Materials Institut Químic de Sarrià Universitat Ramon Llull Barcelona 08017, Spain
| | - Abdon Pena-Francesch
- Physical Intelligence Department Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Stuttgart 70569, Germany; Department of Materials Science and Engineering Robotics Institute University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Devin Sheehan
- Physical Intelligence Department Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Ugur Bozuyuk
- Physical Intelligence Department Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Oncay Yasa
- Physical Intelligence Department Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Salvador Borros
- Grup d‘Enginyeria de Materials Institut Químic de Sarrià Universitat Ramon Llull Barcelona 08017, Spain
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence Department Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems Stuttgart 70569, Germany; School of Medicine and School of Engineering Koç University Istanbul 34450, Turkey; Institute for Biomedical Engineering ETH Zurich Zurich 8092, Switzerland
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22
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Pishvar M, Harne RL. Foundations for Soft, Smart Matter by Active Mechanical Metamaterials. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2020; 7:2001384. [PMID: 32999844 PMCID: PMC7509744 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202001384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Emerging interest to synthesize active, engineered matter suggests a future where smart material systems and structures operate autonomously around people, serving diverse roles in engineering, medical, and scientific applications. Similar to biological organisms, a realization of active, engineered matter necessitates functionality culminating from a combination of sensory and control mechanisms in a versatile material frame. Recently, metamaterial platforms with integrated sensing and control have been exploited, so that outstanding non-natural material behaviors are empowered by synergistic microstructures and controlled by smart materials and systems. This emerging body of science around active mechanical metamaterials offers a first glimpse at future foundations for autonomous engineered systems referred to here as soft, smart matter. Using natural inspirations, synergy across disciplines, and exploiting multiple length scales as well as multiple physics, researchers are devising compelling exemplars of actively controlled metamaterials, inspiring concepts for autonomous engineered matter. While scientific breakthroughs multiply in these fields, future technical challenges remain to be overcome to fulfill the vision of soft, smart matter. This Review surveys the intrinsically multidisciplinary body of science targeted to realize soft, smart matter via innovations in active mechanical metamaterials and proposes ongoing research targets that may deliver the promise of autonomous, engineered matter to full fruition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Pishvar
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOH43210USA
| | - Ryan L. Harne
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOH43210USA
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23
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Xu Z, Fu J. Programmable and Reversible 3D-/4D-Shape-Morphing Hydrogels with Precisely Defined Ion Coordination. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:26476-26484. [PMID: 32421300 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c06342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Precise and programmable control of reversible deformations of hydrogels has important implications for bionics. This work reports on programmable three-dimensional (3D) deformations and thermoresponsive actuation of polymer hydrogels in a well-defined manner. Precise infiltration of Fe3+ with periodic patterns is additionally used to cross-link the local polymer network through ionoprinting with a patterned electrode array. The patterned Fe3+ cross-linking generates periodic undulations in cross-link density, stiffness, and thermoresponsiveness. The internal stress induces 3D helical structures with tunable chirality and dimensions. The differential thermoresponsiveness imbues a fourth dimension to the shape deformations. Moreover, sequential ionoprinting generates well-defined in-plane periodic distributions of differential modulus and responsiveness, leading to 3D/4D umbrella-like origami upon temperature triggers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuxiang Xu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, China
- Soft Matter Sciences and Engineering Laboratory, ESPCI Paris, PSL University, Sorbonne University, CNRS, F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Jun Fu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 135 Xingang Road West, Guangzhou 510275, China
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24
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Gupta V, T K RG, Stephen J, Radhakrishnan M. Cold plasma‐assisted shape‐shifting of a flat two‐dimensional wheat xerogel and its morphological behavior. J FOOD PROCESS ENG 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.13456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vidhi Gupta
- Centre of Excellence in Nonthermal ProcessingIndian Institute of Food Processing Technology (IIFPT) Thanjavur Tamil Nadu India
| | - Ranjitha Gracy T K
- Centre of Excellence in Nonthermal ProcessingIndian Institute of Food Processing Technology (IIFPT) Thanjavur Tamil Nadu India
| | - Jaspin Stephen
- Centre of Excellence in Nonthermal ProcessingIndian Institute of Food Processing Technology (IIFPT) Thanjavur Tamil Nadu India
| | - Mahendran Radhakrishnan
- Centre of Excellence in Nonthermal ProcessingIndian Institute of Food Processing Technology (IIFPT) Thanjavur Tamil Nadu India
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25
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26
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Liu Z, Liu J, Wang H, Yu X, Yang K, Liu W, Nie S, Sun W, Xie Z, Chen B, Liang S, Guan Y, Wen L. A 1 mm-Thick Miniatured Mobile Soft Robot With Mechanosensation and Multimodal Locomotion. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2020. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2020.2976306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiran Raj M
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringNational University of Singapore Singapore 117576 Singapore
| | - Suman Chakraborty
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringIndian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Kharagpur 721302 India
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28
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Zhu M, Do TN, Hawkes E, Visell Y. Fluidic Fabric Muscle Sheets for Wearable and Soft Robotics. Soft Robot 2020; 7:179-197. [PMID: 31905325 DOI: 10.1089/soro.2019.0033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Conformable robotic systems are attractive for applications in which they may actuate structures with large surface areas, provide forces through wearable garments, or enable autonomous robotic systems. We present a new family of soft actuators that we refer to as Fluidic Fabric Muscle Sheets (FFMS). They are composite fabric structures that integrate fluidic transmissions based on arrays of elastic tubes. These sheet-like actuators can strain, squeeze, bend, and conform to hard or soft objects of arbitrary shapes or sizes, including the human body. We show how to design and fabricate FFMS actuators via facile apparel engineering methods, including computerized sewing techniques that determine the stress and strain distributions that can be generated. We present a simple mathematical model that proves effective for predicting their performance. FFMS can operate at frequencies of 5 Hz or more, achieve engineering strains exceeding 100%, and exert forces >115 times their weight. They can be safely used in intimate contact with the human body even when delivering stresses exceeding 106 Pascals. We demonstrate their versatility for actuating a variety of bodies or structures, and in configurations that perform multiaxis actuation, including bending and shape change. As we also show, FFMS can be used to exert forces on body tissues for wearable and biomedical applications. We demonstrate several potential use cases, including a miniature steerable robot, a glove for grasp assistance, garments for applying compression to the extremities, and devices for actuating small body regions or tissues via localized skin stretch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengjia Zhu
- Media Arts and Technology Program, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, California NanoSystems Institute, and Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California
| | - Thanh Nho Do
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Elliot Hawkes
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California
| | - Yon Visell
- Media Arts and Technology Program, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, California NanoSystems Institute, and Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California
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29
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Huang X, Ford M, Patterson ZJ, Zarepoor M, Pan C, Majidi C. Shape memory materials for electrically-powered soft machines. J Mater Chem B 2020; 8:4539-4551. [DOI: 10.1039/d0tb00392a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
We review the recent progress of electrically-powered artificial muscles and soft machines using shape memory alloy and liquid crystal elastomer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaonan Huang
- Soft Machines Lab
- Carnegie Mellon University
- Pittsburgh
- USA
| | - Michael Ford
- Soft Machines Lab
- Carnegie Mellon University
- Pittsburgh
- USA
| | | | - Masoud Zarepoor
- Soft Machines Lab
- Carnegie Mellon University
- Pittsburgh
- USA
- Mechanical Engineering
| | - Chengfeng Pan
- Soft Machines Lab
- Carnegie Mellon University
- Pittsburgh
- USA
| | - Carmel Majidi
- Soft Machines Lab
- Carnegie Mellon University
- Pittsburgh
- USA
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30
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Tang J, Yao C, Gu Z, Jung S, Luo D, Yang D. Super‐Soft and Super‐Elastic DNA Robot with Magnetically Driven Navigational Locomotion for Cell Delivery in Confined Space. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201913549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jianpu Tang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic BiologyKey Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE)School of Chemical Engineering and TechnologyTianjin University Tianjin 300350 P. R. China
| | - Chi Yao
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic BiologyKey Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE)School of Chemical Engineering and TechnologyTianjin University Tianjin 300350 P. R. China
| | - Zi Gu
- School of Chemical Engineering and AustralianCentre for NanoMedicineUniversity of New South Wales Sydney NSW 2052 Australia
| | - Sunghwan Jung
- Department of Biological & Environmental EngineeringCornell University Ithaca NY 14853 USA
| | - Dan Luo
- Department of Biological & Environmental EngineeringCornell University Ithaca NY 14853 USA
| | - Dayong Yang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic BiologyKey Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE)School of Chemical Engineering and TechnologyTianjin University Tianjin 300350 P. R. China
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31
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Tang J, Yao C, Gu Z, Jung S, Luo D, Yang D. Super-Soft and Super-Elastic DNA Robot with Magnetically Driven Navigational Locomotion for Cell Delivery in Confined Space. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 59:2490-2495. [PMID: 31769147 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201913549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Soft organisms such as earthworms can access confined, narrow spaces, inspiring scientists to fabricate soft robots for in vivo manipulation of cells or tissues and minimally invasive surgery. We report a super-soft and super-elastic magnetic DNA hydrogel-based soft robot (DNA robot), which presents a shape-adaptive property and enables magnetically driven navigational locomotion in confined and unstructured space. The DNA hydrogel is designed with a combinational dynamic and permanent crosslinking network through chain entanglement and DNA hybridization, resulting in shear-thinning and cyclic strain properties. DNA robot completes a series of complex magnetically driven navigational locomotion such as passing through narrow channels and pipes, entering grooves and itinerating in a maze by adapting and recovering its shape. DNA robot successfully works as a vehicle to deliver cells in confined space by virtue of the 3D porous networked structure and great biocompatibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianpu Tang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, P. R. China
| | - Chi Yao
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, P. R. China
| | - Zi Gu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Australian, Centre for NanoMedicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Sunghwan Jung
- Department of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Dan Luo
- Department of Biological & Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Dayong Yang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology, Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (MOE), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, P. R. China
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A review of electro-stimulated gels and their applications: Present state and future perspectives. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2019; 103:109852. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2019.109852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Kim JG, Park JE, Won S, Jeon J, Wie JJ. Contactless Manipulation of Soft Robots. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 12:E3065. [PMID: 31547115 PMCID: PMC6804114 DOI: 10.3390/ma12193065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, jointless soft robots have demonstrated various curvilinear motions unlike conventional robotic systems requiring complex mechanical joints and electrical design principles. The materials employed to construct soft robots are mainly programmable anisotropic polymeric materials to achieve contactless manipulation of miniaturized and lightweight soft robots through their anisotropic strain responsivity to external stimuli. Although reviews on soft actuators are extensive, those on untethered soft robots are scant. In this study, we focus on the recent progress in the manipulation of untethered soft robots upon receiving external stimuli such as magnetic fields, light, humidity, and organic solvents. For each external stimulus, we provide an overview of the working principles along with the characteristics of programmable anisotropic materials and polymeric composites used in soft robotic systems. In addition, potential applications for untethered soft robots are discussed based on the physicochemical properties of programmable anisotropic materials for the given external stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae Gwang Kim
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Korea.
| | - Jeong Eun Park
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Korea.
| | - Sukyoung Won
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Korea.
| | - Jisoo Jeon
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Korea.
| | - Jeong Jae Wie
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 22212, Korea.
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Xu Z, Ding C, Wei DW, Bao RY, Ke K, Liu Z, Yang MB, Yang W. Electro and Light-Active Actuators Based on Reversible Shape-Memory Polymer Composites with Segregated Conductive Networks. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:30332-30340. [PMID: 31355626 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b10386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Reversible shape-memory polymers (RSMPs) show great potential in actuating applications because of its repeatability among many other advantages. Indeed, in many cases, multiresponsive RSMPs are more expected, and the strategy to introduce functional fillers without deteriorating the reversible deformation performance is of great importance. Here, a facile strategy to balance the electro, photothermal performance, and molecular chain mobility is reported. Segregated conductive networks of carbon nanotubes (S-CNTs) are constructed in the poly(ethylene-co-octene) (POE) matrix at a relatively low filler loading, which renders the composite good electrical, photothermal, and actuating properties. A low percolation threshold of 0.25 vol % is achieved. The electrical conductivity is up to 0.046 S·cm-1 for the POE/S-CNT composites with 2 vol % CNT, and the absorption of light (760 nm) is above 90%. These characteristics guarantee that the actuator can be driven at low voltage (≤36 V) and suitable light intensity (250 mW·cm-2) with a good actuating performance. An electric gripper and a light-active crawling robot demonstrate the potential applications in multiresponsive robots. This work introduces a facile strategy to fabricate multiresponsive RSMPs by designing CNT network structures in polymer composites and holds great potential to enlarge the applications of RSMPs in many areas including artificial muscles and bionic robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Xu
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , Sichuan , China
| | - Chao Ding
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , Sichuan , China
| | - Dun-Wen Wei
- School of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering , University of Electronic Science and Technology of China , Chengdu 611731 , Sichuan , China
| | - Rui-Ying Bao
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , Sichuan , China
| | - Kai Ke
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , Sichuan , China
| | - Zhengying Liu
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , Sichuan , China
| | - Ming-Bo Yang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , Sichuan , China
| | - Wei Yang
- College of Polymer Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering , Sichuan University , Chengdu 610065 , Sichuan , China
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35
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Zhang L, Zhang Y, Li F, Yan S, Wang Z, Fan L, Zhang G, Li H. Water-Evaporation-Powered Fast Actuators with Multimodal Motion Based on Robust Nacre-Mimetic Composite Film. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:12890-12897. [PMID: 30839185 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b01912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Water evaporation as a source of energy to trigger moisture-responsive soft materials is an emerging field in a variety of energy-harvesting devices, which has attracted widespread attention. Here, we design and fabricate bioinspired nacrelike composite film actuators consisting of graphene oxide and sodium alginate, which demonstrate an obvious shrinkage in volume when their state transfers from wet to dry and the contractile stress is up to 42.3 MPa. Based on these features, the film actuators can show rapid and continuous movements under the water gradient. The flipping frequency of the actuators can reach up to 76 rounds min-1, which is much faster than those in previous reports. The film can flap back and forth quickly on water vapor even after loading a cargo that is 9 times its own weight. Moreover, high mobility with multimodal motion including blooming, stretching, folding, and twisting can also be achieved by modulating the shapes of films. Thus, film actuators may hold great potential in many fields, such as microrobots, artificial muscles, and sensors on grounds of their rapid response speed and adjustable motion models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Beijing Institute of Technology , Beijing 100081 , P. R. China
| | - Yaqian Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Beijing Institute of Technology , Beijing 100081 , P. R. China
| | - Feibo Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Beijing Institute of Technology , Beijing 100081 , P. R. China
| | - Shuang Yan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Beijing Institute of Technology , Beijing 100081 , P. R. China
| | - Zhaoshuo Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Beijing Institute of Technology , Beijing 100081 , P. R. China
| | - Lixia Fan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Beijing Institute of Technology , Beijing 100081 , P. R. China
| | - Gongzheng Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Beijing Institute of Technology , Beijing 100081 , P. R. China
| | - Huanjun Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering , Beijing Institute of Technology , Beijing 100081 , P. R. China
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36
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Li J, Li X, Zheng Z, Ding X. A dynamic self-regulation actuator combined double network gel with gradient structure driven by chemical oscillating reaction. RSC Adv 2019; 9:13168-13172. [PMID: 35520783 PMCID: PMC9063756 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra02340b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-regulation of the dynamic actuation of a chemical oscillating reaction-based gel was realized by altering the network structure of the gradient double network gel. We demonstrated that the propagation mode of the chemical wave was influenced by the network structure, and consequently determined the dynamic feature of the gel actuator. Self-regulation of the dynamic actuation of a chemical oscillating reaction-based gel was realized by altering the network structure of the gradient double network gel.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Li
- Chengdu Organic Chemicals Co. Ltd., Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chengdu
- China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing
| | - Xiuchen Li
- Chengdu Organic Chemicals Co. Ltd., Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chengdu
- China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Beijing
| | - Zhaohui Zheng
- Chengdu Organic Chemicals Co. Ltd., Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chengdu
- China
| | - Xiaobin Ding
- Chengdu Organic Chemicals Co. Ltd., Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Chengdu
- China
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37
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Morita T, Omori T, Ishikawa T. Passive swimming of a microcapsule in vertical fluid oscillation. Phys Rev E 2018; 98:023108. [PMID: 30253563 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.98.023108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The artificial microswimmer is a cutting-edge technology with applications in drug delivery and micro-total-analysis systems. The flow field around a microswimmer can be regarded as Stokes flow, in which reciprocal body deformation cannot induce migration. In this study, we propose a microcapsule swimmer that undergoes amoeboidlike shape deformations under fluid oscillation conditions. This is a study on the propulsion principle using a capsule with a solid membrane, and one of only a few studies using fluid oscillation. The microswimmer consists of an elastic capsule containing fluid and a rigid sphere. Opposing forces are generated when fluid oscillations are applied, because the densities of the internal fluid and sphere are different. The opposing forces induce nonreciprocal body deformation, which leads to migration of the microswimmer under Stokes flow conditions. Using numerical simulations, we found that the microswimmer propels itself in one of two modes, i.e., stroke swimming or drag swimming. We discuss the feasibility of the proposed microswimmer and show that the most efficient swimmer can migrate tens of micrometers per second. These findings pave the way for future artificial microswimmer designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeru Morita
- Department of Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Omori
- Department of Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Takuji Ishikawa
- Department of Finemechanics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan.,Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
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38
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Ranzani T, Russo S, Bartlett NW, Wehner M, Wood RJ. Increasing the Dimensionality of Soft Microstructures through Injection-Induced Self-Folding. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1802739. [PMID: 30079470 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201802739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2018] [Revised: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Devices fabricated using soft materials have been a major research focus of late, capturing the attention of scientists and laypersons alike in a wide range of fields, from microfluidics to robotics. The functionality of such devices relies on their structural and material properties; thus, the fabrication method is of utmost importance. Here, multilayer soft lithography, precision laser micromachining, and folding to establish a new paradigm are combined for creating 3D soft microstructures and devices. Phase-changing materials are exploited to transform actuators into structural elements, allowing 2D laminates to evolve into a third spatial dimension. To illustrate the capabilities of this new fabrication paradigm, the first "microfluidic origami for reconfigurable pneumatic/hydraulic" device is designed and manufactured: a 12-layer soft robotic peacock spider with embedded microfluidic circuitry and actuatable features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Ranzani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Sheila Russo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Nicholas W Bartlett
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Michael Wehner
- Department of Computer Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Robert J Wood
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
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39
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Wang XQ, Tan CF, Chan KH, Lu X, Zhu L, Kim SW, Ho GW. In-built thermo-mechanical cooperative feedback mechanism for self-propelled multimodal locomotion and electricity generation. Nat Commun 2018; 9:3438. [PMID: 30143624 PMCID: PMC6109106 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06011-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Utilization of ubiquitous low-grade waste heat constitutes a possible avenue towards soft matter actuation and energy recovery opportunities. While most soft materials are not all that smart relying on power input of some kind for continuous response, we conceptualize a self-locked thermo-mechano feedback for autonomous motility and energy generation functions. Here, the low-grade heat usually dismissed as 'not useful' is used to fuel a soft thermo-mechano-electrical system to perform perpetual and untethered multimodal locomotions. The innately resilient locomotion synchronizes self-governed and auto-sustained temperature fluctuations and mechanical mobility without external stimulus change, enabling simultaneous harvesting of thermo-mechanical energy at the pyro/piezoelectric mechanistic intersection. The untethered soft material showcases deterministic motions (translational oscillation, directional rolling, and clockwise/anticlockwise rotation), rapid transitions and dynamic responses without needing power input, on the contrary extracting power from ambient. This work may open opportunities for thermo-mechano-electrical transduction, multigait soft energy robotics and waste heat harvesting technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Qiao Wang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Chuan Fu Tan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Kwok Hoe Chan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Xin Lu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore, 9 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore, 117576, Singapore
| | - Liangliang Zhu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Sang-Woo Kim
- School of Advanced Materials Science and Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Suwon, 16419, Republic of Korea.
| | - Ghim Wei Ho
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore.
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), 3 Research Link, Singapore, 117602, Singapore.
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40
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Schmitt F, Piccin O, Barbé L, Bayle B. Soft Robots Manufacturing: A Review. Front Robot AI 2018; 5:84. [PMID: 33500963 PMCID: PMC7805834 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2018.00084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing interest in soft robots comes from the new possibilities offered by these systems to cope with problems that cannot be addressed by robots built from rigid bodies. Many innovative solutions have been developed in recent years to design soft components and systems. They all demonstrate how soft robotics development is closely dependent on advanced manufacturing processes. This review aims at giving an insight on the current state of the art in soft robotics manufacturing. It first puts in light the elementary components that can be used to develop soft actuators, whether they use fluids, shape memory alloys, electro-active polymers or stimuli-responsive materials. Other types of elementary components, such as soft smart structures or soft-rigid hybrid systems, are then presented. The second part of this review deals with the manufacturing methods used to build complete soft structures. It includes molding, with possibly reinforcements and inclusions, additive manufacturing, thin-film manufacturing, shape deposition manufacturing, and bonding. The paper conclusions sums up the pros and cons of the presented techniques, and open to developing topics such as design methods for soft robotics and sensing technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Schmitt
- ICube laboratory, University of Strasbourg/INSA Strasbourg/CNRS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Olivier Piccin
- ICube laboratory, University of Strasbourg/INSA Strasbourg/CNRS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Laurent Barbé
- ICube laboratory, University of Strasbourg/INSA Strasbourg/CNRS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Bernard Bayle
- ICube laboratory, University of Strasbourg/INSA Strasbourg/CNRS, Strasbourg, France
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41
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Banerjee H, Suhail M, Ren H. Hydrogel Actuators and Sensors for Biomedical Soft Robots: Brief Overview with Impending Challenges. Biomimetics (Basel) 2018; 3:E15. [PMID: 31105237 PMCID: PMC6352708 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics3030015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
There are numerous developments taking place in the field of biorobotics, and one such recent breakthrough is the implementation of soft robots-a pathway to mimic nature's organic parts for research purposes and in minimally invasive surgeries as a result of their shape-morphing and adaptable features. Hydrogels (biocompatible, biodegradable materials that are used in designing soft robots and sensor integration), have come into demand because of their beneficial properties, such as high water content, flexibility, and multi-faceted advantages particularly in targeted drug delivery, surgery and biorobotics. We illustrate in this review article the different types of biomedical sensors and actuators for which a hydrogel acts as an active primary material, and we elucidate their limitations and the future scope of this material in the nexus of similar biomedical avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hritwick Banerjee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, 4 Engineering Drive 3, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117583, Singapore.
- Singapore Institute for Neurotechnology (SINAPSE), Centre for Life Sciences, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, #05-COR, Singapore 117456, Singapore.
| | - Mohamed Suhail
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, 4 Engineering Drive 3, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117583, Singapore.
- Department of Mechancial Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu 620015, India.
| | - Hongliang Ren
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, 4 Engineering Drive 3, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117583, Singapore.
- Singapore Institute for Neurotechnology (SINAPSE), Centre for Life Sciences, National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, #05-COR, Singapore 117456, Singapore.
- National University of Singapore (Suzhou) Research Institute (NUSRI), 377 Lin Quan Street, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou 215123, China.
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42
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Han D, Farino C, Yang C, Scott T, Browe D, Choi W, Freeman JW, Lee H. Soft Robotic Manipulation and Locomotion with a 3D Printed Electroactive Hydrogel. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:17512-17518. [PMID: 29741871 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b04250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Electroactive hydrogels (EAH) that exhibit large deformation in response to an electric field have received great attention as a potential actuating material for soft robots and artificial muscle. However, their application has been limited due to the use of traditional two-dimensional (2D) fabrication methods. Here we present soft robotic manipulation and locomotion with 3D printed EAH microstructures. Through 3D design and precise dimensional control enabled by a digital light processing (DLP) based micro 3D printing technique, complex 3D actuations of EAH are achieved. We demonstrate soft robotic actuations including gripping and transporting an object and a bidirectional locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Wonjoon Choi
- School of Mechanical Engineering , Korea University , Seoul , Republic of Korea
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43
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Xu Z, Li J, Gao G, Wang Z, Cong Y, Chen J, Yin J, Nie L, Fu J. Tough and self-recoverable hydrogels crosslinked by triblock copolymer micelles and Fe3+
coordination. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.24601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zuxiang Xu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering; Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road; Shanghai 200444 China
- Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering & Polymers and Composites Division; Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology & Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1219 Zhongguan West Road; Ningbo 315201 China
| | - Jinhui Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering; Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road; Shanghai 200444 China
- Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering & Polymers and Composites Division; Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology & Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1219 Zhongguan West Road; Ningbo 315201 China
| | - Guorong Gao
- Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering & Polymers and Composites Division; Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology & Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1219 Zhongguan West Road; Ningbo 315201 China
| | - Zongbao Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering; Ningbo University, 18 Fenghua Road; Ningbo 315201 China
| | - Yang Cong
- School of Material and Chemical Engineering; Ningbo University of Technology, 201 Fenghua Road; Ningbo 315211 China
| | - Jing Chen
- Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering & Polymers and Composites Division; Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology & Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1219 Zhongguan West Road; Ningbo 315201 China
| | - Jingbo Yin
- School of Materials Science and Engineering; Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road; Shanghai 200444 China
| | - Lei Nie
- Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering & Polymers and Composites Division; Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology & Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1219 Zhongguan West Road; Ningbo 315201 China
| | - Jun Fu
- Cixi Institute of Biomedical Engineering & Polymers and Composites Division; Ningbo Institute of Materials Technology & Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1219 Zhongguan West Road; Ningbo 315201 China
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44
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Song Y, Zhou S, Jin K, Qiao J, Li D, Xu C, Hu D, Di J, Li M, Zhang Z, Li Q. Hierarchical carbon nanotube composite yarn muscles. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:4077-4084. [PMID: 29431840 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr08595h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Hybrid smart actuators fabricated using composites of carbon fibers and shape memory polymers have been extensively studied in recent years. However, relatively slow shape recovery has combined with the reset of shape deformation during cycles to restrict their practical use. An electrothermally reversible actuator based on carbon nanotube (CNT) composite yarn containing CNT fiber and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) resin with excellent shape memory was investigated in this paper. The combination of CNT yarn and TPU resin considerably amplified the contraction and stability. Large tensile stroke was obtained within 5 s (∼13.8%) while lifting a load that was ∼1905 times as heavy as the actuator. The generated contractive stress reached more than 33 MPa (corresponding to 120 g of the load) at a weight-to-yarn mass ratio of 28 400, which was about 30 times more than the shape recovery stress of shape memory polymer. In terms of the stability study, the process of annealing and contraction training was introduced. In addition, the quantitative relationship between temperature and contraction was also rigorously explored, which facilitated a more accurate and controllable contractile stroke. Great potential applications ranging from soft robots, wearable intelligent devices, and biomimetic devices to self-deployable structures in the aerospace field are likely to benefit from the advantages of low density, fast response without hysteresis, super flexible structure, as well as stitchability and large-scale production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhui Song
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Materials and Performance (Ministry of Education), School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, China.
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45
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Yang C, Liu Z, Chen C, Shi K, Zhang L, Ju XJ, Wang W, Xie R, Chu LY. Reduced Graphene Oxide-Containing Smart Hydrogels with Excellent Electro-Response and Mechanical Properties for Soft Actuators. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:15758-15767. [PMID: 28425695 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b01710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A novel reduced graphene oxide/poly(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid-co-acrylamide) (rGO/poly(AMPS-co-AAm)) nanocomposite hydrogel that possesses excellent electro-response and mechanical properties has been successfully developed. The rGO nanosheets that homogeneously dispersed in the hydrogels could provide prominent conductive platforms for promoting the ion transport inside the hydrogels to generate significant osmotic pressure between the outside and inside of such nanocomposite hydrogels. Thus, the electro-responsive rate and degree of the hydrogel for both deswelling and bending performances become rapid and remarkable. Moreover, the enhanced mechanical properties including both the tensile strength and compressive strength of rGO/poly(AMPS-co-AAm) hydrogels are improved by the hydrogen-bond interactions between the rGO nanosheets and polymer chains, which could dissipate the strain energy in the polymeric networks of the hydrogels. The proposed rGO/poly(AMPS-co-AAm) nanocomposite hydrogels with improved mechanical properties exhibit rapid, significant, and reversible electro-response, which show great potential for developing remotely controlled electro-responsive hydrogel systems, such as smart actuators and soft manipulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Yang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
| | - Zhuang Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
| | - Chen Chen
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
| | - Kun Shi
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
| | - Lei Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Jie Ju
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
| | - Wei Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
| | - Rui Xie
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
| | - Liang-Yin Chu
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Sichuan University , Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, P. R. China
- Jiangsu National Synergetic Innovation Center for Advanced Materials (SICAM), Nanjing, Jiangsu 211816, P. R. China
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46
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Luo R, Dinh ND, Chen CH. Fast-responsive hydrogel as an injectable pump for rapid on-demand fluidic flow control. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2017; 11:034107. [PMID: 28798856 PMCID: PMC5533479 DOI: 10.1063/1.4983493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Chemically synthesized functional hydrogels have been recognized as optimized soft pumps for on-demand fluidic regulation in micro-systems. However, the challenges regarding the slow responses of hydrogels have very much limited their application in effective fluidic flow control. In this study, a heterobifunctional crosslinker (4-hydroxybutyl acrylate)-enabled two-step hydrothermal phase separation process for preparing a highly porous hydrogel with fast response dynamics was investigated for the fabrication of novel microfluidic functional units, such as injectable valves and pumps. The cylinder-shaped hydrogel, with a diameter of 9 cm and a height of 2.5 cm at 25 °C, achieved a size reduction of approximately 70% in less than 30 s after the hydrogels were heated at 40 °C. By incorporating polypyrrole nanoparticles as photothermal transducers, a photo-responsive composite hydrogel was approached and exhibited a remotely triggerable fluidic regulation and pumping ability to generate significant flows, showing on-demand water-in-oil droplet generation by laser switching, whereby the droplet size could be tuned by adjusting the laser intensity and irradiation period with programmable manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongcong Luo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, 21 Lower Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 119077
| | - Ngoc-Duy Dinh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, 21 Lower Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 119077
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47
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Hines L, Petersen K, Lum GZ, Sitti M. Soft Actuators for Small-Scale Robotics. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1603483. [PMID: 28032926 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201603483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 492] [Impact Index Per Article: 70.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
This review comprises a detailed survey of ongoing methodologies for soft actuators, highlighting approaches suitable for nanometer- to centimeter-scale robotic applications. Soft robots present a special design challenge in that their actuation and sensing mechanisms are often highly integrated with the robot body and overall functionality. When less than a centimeter, they belong to an even more special subcategory of robots or devices, in that they often lack on-board power, sensing, computation, and control. Soft, active materials are particularly well suited for this task, with a wide range of stimulants and a number of impressive examples, demonstrating large deformations, high motion complexities, and varied multifunctionality. Recent research includes both the development of new materials and composites, as well as novel implementations leveraging the unique properties of soft materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey Hines
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | | | - Guo Zhan Lum
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Metin Sitti
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Max Planck ETH Center for Learning Systems, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
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48
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Ionov L, Stoychev G, Jehnichen D, Sommer JU. Reversibly Actuating Solid Janus Polymeric Fibers. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:4873-4881. [PMID: 27991772 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b13084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
It is commonly assumed that the substantial element of reversibly actuating soft polymeric materials is chemical cross-linking, which is needed to provide elasticity required for the reversible actuation. On the example of melt spun and three-dimensional printed Janus fibers, we demonstrate here for the first time that cross-linking is not an obligatory prerequisite for reversible actuation of solid entangled polymers, since the entanglement network itself can build elasticity during crystallization. Indeed, we show that not-cross-linked polymers, which typically demonstrate plastic deformation in melt, possess enough elastic behavior to actuate reversibly. The Janus polymeric structure bends because of contraction of the polymer and due to entanglements and formation of nanocrystallites upon cooling. Actuation upon melting is simply due to relaxation of the stressed nonfusible component. This approach opens perspectives for design of solid active materials and actuator for robotics, biotechnology, and smart textile applications. The great advantage of our principle is that it allows design of non-cross-linked self-moving materials, which are able to actuate in both water and air, which are not cross-linked. We demonstrate application of actuating fibers for design of walkers, structures with switchable length, width, and thickness, which can be used for smart textile applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonid Ionov
- College of Engineering, College of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Georgi Stoychev
- College of Engineering, College of Family and Consumer Sciences, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Dieter Jehnichen
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V. , Hohe Str. 6, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Jens Uwe Sommer
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V. , Hohe Str. 6, 01069 Dresden, Germany
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Mourran A, Zhang H, Vinokur R, Möller M. Soft Microrobots Employing Nonequilibrium Actuation via Plasmonic Heating. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2017; 29:1604825. [PMID: 27865006 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201604825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
A soft microrobot composed of a microgel and driven by the light-controlled nonequilibrium dynamics of volume changes is presented. The photothermal response of the microgel, containing plasmonic gold nanorods, enables fast heating/cooling dynamics. Mastering the nonequilibrium response provides control of the complex motion, which goes beyond what has been so far reported for hydrophilic microgels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Mourran
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeck str. 50, D-52056, Aachen, Germany
| | - Hang Zhang
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeck str. 50, D-52056, Aachen, Germany
| | - Rostislav Vinokur
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeck str. 50, D-52056, Aachen, Germany
| | - Martin Möller
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, RWTH Aachen University, Forckenbeck str. 50, D-52056, Aachen, Germany
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50
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Goponenko AV, Dzenis YA. Role of Mechanical Factors in Applications of Stimuli-Responsive Polymer Gels - Status and Prospects. POLYMER 2016; 101:415-449. [PMID: 28348443 PMCID: PMC5365095 DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2016.08.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Due to their unique characteristics such as multifold change of volume in response to minute change in the environment, resemblance of soft biological tissues, ability to operate in wet environments, and chemical tailorability, stimuli responsive gels represent a versatile and very promising class of materials for sensors, muscle-type actuators, biomedical applications, and autonomous intelligent structures. Success of these materials in practical applications largely depends on their ability to fulfill application-specific mechanical requirements. This article provides an overview of recent application-driven development of covalent polymer gels with special emphasis on the relevant mechanical factors and properties. A short account of mechanisms of gel swelling and mechanical characteristics of importance to stimuli-responsive gels is presented. The review highlights major barriers for wider application of these materials and discusses latest advances and potential future directions toward overcoming these barriers, including interpenetrating networks, homogeneous networks, nanocomposites, and nanofilamentary gels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V. Goponenko
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering and Nebraska Center for Materials and Nanoscience, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Yuris A. Dzenis
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering and Nebraska Center for Materials and Nanoscience, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
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