NLRP3 inflammasome activation induced by engineered nanomaterials

Nanoparticle-mediated enhancement of DNA Vaccines: Revolutionizing immunization strategies

DNA vaccines are a novel form of vaccination that aims to harness genetic material to produce targeted immune responses. Nevertheless, their therapeutic application is hampered by low transfection efficacy, immunogenicity, and instability. Nanoparticle (NP) - based delivery systems are beneficial in enhancing DNA stability, increasing DNA uptake by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and controlling antigen release. Some key progress includes the polymeric, lipid-based, and hybrid NPs and biocompatible carriers with inherent adjuvant effects. These systems have helped to enhance the antigen cross-presentation and T-cell activation significantly. In addition, biocompatible hybrid nanocarriers, antigen cross-presentation strategies, and next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies are speeding up the identification of new antigens, while AI and machine learning are facilitating the development of efficient delivery systems. This review aims to assess how NPs have contributed to improving the effectiveness of DNA vaccines for treating diseases, cancer, and emerging diseases, as well as advancing the next generation of DNA vaccines.

Subchronic Inhalation of TiO2 Nanoparticles Leads to Deposition in the Lung and Alterations in Erythrocyte Morphology in Mice

TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) are extensively used in various applications, highlighting the importance of ongoing research into their effects. This work belongs among rare whole-body inhalation studies investigating the effects of TiO2 NPs on mice. Unlike previous studies, the concentration of TiO2 NPs in the inhalation chamber (130.8 μg/m3) was significantly lower. This 11-week study on mice confirmed in vivo the presence of TiO2 NPs in lung macrophages and type II pneumocytes including their intracellular localization by using the electron microscopy and the state-of-the-art methods detecting NPs' chemical identity/crystal structure, such as the energy-dispersed X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), cathodoluminescence (CL), and detailed diffraction pattern analysis using powder nanobeam diffraction (PNBD). For the first time in inhalation study in vivo, the alterations in erythrocyte morphology with evidence of echinocytes and stomatocytes, accompanied by iron accumulation in spleen, liver, and kidney, are reported following NP's exposure. Together with the histopathological evidence of hyperaemia in the spleen and kidney, and haemosiderin presence in the spleen, the finding of NPs containing iron might suggest the increased decomposition of damaged erythrocytes. The detection of TiO2 NPs on erythrocytes through CL analysis confirmed their potential systemic availability. On the contrary, TiO2 NPs were not confirmed in other organs (spleen, liver, and kidney); Ti was detected only in the kidney near the detection limit.

Human Primary Monocytes as a Model for in vitro Immunotoxicity Testing: Evaluation of the Regulatory Properties of TiO2 Nanoparticles

Introduction

A critical step preceding the potential biomedical application of nanoparticles is the evaluation of their immunomodulatory effects. Such nanoparticles are expected to enter the bloodstream where they can be recognized and processed by circulating monocytes. Despite the required biocompatibility, this interaction can affect intracellular homeostasis and modulate physiological functions, particularly inflammation. This study focuses on titanium dioxide (TiO2) as an example of relatively low cytotoxic nanoparticles with potential biomedical use and aims to evaluate their possible modulatory effects on the inflammasome-based response in human primary monocytes.

Methods

Monocyte viability, phenotypic changes, and cytokine production were determined after exposure to TiO2 (diameter, 25 nm; P25) alone. In the case of the modulatory effects, we focused on NLRP3 activation. The production of IL-1β and IL-10 was evaluated after (a) simultaneous activation of monocytes with bacterial stimuli muramyl dipeptide (MDP), or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and TiO2 (co-exposure model), (b) prior activation with TiO2 alone and subsequent exposure to bacterial stimuli MDP or LPS. The differentiation of TiO2-treated monocytes into macrophages and their polarization were also assessed.

Results

The selected TiO2 concentration range (30-120 µg/mL) did not induce any significant cytotoxic effects. The highest dose of TiO2 promoted monocyte survival and differentiation into macrophages, with the M2 subset being the most prevalent. Nanoparticles alone did not induce substantial production of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, or TNF-α. The immunomodulatory effect on NLRP3 depended on the type of costimulant used. While co-exposure of monocytes to MDP and TiO2 boosted NLRP3 activity, co-exposure to LPS and TiO2 inhibited NLRP3 by enhancing IL-10 release. The inhibitory effect of TiO2 on NLRP3 based on the promotion of IL-10 was confirmed in a post-exposure model for both costimulants.

Conclusion

This study confirmed a non-negligible modulatory effect on primary monocytes in their inflammasome-based response and differentiation ability.

Breaking the barriers: Overcoming cancer resistance by targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome

Inflammation has a pivotal role in the initiation and progression of various cancers, contributing to crucial processes such as metastasis, angiogenesis, cell proliferation and invasion. Moreover, the release of cytokines mediated by inflammation within the tumour microenvironment (TME) has a crucial role in orchestrating these events. The activation of inflammatory caspases, facilitated by the recruitment of caspase-1, is initiated by the activation of pattern recognition receptors on the immune cell membrane. This activation results in the production of proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β and IL-18, and participates in diverse biological processes with significant implications. The NOD-Like Receptor Protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome holds a central role in innate immunity and regulates inflammation through releasing IL-1β and IL-18. Moreover, it interacts with various cellular compartments. Recently, the mechanisms underlying NLRP3 inflammasome activation have garnered considerable attention. Disruption in NLRP3 inflammasome activation has been associated with a spectrum of inflammatory diseases, encompassing diabetes, enteritis, neurodegenerative diseases, obesity and tumours. The NLRP3 impact on tumorigenesis varies across different cancer types, with contrasting roles observed. For example, colorectal cancer associated with colitis can be suppressed by NLRP3, whereas gastric and skin cancers may be promoted by its activity. This review provides comprehensive insights into the structure, biological characteristics and mechanisms of the NLRP3 inflammasome, with a specific focus on the relationship between NLRP3 and tumour-related immune responses, and TME. Furthermore, the review explores potential strategies for targeting cancers via NLRP3 inflammasome modulation. This encompasses innovative approaches, including NLRP3-based nanoparticles, gene-targeted therapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Nanomaterial journey in the gut: from intestinal mucosal interaction to systemic transport

Engineered nanomaterials (NMs) are commonly utilized in food additives, cosmetics, and therapeutic applications due to their advantageous properties. Consequently, humans are frequently exposed to exogenous nanomaterials through oral ingestion, thus making the intestinal mucosal system a primary site for these particles. Understanding the interactions between nanomaterials and the intestinal mucosal system is crucial for harnessing their therapeutic potential and mitigating potential health risks from unintended exposure. This review aims to elucidate recent advancements in the dual effects of nanomaterials on the intestinal mucosal system. Upon entering the gut lumen, nanomaterials will interact with diverse intestinal components, including trillions of gut microbiota, mucus layer, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), and the intestinal immune system. Additionally, the systemic fate and transportation of nanomaterials to distal organs, such as central nervous system, are also highlighted. These interactions result in a distinct biological effect of nanomaterials on the multilayer structure of intestine, thus displaying complex journeys and outcomes of nanomaterials in the living body. This in-depth exploration of the in vivo destiny and immunological implications of nanomaterials encountering the intestine has the potential to propel advancements in oral drug delivery techniques and motivate future investigations in novel toxicology research.

Varying the hydrophobic core composition of polymeric nanoparticles affects NLRP3 inflammasome activation

Understanding the interactions of nanoparticle carriers with innate immune cells is crucial for informing the design and efficacy of future nano-immunotherapies. An intriguing aspect of their interaction with the immune system has recently emerged, i.e., their ability to activate the NLRP3 inflammasome, a key component of the innate immune response. While the effect of the surface properties of nanoparticles has been extensively investigated in the context of nanoparticle-immune cell interactions, the influence of core composition remains largely unexplored, particularly regarding its impact on inflammasome activation. To shed light on these interactions, we developed a library of supramolecular polymer nanoparticles (SNPs) with different core compositions, varying their hydrophobic quotient by virtue of the side chain length and the repeating units in the polymer construct. The impact of modulating SNP core hydrophobic properties was investigated in macrophages by evaluating their cellular internalization, cytokine release, lysosomal rupture-calcium signaling, calcium flux-mitochondrial ROS production and their ability to activate the NLRP3 inflammasome, providing mechanistic insights into inflammasome activation. We established a direct correlation between increasing the side chain length of the polymer construct, thereby increasing the core hydrophobicity of SNPs and enhanced NLRP3 complex formation, as indicated by ASC speck imaging analysis and the elevated 1L-1β expression. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that the inflammasome signaling cascades and kinetics varied based on the SNP's hydrophobic side chain length and repeating units. Specifically, the nanoparticle with the longest alkyl side chain effectuated NLRP3 activation preferentially through the mitochondrial damage pathway. In vivo evaluation of SNPs in C57BL/6 mice confirmed elevated proinflammatory cytokines, notably with the SNP having the longest C12-alkyl side chain. This confirms that the higher core hydrophobicity composition of the SNP results in inflammasome activation in vivo. In summary, this study established SNP core composition as a novel nanoparticle-associated molecular pattern (NAMP) responsible for NLRP3 inflammasome activation, shedding light on intricate cellular pathways for informed nanoparticle design in immunotherapy and vaccine applications.

Multimodal pulmonary clearance kinetics of carbon black nanoparticles deposited in the lungs of rats: the role of alveolar macrophages

BACKGROUND

Alveolar macrophages (AMs) have been predicted to affect the pulmonary clearance of nanomaterials; however, their qualitative and quantitative roles are poorly understood. In this study, carbon black nanoparticles (CBNPs) were instilled into the lungs of Wistar rats at 30, 100, and 300 µg/rat. The concentrations of particles in organs, including the lung, lung-associated lymph nodes (LALN), liver, spleen, and kidney, were evaluated at days 0 (immediately after instillation), 1, 7, 28, 60, and 90 post-instillation.

RESULTS

The results indicated a multimodal pulmonary clearance pattern for CBNPs: slow clearance until day 28, fast clearance from days 28 to 60, and slow clearance from days 60 to 90. To determine the mechanism of this unique clearance pattern, CBNPs were instilled into AM-depleted rats using clodronate liposomes (CLO). At 28 days after instillation, the CBNP levels in the lungs treated with CLO showed about 31% higher reduction than in normal rats. In addition, the concentration of CBNPs in LALN treated with CLO significantly increased on day 28, whereas in normal rats, no detectable levels were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

This result highlights that the prolonged retention of poorly soluble NPs in the lung until day 28 is mediated by the phagocytosis of AMs, and the fast clearance between days 28-60 is due to the turnover time of AMs, estimated around 1-2 months after birth. Similarly, new generations of AMs mediate the slow phase between days 60 and 90. However, further studies are needed to understand the multimodal clearance mechanism and the modulation of pulmonary clearance of poorly soluble NPs.

Targeting Lysosome for Enhanced Cancer Photodynamic/Photothermal Therapy in a "One Stone Two Birds" Pattern

Highly immunogenic programmed death of tumor cells, such as immunogenic cell death (ICD) and pyroptosis, strengthens antitumor responses and thus represents a promising target for cancer immunotherapy. However, the development of ICD and pyroptosis inducers remains challenging, and their efficiency is typically compromised by self-protective autophagy. Here, we report a potent ICD and pyroptosis-inducing strategy by coupling combined photodynamic/photothermal therapy (PTT/PDT) to biological processes in cancer cells. For this purpose, we rationally synthesize a lysosomal-targeting boron-dipyrromethene dimer (BDPd) with intense NIR absorption/emission, high reactive oxygen species (ROS) yield, and photothermal abilities, which can be self-assembled with Pluronic F127, producing lysosomal-acting nanomicelles (BDPd NPs) to facilitate cancer cell internalization of BDPd and generation of intracellular ROS. Owing to the favorable lysosomal-targeting ability of the morpholine group on BDPd, the intracellular BDPd NPs can accumulate in the lysosome and induce robust lysosomal damage in cancer cells upon 660 nm laser irradiation, which results in the synergetic induction of pyroptosis and ICD via activating NLRP3/GSDMD and caspase-3/GSDME pathways simultaneously. More importantly, PTT/PDT-induced self-protective autophagic degradation was blocked due to the dysfunction of lysosomes. Either intratumorally or intravenously, the injected BDPd NPs could markedly inhibit the growth of established tumor tissues upon laser activation, provoke local and systemic antitumor immune responses, and prolong the survival time in the mouse triple-negative breast cancer model. Collectively, this work represents a promising strategy to boost the therapeutic potential of PTT/PDT by coupling phototherapeutic reagents with the subcellular organelles, creating a "one stone two birds" pattern.

Current research trends of nanomedicines

Owing to the inherent shortcomings of traditional therapeutic drugs in terms of inadequate therapeutic efficacy and toxicity in clinical treatment, nanomedicine designs have received widespread attention with significantly improved efficacy and reduced non-target side effects. Nanomedicines hold tremendous theranostic potential for treating, monitoring, diagnosing, and controlling various diseases and are attracting an unfathomable amount of input of research resources. Against the backdrop of an exponentially growing number of publications, it is imperative to help the audience get a panorama image of the research activities in the field of nanomedicines. Herein, this review elaborates on the development trends of nanomedicines, emerging nanocarriers, in vivo fate and safety of nanomedicines, and their extensive applications. Moreover, the potential challenges and the obstacles hindering the clinical translation of nanomedicines are also discussed. The elaboration on various aspects of the research trends of nanomedicines may help enlighten the readers and set the route for future endeavors.

Inflammasome: structure, biological functions, and therapeutic targets

Inflammasomes are a group of protein complex located in cytoplasm and assemble in response to a wide variety of pathogen-associated molecule patterns, damage-associated molecule patterns, and cellular stress. Generally, the activation of inflammasomes will lead to maturation of proinflammatory cytokines and pyroptotic cell death, both associated with inflammatory cascade amplification. A sensor protein, an adaptor, and a procaspase protein interact through their functional domains and compose one subunit of inflammasome complex. Under physiological conditions, inflammasome functions against pathogen infection and endogenous dangers including mtROS, mtDNA, and so on, while dysregulation of its activation can lead to unwanted results. In recent years, advances have been made to clarify the mechanisms of inflammasome activation, the structural details of them and their functions (negative/positive) in multiple disease models in both animal models and human. The wide range of the stimuli makes the function of inflammasome diverse and complex. Here, we review the structure, biological functions, and therapeutic targets of inflammasomes, while highlight NLRP3, NLRC4, and AIM2 inflammasomes, which are the most well studied. In conclusion, this review focuses on the activation process, biological functions, and structure of the most well-studied inflammasomes, summarizing and predicting approaches for disease treatment and prevention with inflammasome as a target. We aim to provide fresh insight into new solutions to the challenges in this field.

Exploiting Mass Spectrometry to Unlock the Mechanism of Nanoparticle-Induced Inflammasome Activation

Nanoparticles (NPs) elicit sterile inflammation, but the underlying signaling pathways are poorly understood. Here, we report that human monocytes are particularly vulnerable to amorphous silica NPs, as evidenced by single-cell-based analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells using cytometry by time-of-flight (CyToF), while silane modification of the NPs mitigated their toxicity. Using human THP-1 cells as a model, we observed cellular internalization of silica NPs by nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry (nanoSIMS) and this was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. Lipid droplet accumulation was also noted in the exposed cells. Furthermore, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) revealed specific changes in plasma membrane lipids, including phosphatidylcholine (PC) in silica NP-exposed cells, and subsequent studies suggested that lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) acts as a cell autonomous signal for inflammasome activation in the absence of priming with a microbial ligand. Moreover, we found that silica NPs elicited NLRP3 inflammasome activation in monocytes, whereas cell death transpired through a non-apoptotic, lipid peroxidation-dependent mechanism. Together, these data further our understanding of the mechanism of sterile inflammation.

Nickle-cobalt alloy nanocrystals inhibit activation of inflammasomes

Activation of inflammasomes-immune system receptor sensor complexes that selectively activate inflammatory responses-has been associated with diverse human diseases, and many nanomedicine studies have reported that structurally and chemically diverse inorganic nanomaterials cause excessive inflammasome activation. Here, in stark contrast to reports of other inorganic nanomaterials, we find that nickel-cobalt alloy magnetic nanocrystals (NiCo NCs) actually inhibit activation of NLRP3, NLRC4 and AIM2 inflammasomes. We show that NiCo NCs disrupt the canonical inflammasome ASC speck formation process by downregulating the lncRNA Neat1, and experimentally confirm that the entry of NiCo NCs into cells is required for the observed inhibition of inflammasome activation. Furthermore, we find that NiCo NCs inhibit neutrophil recruitment in an acute peritonitis mouse model and relieve symptoms in a colitis mouse model, again by inhibiting inflammasome activation. Beyond demonstrating a highly surprising and apparently therapeutic impact for an inorganic nanomaterial on inflammatory responses, our work suggests that nickel- and cobalt-containing nanomaterials may offer an opportunity to design anti-inflammatory nanomedicines for the therapeutics of macrophage-mediated diseases.

Possible therapeutic targets for NLRP3 inflammasome-induced breast cancer

Inflammation plays a major role in the development and progression of breast cancer(BC). Proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis are all linked to inflammation and tumorigenesis. Furthermore, tumor microenvironment (TME) inflammation-mediated cytokine releases play a critical role in these processes. By recruiting caspase-1 through an adaptor apoptosis-related spot protein, inflammatory caspases are activated by the triggering of pattern recognition receptors on the surface of immune cells. Toll-like receptors, NOD-like receptors, and melanoma-like receptors are not triggered. It activates the proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18 and is involved in different biological processes that exert their effects. The Nod-Like Receptor Protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome regulates inflammation by mediating the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and interacting with other cellular compartments through the inflammasome's central role in innate immunity. NLRP3 inflammasome activation mechanisms have received much attention in recent years. Inflammatory diseases including enteritis, tumors, gout, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and obesity are associated with abnormal activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Different cancer diseases have been linked to NLRP3 and its role in tumorigenesis may be the opposite. Tumors can be suppressed by it, as has been seen primarily in the context of colorectal cancer associated with colitis. However, cancers such as gastric and skin can also be promoted by it. The inflammasome NLRP3 is associated with breast cancer, but there are few specific reviews. This review focuses on the structure, biological characteristics and mechanism of inflammasome, the relationship between NLRP3 in breast cancer Non-Coding RNAs, MicroRNAs and breast cancer microenvironment, especially the role of NLRP3 in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). And the potential strategies of using NLRP3 inflammasome to target breast cancer, such as NLRP3-based nanoparticle technology and gene target therapy, are reviewed.

Coelonin protects against PM2 .5 -induced macrophage damage via suppressing TLR4/NF-κB/COX-2 signaling pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in vitro

One of the important monitoring indicators of the air pollution is atmospheric fine particulate matter (PM_2.5 ), which can induce lung inflammation after inhalation. Coelonin can alleviate PM_2.5 -induced macrophage damage through anti-inflammation. However, its molecular mechanism remains unclear. We hypothesized that macrophage damage may involve the release of inflammatory cytokines, activation of inflammatory pathways, and pyrosis induced by inflammasome. In this study, we evaluated the anti-inflammation activity of coelonin in PM_2.5 -induced macrophage and its mechanism of action. Nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were measured by NO Assay kit and dichlorofluorescein-diacetate (DCFH-DA), and apoptosis were measured by Flow cytometry and TUNEL staining. The concentration of inflammatory cytokines production was measured with cytometric bead arrays and ELISA kits. The activation of NF-κB signaling pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome were measured by immunofluorescence, quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blot. As expected, coelonin pretreatment reduced NO production significantly as well as alleviated cell damage by decreasing ROS and apoptosis. It decreased generation of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in PM_2.5 -induced RAW264.7 and J774A.1 cells. Moreover, coelonin markedly inhibited upregulating the expression of toll-like receptor (TLR)4 and cyclo-oxygenase (COX)-2, blocked activation of p-nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, and suppressed expression of NLRP3 inflammasome, ASC, GSDMD, IL-18 and IL-1β. In conclusion, the results showed that coelonin could protect against PM_2.5 -induced macrophage damage via suppressing TLR4/NF-κB/COX-2 signaling pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome activation in vitro.

NLRP3 inflammasome as a sensor of micro- and nanoplastics immunotoxicity

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging pollutants with scarcely investigated effects on human innate immunity. If they follow a similar course of action as other, more thoroughly investigated particulates, MNPs may penetrate epithelial barriers, potentially triggering a cascade of signaling events leading to cell damage and inflammation. Inflammasomes are intracellular multiprotein complexes and stimulus-induced sensors critical for mounting inflammatory responses upon recognition of pathogen- or damage-associated molecular patterns. Among these, the NLRP3 inflammasome is the most studied in terms of activation via particulates. However, studies delineating the ability of MNPs to affect NLRP3 inflammasome activation are still rare. In this review, we address the issue of MNPs source and fate, highlight the main concepts of inflammasome activation via particulates, and explore recent advances in using inflammasome activation for assessment of MNP immunotoxicity. We also discuss the impact of co-exposure and MNP complex chemistry in potential inflammasome activation. Development of robust biological sensors is crucial in order to maximize global efforts to effectively address and mitigate risks that MNPs pose for human health.

The State of the Art and Challenges of In Vitro Methods for Human Hazard Assessment of Nanomaterials in the Context of Safe-by-Design

The Safe-by-Design (SbD) concept aims to facilitate the development of safer materials/products, safer production, and safer use and end-of-life by performing timely SbD interventions to reduce hazard, exposure, or both. Early hazard screening is a crucial first step in this process. In this review, for the first time, commonly used in vitro assays are evaluated for their suitability for SbD hazard testing of nanomaterials (NMs). The goal of SbD hazard testing is identifying hazard warnings in the early stages of innovation. For this purpose, assays should be simple, cost-effective, predictive, robust, and compatible. For several toxicological endpoints, there are indications that commonly used in vitro assays are able to predict hazard warnings. In addition to the evaluation of assays, this review provides insights into the effects of the choice of cell type, exposure and dispersion protocol, and the (in)accurate determination of dose delivered to cells on predictivity. Furthermore, compatibility of assays with challenging advanced materials and NMs released from nano-enabled products (NEPs) during the lifecycle is assessed, as these aspects are crucial for SbD hazard testing. To conclude, hazard screening of NMs is complex and joint efforts between innovators, scientists, and regulators are needed to further improve SbD hazard testing.

In-depth review of delivery carriers associated with vaccine adjuvants: current status and future perspectives

INTRODUCTION

Vaccines are powerful tools for controlling microbial infections and preventing epidemics. To enhance the immune response to antigens, effective subunit vaccines or mRNA vaccines often require the combination of adjuvants or delivery carriers. In recent years, with the rapid development of immune mechanism research and nanotechnology, various studies based on the optimization of traditional adjuvants or various novel carriers have been intensified, and the construction of vaccine adjuvant delivery systems (VADS) with both adjuvant activity and antigen delivery has become more and more important in vaccine research.

AREAS COVERED

This paper reviews the common types of vaccine adjuvant delivery carriers, classifies the VADS according to their basic carrier types, introduces the current research status and future development trend, and emphasizes the important role of VADS in novel vaccine research.

EXPERT OPINION

As the number of vaccine types increases, conventional aluminum adjuvants show limitations in effectively stimulating cellular immune responses, limiting their use in therapeutic vaccines for intracellular infections or tumors. In contrast, the use of conventional adjuvants as VADS to carry immunostimulatory molecules or deliver antigens can greatly enhance the immune boosting effect of classical adjuvants. A comprehensive understanding of the various delivery vehicles will further facilitate the development of vaccine adjuvant research.

Influence of Impurities from Manufacturing Process on the Toxicity Profile of Boron Nitride Nanotubes

The toxicity of boron nitride nanotubes (BNNTs) has been the subject of conflicting reports, likely due to differences in the residuals and impurities that can make up to 30-60% of the material produced based on the manufacturing processes and purification employed. Four BNNTs manufactured by induction thermal plasma process with a gradient of BNNT purity levels achieved through sequential gas purification, water and solvent washing, allowed assessing the influence of these residuals/impurities on the toxicity profile of BNNTs. Extensive characterization including infrared and X-ray spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, size, charge, surface area, and density captured the alteration in physicochemical properties as the material went through sequential purification. The material from each step is screened using acellular and in vitro assays for evaluating general toxicity, mechanisms of toxicity, and macrophage function. As the material increased in purity, there are more high-aspect-ratio particulates and a corresponding distinct increase in cytotoxicity, nuclear factor-κB transcription, and inflammasome activation. There is no alteration in macrophage function after BNNT exposure with all purity grades. The cytotoxicity and mechanism of screening clustered with the purity grade of BNNTs, illustrating that greater purity of BNNT corresponds to greater toxicity.

Diverse Pathways of Engineered Nanoparticle-Induced NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

With the rapid development of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in biomedical applications, their biocompatibility and cytotoxicity need to be evaluated properly. Recently, it has been demonstrated that inflammasome activation may be a vital contributing factor for the development of biological responses induced by ENMs. Among the inflammasome family, NLRP3 inflammasome has received the most attention because it directly interacts with ENMs to cause the inflammatory effects. However, the pathways that link ENMs to NLRP3 inflammasome have not been thoroughly summarized. Thus, we reviewed recent findings on the role of major ENMs properties in modulating NLRP3 inflammasome activation, both in vitro and in vivo, to provide a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. In addition, the interactions between ENMs and NLRP3 inflammasome activation are summarized, which may advance our understanding of safer designs of nanomaterials and ENM-induced adverse health effects.

Development of a cell line-based in vitro assay for assessment of Diphtheria, Tetanus and acellular Pertussis (DTaP)-induced inflammasome activation

Safety and potency assessment for batch release testing of established vaccines still relies partly on animal tests. An important avenue to move to batch release without animal testing is the consistency approach. This approach is based on thorough characterization of the vaccine to identify critical quality attributes that inform the use of a comprehensive set of non-animal tests to release the vaccine, together with the principle that the quality of subsequent batches follows from their consistent production. Many vaccine antigens are by themselves not able to induce a protective immune response. The antigens are therefore administered together with adjuvant, most often by adsorption to aluminium salts. Adjuvant function is an important component of vaccine potency, and an important quality attribute of the final product. Aluminium adjuvants are capable of inducing NLRP3 inflammasome activation. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate an in vitro assay for NLRP3 inflammasome activation by aluminium-adjuvanted vaccines. We evaluated the effects of Diphtheria-Tetanus-acellular Pertussis combination vaccines from two manufacturers and their respective adjuvants, aluminium phosphate (AP) and aluminium hydroxide (AH), in an in vitro assay for NLRP3 inflammasome activation. All vaccines and adjuvants tested showed a dose-dependent increase in IL-1β production and a concomitant decrease in cell viability, suggesting NLRP3 inflammasome activation. The results were analysed by benchmark dose modelling, showing a similar 50% effective dose (ED50) for the two vaccine batches and corresponding adjuvant of manufacturer A (AP), and a similar ED50 for the two vaccine batches and corresponding adjuvant of manufacturer B (AH). This suggests that NLRP3 inflammasome activation is determined by the adjuvant only. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles reduced the adjuvant biological activity of AH, but not AP. Inflammasome activation may be used to measure adjuvant biological activity as an important quality attribute for control or characterization of the adjuvant.

mRNA-carrying lipid nanoparticles that induce lysosomal rupture activate NLRP3 inflammasome and reduce mRNA transfection efficiency

In the last several years, countless developments have been made to engineer more efficient and potent mRNA lipid nanoparticle vaccines, culminating in the rapid development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19. However, despite these advancements and materials approaches, there is still a lack of understanding of the resultant immunogenicity of mRNA lipid nanoparticles. Therefore, a more mechanistic, design-driven approach needs to be taken to determine which biophysical characteristics, especially related to changes in lipid compositions, drive nanoparticle immunogenicity. Here, we synthesized a panel of six mRNA lipid nanoparticle formulations, varying the concentrations of different lipid components and systematically studied their effect on NLRP3 inflammasome activation; a key intracellular protein complex that controls various inflammatory responses. Initial experiments aimed to determine differences in nanoparticle activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes by IL-1β ELISA, which unveiled that nanoparticles with high concentrations of ionizable lipid DLin-MC3-DMA in tandem with high cationic lipid DPTAP and low cholesterol concentration induced the greatest activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. These results were further corroborated by the measurement of ASC specks indicative of NLRP3 complex assembly, as well as cleaved gasdermin-D and caspase-1 expression indicating complex activation. We also uncovered these activation profiles to be mechanistically correlated primarily with lysosomal rupturing caused by the delayed membrane disruption capabilities of ionizable lipids until the lysosomal stage, as well as by mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and calcium influx for some of the particles. Therefore, we report that the specific, combined effects of each lipid type, most notably ionizable, cationic lipids, and cholesterol, is a crucial mRNA lipid nanoparticle characteristic that varies the endo/lysosomal rupture capabilities of the formulation and activate NLRP3 inflammasomes in a lysosomal rupture dependent manner. These results provide a more concrete understanding of mRNA lipid Nanoparticle-Associated Molecular Patterns for the activation of molecular-level immune responses and provide new lipid composition design considerations for future mRNA-delivery approaches.

Self-assembled flagella protein nanofibers induce enhanced mucosal immunity

Nanofibers are potential vaccines or adjuvants for vaccination at the mucosal interface. However, how their lengths affect the mucosal immunity is not well understood. Using length-tunable flagella (self-assembled from a protein termed flagellin) as model protein nanofibers, we studied the mechanisms of their interaction with mucosal interface to induce immune responses length-dependently. Briefly, through tuning flagellin assembly, length-controlled protein nanofibers were prepared. The shorter nanofibers exhibited more pronounced toll-like receptor 5 (TLR5) and inflammasomes activation accompanied by pyroptosis, as a result of cellular uptake, lysosomal damage, and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation. Accordingly, the shorter nanofibers elevated the IgA level in mucosal secretions and enhanced the serum IgG level in ovalbumin-based intranasal vaccinations. These mucosal and systematic antibody responses were correlated with the mucus penetration capacity of the nanofibers. Intranasal administration of vaccines (human papillomavirus type 16 peptides) adjuvanted with shorter nanofibers significantly elicited cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses, strongly inhibiting tumor growth and improving survival rates in a TC-1 cervical cancer model. This work suggests that length-dependent immune responses of nanofibers can be elucidated for designing nanofibrous vaccines and adjuvants for both infectious diseases and cancer.

Immunotoxicity of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials, Starring Phagocytes

In the field of science, technology and medicine, carbon-based nanomaterials and nanoparticles (CNMs) are becoming attractive nanomaterials that are increasingly used. However, it is important to acknowledge the risk of nanotoxicity that comes with the widespread use of CNMs. CNMs can enter the body via inhalation, ingestion, intravenously or by any other route, spread through the bloodstream and penetrate tissues where (in both compartments) they interact with components of the immune system. Like invading pathogens, CNMs can be recognized by large numbers of receptors that are present on the surface of innate immune cells, notably monocytes and macrophages. Depending on the physicochemical properties of CNMs, i.e., shape, size, or adsorbed contamination, phagocytes try to engulf and process CNMs, which might induce pro/anti-inflammatory response or lead to modulation and disruption of basic immune activity. This review focuses on existing data on the immunotoxic potential of CNMs, particularly in professional phagocytes, as they play a central role in processing and eliminating foreign particles. The results of immunotoxic studies are also described in the context of the entry routes, impacts of contamination and means of possible elimination. Mechanisms of proinflammatory effect depending on endocytosis and intracellular distribution of CNMs are highlighted as well.

Hazard assessment of abraded thermoplastic composites reinforced with reduced graphene oxide

Graphene-related materials (GRMs) are subject to intensive investigations and considerable progress has been made in recent years in terms of safety assessment. However, limited information is available concerning the hazard potential of GRM-containing products such as graphene-reinforced composites. In the present study, we conducted a comprehensive investigation of the potential biological effects of particles released through an abrasion process from reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-reinforced composites of polyamide 6 (PA6), a widely used engineered thermoplastic polymer, in comparison to as-produced rGO. First, a panel of well-established in vitro models, representative of the immune system and possible target organs such as the lungs, the gut, and the skin, was applied. Limited responses to PA6-rGO exposure were found in the different in vitro models. Only as-produced rGO induced substantial adverse effects, in particular in macrophages. Since inhalation of airborne materials is a key occupational concern, we then sought to test whether the in vitro responses noted for these materials would translate into adverse effects in vivo. To this end, the response at 1, 7 and 28 days after a single pulmonary exposure was evaluated in mice. In agreement with the in vitro data, PA6-rGO induced a modest and transient pulmonary inflammation, resolved by day 28. In contrast, rGO induced a longer-lasting, albeit moderate inflammation that did not lead to tissue remodeling within 28 days. Taken together, the present study suggests a negligible impact on human health under acute exposure conditions of GRM fillers such as rGO when released from composites at doses expected at the workplace.

Monosodium urate crystals with controlled shape and aspect ratio for elucidating the pathological progress of acute gout

Gout is a self-limiting inflammatory arthritis mediated by the precipitation of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals that further activate the NLRP3 inflammasome and initiate a cascade of inflammatory events. However, the key physicochemical properties of MSU crystals that determine the acute phase of gout have not been fully identified. In this study, a library of engineered MSU crystals with well-controlled size and shape is designed to explore their proinflammatory potentials in mediating the pathological progress of gout. It is demonstrated that medium-sized long aspect ratio MSU crystals induce more prominent IL-1β production in vitro due to enhanced cellular uptake and the production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS). The characteristics of MSU crystals are also correlated with their inflammatory potentials in both acute peritonitis and arthritis models. Furthermore, 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) is demonstrated to inhibit MSU-induced oxidative burst by removing plasma membrane cholesterol. As a result, it attenuates the inflammatory responses both in vitro and in vivo. Additionally, antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is shown to alleviate acute gouty symptom by suppressing oxidative stress. This study identifies the key physicochemical properties of MSU crystals that mediate the pathogenesis of gout, which sheds light on novel design strategies for the intervention of gout.

Grouping MWCNTs based on their similar potential to cause pulmonary hazard after inhalation: a case-study

BACKGROUND

The EU-project GRACIOUS developed an Integrated Approach to Testing and Assessment (IATA) to support grouping high aspect ratio nanomaterials (HARNs) presenting a similar inhalation hazard. Application of grouping reduces the need to assess toxicity on a case-by-case basis and supports read-across of hazard data from substances that have the data required for risk assessment (source) to those that lack such data (target). The HARN IATA, based on the fibre paradigm for pathogenic fibres, facilitates structured data gathering to propose groups of similar HARN and to support read-across by prompting users to address relevant questions regarding HARN morphology, biopersistence and inflammatory potential. The IATA is structured in tiers, allowing grouping decisions to be made using simple in vitro or in silico methods in Tier1 progressing to in vivo approaches at the highest Tier3. Here we present a case-study testing the applicability of GRACIOUS IATA to form an evidence-based group of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) posing a similar predicted fibre-hazard, to support read-across and reduce the burden of toxicity testing.

RESULTS

The case-study uses data on 15 different MWCNT, obtained from the published literature. By following the IATA, a group of 2 MWCNT was identified (NRCWE006 and NM-401) based on a high degree of similarity. A pairwise similarity assessment was subsequently conducted between the grouped MWCNT to evaluate the potential to conduct read-across and fill data gaps required for regulatory hazard assessment. The similarity assessment, based on expert judgement of Tier 1 assay results, predicts both MWCNT are likely to cause a similar acute in vivo hazard. This result supports the possibility for read-across of sub-chronic and chronic hazard endpoint data for lung fibrosis and carcinogenicity between the 2 grouped MWCNT. The implications of accepting the similarity assessment based on expert judgement of the MWCNT group are considered to stimulate future discussion on the level of similarity between group members considered sufficient to allow regulatory acceptance of a read-across argument.

CONCLUSION

This proof-of-concept case-study demonstrates how a grouping hypothesis and IATA may be used to support a nuanced and evidence-based grouping of 'similar' MWCNT and the subsequent interpolation of data between group members to streamline the hazard assessment process.

Nanoparticle Effects on Stress Response Pathways and Nanoparticle-Protein Interactions

Nanoparticles (NPs) are increasingly used in a wide variety of applications and products; however, NPs may affect stress response pathways and interact with proteins in biological systems. This review article will provide an overview of the beneficial and detrimental effects of NPs on stress response pathways with a focus on NP-protein interactions. Depending upon the particular NP, experimental model system, and dose and exposure conditions, the introduction of NPs may have either positive or negative effects. Cellular processes such as the development of oxidative stress, the initiation of the inflammatory response, mitochondrial function, detoxification, and alterations to signaling pathways are all affected by the introduction of NPs. In terms of tissue-specific effects, the local microenvironment can have a profound effect on whether an NP is beneficial or harmful to cells. Interactions of NPs with metal-binding proteins (zinc, copper, iron and calcium) affect both their structure and function. This review will provide insights into the current knowledge of protein-based nanotoxicology and closely examines the targets of specific NPs.

An inter-laboratory comparison of an NLRP3 inflammasome activation assay and dendritic cell maturation assay using a nanostructured lipid carrier and a polymeric nanomedicine, as exemplars

Nanoparticles including nanomedicines are known to be recognised by and interact with the immune system. As these interactions may result in adverse effects, for safety evaluation, the presence of such interactions needs to be investigated. Nanomedicines in particular should not unintendedly interact with the immune system, since patient’s exposure is not minimised as in the case of ‘environmental’ nanoparticles, and repeated exposure may be required. NLRP3 inflammasome activation and dendritic cell (DC) maturation are two types of immune mechanisms known to be affected by nanoparticles including nanomedicines. NLRP3 inflammasome activation results in production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18, as well as a specific type of cell death, pyroptosis. Moreover, chronic NLRP3 inflammasome activation has been related to several chronic diseases. Upon maturation, DC activate primary T cells; interference with this process may result in inappropriate activation and skewing of the adaptive immune response. Here, we evaluated the effect of two nanomedicines, representing nanostructured lipid carriers and polymers, on these two assays. Moreover, with a view to possible future standardisation and regulatory application, these assays were subject to an inter-laboratory comparison study using common SOPs. One laboratory performed three independent NLRP3 inflammasome activation experiments, while the other performed a single experiment. Two laboratories each performed three independent DC maturation experiments. While the nanostructured lipid carrier only showed marginal effects, the polymers showed major cytotoxicity. No evidence for inflammasome activation or DC maturation was demonstrated. Intra- and inter-laboratory comparison showed clearly reproducible results.

Self-assembled aluminum oxyhydroxide nanorices with superior suspension stability for vaccine adjuvant

The suspension stability of aluminum-based adjuvant (Alum) plays an important role in determining the Alum-antigen interaction and vaccine efficacy. Inclusion of excipients has been shown to stabilize antigens in vaccine formulations. However, there is no mechanistic study to tune the characteristics of Alum for improved suspension stability. Herein, a library of self-assembled rice-shaped aluminum oxyhydroxide nanoadjuvants i.e., nanorices (NRs), was synthesized through intrinsically controlled crystallization and atomic coupling-mediated aggregations. The NRs exhibited superior suspension stability in both water and a saline buffer. After adsorbing hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) virus-like particles (VLPs), human papillomavirus virus (HPV) VLPs, or bovine serum albumin, NR-antigen complexes exhibited less sedimentation. Further mechanistic study demonstrated that the improved suspension stability was due to intraparticle aggregations that led to the reduction of the surface free energy. By using HBsAg in a murine vaccination model, NRs with higher aspect ratios elicited more potent humoral immune responses. Our study demonstrated that engineered control of particle aggregation provides a novel material design strategy to improve suspension stability for a diversity of biomedical applications.

The Relevance of Physico-Chemical Properties and Protein Corona for Evaluation of Nanoparticles Immunotoxicity-In Vitro Correlation Analysis on THP-1 Macrophages

Alongside physiochemical properties (PCP), it has been suggested that the protein corona of nanoparticles (NPs) plays a crucial role in the response of immune cells to NPs. However, due to the great variety of NPs, target cells, and exposure protocols, there is still no clear relationship between PCP, protein corona composition, and the immunotoxicity of NPs. In this study, we correlated PCP and the protein corona composition of NPs to the THP-1 macrophage response, focusing on selected toxicological endpoints: cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and cytokine secretion. We analyzed seven commonly used engineered NPs (SiO2, silver, and TiO2) and magnetic NPs. We show that with the exception of silver NPs, all of the tested TiO2 types and SiO2 exhibited moderate toxicities and a transient inflammatory response that was observed as an increase in ROS, IL-8, and/or IL-1β cytokine secretion. We observed a strong correlation between the size of the NPs in media and IL-1β secretion. The induction of IL-1β secretion was completely blunted in NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) knockout THP-1 cells, indicating activation of the inflammasome. The correlations analysis also implicated the association of specific NP corona proteins with the induction of cytokine secretion. This study provides new insights toward a better understanding of the relationships between PCP, protein corona, and the inflammatory response of macrophages for different engineered NPs, to which we are exposed on a daily basis.

Pathways Related to NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation Induced by Gold Nanorods

The widespread and increasing use of engineered nanomaterials (ENM) increases the risk of human exposure, generating concern that ENM may provoke adverse health effects. In this respect, their physicochemical characteristics are critical. The immune system may respond to ENM through inflammatory reactions. The NLRP3 inflammasome responds to a wide range of ENM, and its activation is associated with various inflammatory diseases. Recently, anisotropic ENM have become of increasing interest, but knowledge of their effects on the immune system is still limited. The objective of the study was to compare the effects of gold ENM of different shapes on NLRP3 inflammasome activation and related signalling pathways. Differentiated THP-1 cells (wildtype, ASC- or NLRP3-deficient), were exposed to PEGylated gold nanorods, nanostars, and nanospheres, and, thus, also different surface chemistries, to assess NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Next, the exposed cells were subjected to gene expression analysis. Nanorods, but not nanostars or nanospheres, showed NLRP3 inflammasome activation. ASC- or NLRP3-deficient cells did not show this effect. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis revealed that gold nanorod-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation was accompanied by downregulated sterol/cholesterol biosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, and purinergic receptor signalling. At the level of individual genes, downregulation of Paraoxonase-2, a protein that controls oxidative stress, was most notable. In conclusion, the shape and surface chemistry of gold nanoparticles determine NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Future studies should include particle uptake and intracellular localization.

Particle Safety Assessment in Additive Manufacturing: From Exposure Risks to Advanced Toxicology Testing

Additive manufacturing (AM) or industrial three-dimensional (3D) printing drives a new spectrum of design and production possibilities; pushing the boundaries both in the application by production of sophisticated products as well as the development of next-generation materials. AM technologies apply a diversity of feedstocks, including plastic, metallic, and ceramic particle powders with distinct size, shape, and surface chemistry. In addition, powders are often reused, which may change the particles' physicochemical properties and by that alter their toxic potential. The AM production technology commonly relies on a laser or electron beam to selectively melt or sinter particle powders. Large energy input on feedstock powders generates several byproducts, including varying amounts of virgin microparticles, nanoparticles, spatter, and volatile chemicals that are emitted in the working environment; throughout the production and processing phases. The micro and nanoscale size may enable particles to interact with and to cross biological barriers, which could, in turn, give rise to unexpected adverse outcomes, including inflammation, oxidative stress, activation of signaling pathways, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity. Another important aspect of AM-associated risks is emission/leakage of mono- and oligomers due to polymer breakdown and high temperature transformation of chemicals from polymeric particles, both during production, use, and in vivo, including in target cells. These chemicals are potential inducers of direct toxicity, genotoxicity, and endocrine disruption. Nevertheless, understanding whether AM particle powders and their byproducts may exert adverse effects in humans is largely lacking and urges comprehensive safety assessment across the entire AM lifecycle-spanning from virgin and reused to airborne particles. Therefore, this review will detail: 1) brief overview of the AM feedstock powders, impact of reuse on particle physicochemical properties, main exposure pathways and protective measures in AM industry, 2) role of particle biological identity and key toxicological endpoints in the particle safety assessment, and 3) next-generation toxicology approaches in nanosafety for safety assessment in AM. Altogether, the proposed testing approach will enable a deeper understanding of existing and emerging particle and chemical safety challenges and provide a strategy for the development of cutting-edge methodologies for hazard identification and risk assessment in the AM industry.

Nanodiamond-Induced Thrombocytopenia in Mice Involve P-Selectin-Dependent Nlrp3 Inflammasome-Mediated Platelet Aggregation, Pyroptosis and Apoptosis

Nanodiamond (ND) has been developed as a carrier to conduct various in vivo diagnostic and therapeutic uses. Safety is one of the major considerations, while the hemocompatibility of ND is not clearly addressed. Here we found that, compared to the other sizes of ND with relatively inert properties, treatments of 50 nm ND induced stronger platelet aggregation, platelet pyroptosis, apoptosis and thrombocytopenia in mice. Blockage treatments of soluble P-selectin, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and Nlrp3 inflammasome inhibitors markedly suppressed such adverse effects, suggesting ND-induced platelet activation and pyroptosis involves surface P-selectin-mediated enhancement of mitochondrial superoxide levels and Nlrp3 inflammasome activation. In addition, challenges of NDs induced less platelet pyroptosis and displayed less thrombocytopenia in P-selectin (Selp^-/-), Nlrp3 (Nlrp3^-/-) and caspase-1 (Casp1^-/-) mutants, as compared to the wild type mice. Blockers of P-selectin, ROS, and Nlrp3 inflammasome pathways could be considered as antidotes for ND induced platelet activation and thrombocytopenia.

Immunotherapeutic nanoparticles: From autoimmune disease control to the development of vaccines

The development of nanoparticles (NPs) with potential therapeutic uses represents an area of vast interest in the scientific community during the last years. Recently, the pandemic caused by COVID-19 motivated a race for vaccines creation to overcome the crisis generated. This is a good demonstration that nanotechnology will most likely be the basis of future immunotherapy. Moreover, the number of publications based on nanosystems has significantly increased in recent years and it is expected that most of these developments can go on to experimentation in clinical stages soon. The therapeutic use of NPs to combat different diseases such as cancer, allergies or autoimmune diseases will depend on their characteristics, their targets, and the transported molecules. This review presents an in-depth analysis of recent advances that have been developed in order to obtain novel nanoparticulate based tools for the treatment of allergies, autoimmune diseases and for their use in vaccines. Moreover, it is highlighted that by providing targeted delivery an increase in the potential of vaccines to induce an immune response is expected in the future. Definitively, the here gathered analysis is a good demonstration that nanotechnology will be the basis of future immunotherapy.

Advanced Pancreatic Cancer Patient Benefit From Personalized Neoantigen Nanovaccine Based Immunotherapy: A Case Report

Personal neoantigen vaccines are considered to be effective methods for inducing, amplifying and diversifying antitumor T cell responses. We recently conducted a clinical study that combined neoantigen nanovaccine with anti-PD-1 antibody. Here, we reported a case with a clear beneficial outcome from this treatment. We established a process that includes comprehensive identification of individual mutations, computational prediction of new epitopes, and design and manufacture of unique nanovaccines for this patient. Nanovaccine started after a relapse in third-line treatment. We assessed the patient's clinical outcome and circulating immune response. In this advanced pancreatic cancer patient, the OS associated with the vaccine treatment was 10.5 months. A peptide-specific T-cell response against 9 of the 12 vaccine peptides could be detected sequentially. Robust neoantigen-specific T cell responses were also detected by IFN-γ ELISPOT and intracellular cytokine staining. In conclusion, sustained functional neoantigen-specific T cell therapy combined with immune checkpoint targeting may be well suited to help control progressive metastatic pancreatic cancer.

Immuno-modulatory biomaterials as anti-inflammatory therapeutics

Biocompatible and biodegradable biomaterials are used extensively in regenerative medicine and serve as a tool for tissue replacement, as a platform for regeneration of injured tissue, and as a vehicle for delivery of drugs. One of the key factors that must be addressed in developing successful biomaterial-based therapeutics is inflammation. Whilst inflammation is initially essential for wound healing; bringing about clearance of debris and infection, prolonged inflammation can result in delayed wound healing, rejection of the biomaterial, further tissue damage and increased scarring and fibrosis. In this context, the choice of biomaterial must be considered carefully to minimise further induction of inflammation. Here we address the ability of the biomaterials themselves to modulate inflammatory responses and outline how the physico-chemical properties of the materials impact on their pro and anti-inflammatory properties (Fig. 1).

NLRP3 inflammasome activation determines the fibrogenic potential of PM2.5 air pollution particles in the lung

Airborne fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is known to cause respiratory inflammation such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung fibrosis. NLRP3 inflammasome activation has been implicated in these diseases; however, due to the complexity in PM_2.5 compositions, it is difficult to differentiate the roles of the components in triggering this pathway. We collected eight real-life PM_2.5 samples for a comparative analysis of their effects on NLRP3 inflammasome activation and lung fibrosis. In vitro assays showed that although the PM_2.5 particles did not induce significant cytotoxicity at the dose range of 12.5 to 100 µg/mL, they induced potent TNF-α and IL-1β production in PMA differentiated THP-1 human macrophages and TGF-β1 production in BEAS-2B human bronchial epithelial cells. At the dose of 100 µg/mL, PM_2.5 induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation by inducing lysosomal damage and cathepsin B release, leading to IL-1β production. This was confirmed by using NLRP3- and ASC-deficient cells as well as a cathepsin B inhibitor, ca-074 ME. Administration of PM_2.5 via oropharyngeal aspiration at 2 mg/kg induced significant TGF-β1 production in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and collagen deposition in the lung at 21 days post-exposure, suggesting PM_2.5 has the potential to induce pulmonary fibrosis. The ranking of in vitro IL-1β production correlates well with the in vivo total cell count, TGF-β1 production, and collagen deposition. In summary, we demonstrate that the PM_2.5 is capable of inducing NLRP3 inflammasome activation, which triggers a series of cellular responses in the lung to induce fibrosis.

Engineered Hydroxyapatite Nanoadjuvants with Controlled Shape and Aspect Ratios Reveal Their Immunomodulatory Potentials

Hydroxyapatite (HAP) has been formulated as adjuvants in vaccines for human use. However, the optimal properties required for HAP nanoparticles to elicit adjuvanticity and the underlying immunopotentiation mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Herein, a library of HAP nanorods and nanospheres was synthesized to explore the effect of the particle shape and aspect ratio on the immune responses in vitro and adjuvanticity in vivo. It was demonstrated that long aspect ratio HAP nanorods induced a higher degree of cell membrane depolarization and subsequent uptake, and the internalized particles elicited cathepsin B release and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation, which further led to pro-inflammatory responses. Furthermore, the physicochemical property-dependent immunostimulation capacities were correlated with their humoral responses in a murine hepatitis B surface antigen immunization model, with long aspect ratio HAP nanorods inducing higher antigen-specific antibody productions. Importantly, HAP nanorods significantly up-regulated the IFN-γ secretion and CD107α expression on CD8⁺ T cells in immunized mice. Further mechanistic studies demonstrated that HAP nanorods with defined properties exerted immunomodulatory effects by enhanced antigen persistence and immune cell recruitments. Our study provides a rational design strategy for engineered nanomaterial-based vaccine adjuvants.

Pro-inflammatory response and genotoxicity caused by clay and graphene nanomaterials in A549 and THP-1 cells

Nanoclays and graphene oxide nanomaterials represent a class of materials sharing similar shapes constituted of high aspect ratio platelets. The increased production of these materials for various industrial applications increases the risk of occupational exposure, consequently with elevated risk of adverse reactions and development of pulmonary diseases, including lung cancer. In this study, pro-inflammatory responses and genotoxicity were assessed in alveolar epithelial cells (A549) and activated THP-1 macrophages (THP-1a) after exposure to three nanoclays; a pristine (Bentonite) and two surface modified (benzalkonium chloride-coated Nanofil9, and dialkyldimethyl-ammonium-coated NanofilSE3000); graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) nanomaterials. The pro-inflammatory response in terms of IL-8 expression was strongest in cells exposed to Bentonite, whereas surface modification resulted in decreased toxicity in both cell lines when exposed to Nanofil9 and NanofilSE3000. GO and r-GO induced a pro-inflammatory response in A549 cells, while no effect was detected with the two nanomaterials on THP-1a cells. The pro-inflammatory response was strongly correlated with in vivo inflammation in mice after intra-tracheal instillation when doses were normalized against surface area. Genotoxicity was assessed as DNA strand breaks, using the alkaline comet assay. In A549 cells, an increase in DNA strand breaks was detected only in cells exposed to Bentonite, whereas Bentonite, NanofilSE3000 and GO caused an increased level of genotoxicity in THP-1a cells. Genotoxicity in THP-1a cells was concordant with the DNA damage in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cells following 1 and 3 days after intra-tracheal instillation in mice. In conclusion, this study shows that surface modification of pristine nanoclays reduces the inflammatory and genotoxic response in A549 and THP-1a cells, and these in vitro models show comparable toxicity to what seen in previous mouse studies with the same materials.

Advanced Nanomaterials for Preparedness Against (Re-)Emerging Viral Diseases

While the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) accounts for the current global pandemic, the emergence of other unknown pathogens, named "Disease X," remains a serious concern in the future. Emerging or re-emerging pathogens continue to pose significant challenges to global public health. In response, the scientific community has been urged to create advanced platform technologies to meet the ever-increasing needs presented by these devastating diseases with pandemic potential. This review aims to bring new insights to allow for the application of advanced nanomaterials in future diagnostics, vaccines, and antiviral therapies, thereby addressing the challenges associated with the current preparedness strategies in clinical settings against viruses. The application of nanomaterials has advanced medicine and provided cutting-edge solutions for unmet needs. Herein, an overview of the currently available nanotechnologies is presented, highlighting the significant features that enable them to control infectious diseases, and identifying the challenges that remain to be addressed for the commercial production of nano-based products is presented. Finally, to conclude, the development of a nanomaterial-based system using a "One Health" approach is suggested. This strategy would require a transdisciplinary collaboration and communication between all stakeholders throughout the entire process spanning across research and development, as well as the preclinical, clinical, and manufacturing phases.

Core Hydrophobicity of Supramolecular Nanoparticles Induces NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

Designer nanomaterials capable of delivering immunomodulators to specific immune cells have been extensively studied. However, emerging evidence suggests that several of these nanomaterials can nonspecifically activate NLRP3 inflammasomes, an intracellular multiprotein complex controlling various immune cell functions, leading to undesirable effects. To understand what nanoparticle attributes activate inflammasomes, we designed a multiparametric polymer supramolecular nanoparticle system to modulate various surface and core nanoparticle-associated molecular patterns (NAMPs), one at a time. We also investigated several underlying signaling pathways, including lysosomal rupture-cathepsin B maturation and calcium flux-mitochondrial ROS production, to gain mechanistic insights into NAMPs-mediated inflammasome activation. Here, we report that out of the four NAMPs tested, core hydrophobicity strongly activates and positively correlates with the NLRP3 assembly compared to surface charge, core rigidity, and surface hydrophobicity. Moreover, we demonstrate different signaling inclinations and kinetics followed by differential core hydrophobicity patterns with the most hydrophobic ones exhibiting both lysosomal rupture and calcium influx early on. Altogether, this study will help design the next generation of polymeric nanomaterials for specific regulation of inflammasome activation, aiding efficient immunotherapy and vaccine delivery.

The NLRP3 Inflammasome in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia. Although AD is one of the most socioeconomically devastating diseases confronting humanity, no "curative" disease modifying drug has been identified. Recent decades have witnessed repeated failures of drug trials and have called into question the utility of the amyloid hypothesis approach to AD therapeutics design. Accordingly, new neurochemical processes are being evaluated and explored as sources of alternative druggable targets. Among these newly identified targets, neuroinflammation is emerging as a front-runner, and within the realm of neuroinflammation, the inflammasome, particularly the NLRP3 complex, is garnering focussed attention. This review summarizes current data and approaches to understanding the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in neuroinflammation and AD, and systematically identifies and evaluates multiple targets within the NLRP3 inflammasome cascade as putative drug targets.

Carbon-Based Nanomaterials Increase Reactivity of Primary Monocytes towards Various Bacteria and Modulate Their Differentiation into Macrophages

The evaluation of carbon-based nanomaterials' (C-BNMs') interactions with the immune system, notably their ability to cause inflammation, is a critical step in C-BNM health risk assessment. Particular attention should be given to those C-BNMs that do not cause direct cytotoxicity or inflammation on their own. However, the intracellular presence of these non-biodegradable nanomaterials could dysregulate additional cell functions. This is even more crucial in the case of phagocytes, which are the main mediators of defensive inflammation towards pathogens. Hence, our study was focused on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and two different types of graphene platelets (GPs) and whether their intracellular presence modulates a proinflammatory response from human primary monocytes towards common pathogens. Firstly, we confirmed that all tested C-BNMs caused neither direct cytotoxicity nor the release of tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6 or IL-10. However, such pre-exposed monocytes showed increased responsiveness to additional bacterial stimuli. In response to several types of bacteria, monocytes pre-treated with GP1 produced a significantly higher quantity of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10. Monocytes pre-treated with MWCNTs produced increased levels of IL-10. All the tested C-BNMs enhanced monocyte phagocytosis and accelerated their differentiation towards macrophages. This study confirms the immunomodulatory potential of C-BNMs.

An Integrated Approach to Testing and Assessment to Support Grouping and Read-Across of Nanomaterials After Inhalation Exposure

Introduction: Here, we describe the generation of hypotheses for grouping nanoforms (NFs) after inhalation exposure and the tailored Integrated Approaches to Testing and Assessment (IATA) with which each specific hypothesis can be tested. This is part of a state-of-the-art framework to support the hypothesis-driven grouping and read-across of NFs, as developed by the EU-funded Horizon 2020 project GRACIOUS.

Development of Grouping Hypotheses and IATA: Respirable NFs, depending on their physicochemical properties, may dissolve either in lung lining fluid or in acidic lysosomal fluid after uptake by cells. Alternatively, NFs may also persist in particulate form. Dissolution in the lung is, therefore, a decisive factor for the toxicokinetics of NFs. This has led to the development of four hypotheses, broadly grouping NFs as instantaneous, quickly, gradually, and very slowly dissolving NFs. For instantaneously dissolving NFs, hazard information can be derived by read-across from the ions. For quickly dissolving particles, as accumulation of particles is not expected, ion toxicity will drive the toxic profile. However, the particle aspect influences the location of the ion release. For gradually dissolving and very slowly dissolving NFs, particle-driven toxicity is of concern. These NFs may be grouped by their reactivity and inflammation potency. The hypotheses are substantiated by a tailored IATA, which describes the minimum information and laboratory assessments of NFs under investigation required to justify grouping.

Conclusion: The GRACIOUS hypotheses and tailored IATA for respiratory toxicity of inhaled NFs can be used to support decision making regarding Safe(r)-by-Design product development or adoption of precautionary measures to mitigate potential risks. It can also be used to support read-across of adverse effects such as pulmonary inflammation and subsequent downstream effects such as lung fibrosis and lung tumor formation after long-term exposure.

Nanoparticles derived from insect exoskeleton modulates NLRP3 inflammasome complex activation in cervical cancer cell line model

Background

Immune evasion is an important hallmark of cancer progression and tumourigenesis. Among the cancer types, cervical cancer has very high global prevalence, severely affecting female reproductive health. Its preponderance is also observed in the Indian health sector.

Results

The NLRP3 inflammasome, an intracellular complex regulates the innate immune activity and a variant gene of it has been significantly associated with cervical cancer development. We aimed to evaluate the potential role of our chitosan engineered nanoparticles (CSNP) and gallic acid conjugated chitosan (gCSNP), to modulate the NLRP3 inflammasome complex in cervical cancer cell lines to explore their novel physicochemical properties. The encapsulation of gallic acid (GA) with chitosan was performed using ion gelation method. The CSNP and gCSNP nanoparticles ranged between 155 and 181 nm as determined by zeta sizer. The conjugations were validated by FTIR and XRD analysis. In the cervical cell line model, CSNP suppressed NLRP3 inflammasome activation in contrast to gCSNP at higher doses.

Conclusion

In contrast to gCSNP, the CSNP not only demonstrated inhibitory effect on the expression of genes coding for the NLRP3 inflammasome complex (signal 1—priming), but also decreased relative expression of gene involved in the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome complex (signal 2—activation). Conjugation of gallic acid reversed the immunosuppressor mimicking action of CSNP in cervical cancer cell line. Future research can reveal the immunomodulatory mechanism of CSNP may have its translational significance as potential treatment strategies targeting immune evasion as an important hallmark of cancer.

Graphical abstract

Nanotoxicology and Nanomedicine: The Yin and Yang of Nano-Bio Interactions for the New Decade

Nanotoxicology and nanomedicine are two sub-disciplines of nanotechnology focusing on the phenomena, mechanisms, and engineering at the nano-bio interface. For the better part of the past three decades, these two disciplines have been largely developing independently of each other. Yet recent breakthroughs in microbiome research and the current COVID-19 pandemic demonstrate that holistic approaches are crucial for solving grand challenges in global health. Here we show the Yin and Yang relationship between the two fields by highlighting their shared goals of making safer nanomaterials, improved cellular and organism models, as well as advanced methodologies. We focus on the transferable knowledge between the two fields as nanotoxicological research is moving from pristine to functional nanomaterials, while inorganic nanomaterials - the main subjects of nanotoxicology - have become an emerging source for the development of nanomedicines. We call for a close partnership between the two fields in the new decade, to harness the full potential of nanotechnology for benefiting human health and environmental safety.