The rat H3 receptor: gene organization and multiple isoforms

Histamine H3 Receptor Isoforms: Insights from Alternative Splicing to Functional Complexity

Alternative splicing significantly enhances the diversity of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family, including the histamine H3 receptor (H3R). This post-transcriptional modification generates multiple H3R isoforms with potentially distinct pharmacological and physiological profiles. H3R is primarily involved in the presynaptic inhibition of neurotransmitter release in the central nervous system. Despite the approval of pitolisant for narcolepsy (Wakix®) and daytime sleepiness in adults with obstructive sleep apnea (Ozawade®) and ongoing clinical trials for other H3R antagonists/inverse agonists, the functional significance of the numerous H3R isoforms remains largely enigmatic. Recent publicly available RNA sequencing data have confirmed the expression of multiple H3R isoforms in the brain, with some isoforms exhibiting unique tissue-specific distribution patterns hinting at isoform-specific functions and interactions within neural circuits. In this review, we discuss the complexity of H3R isoforms with a focus on their potential roles in central nervous system (CNS) function. Comparative analysis across species highlights evolutionary conservation and divergence in H3R splicing, suggesting species-specific regulatory mechanisms. Understanding the functionality of H3R isoforms is crucial for the development of targeted therapeutics. This knowledge will inform the design of more precise pharmacological interventions, potentially enhancing therapeutic efficacy and reducing adverse effects in the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Pharmacological characterization of seven human histamine H3 receptor isoforms

The histamine H3 receptor (H3R) regulates as a presynaptic G protein-coupled receptor the release of histamine and other neurotransmitters in the brain, and is consequently a potential therapeutic target for neuronal disorders. The human H3R encodes for seven splice variants that vary in the length of intracellular loop 3 and/or the C-terminal tail but are all able to induce heterotrimeric Gi protein signaling. The last two decades H3R drug discovery and lead optimization has been exclusively focused on the 445 amino acids-long reference isoform H3R-445. In this study, we pharmacologically characterized for the first time all seven H3R isoforms by determining their binding affinities for reference histamine H3 receptor agonists and inverse agonists. The H3R-453, H3R-415, and H3R-413 isoforms display similar binding affinities for all ligands as the H3R-445. However, increased agonist binding affinities were observed for the three shorter isoforms H3R-329, H3R-365, and H3R-373, whereas inverse agonists such as the approved anti-narcolepsy drug pitolisant (Wakix®) displayed significantly decreased binding affinities for the latter two isoforms. This opposite change in binding affinity of agonist versus inverse agonists on H3R-365 and H3R-373 is associated with their higher constitutive activity in a cAMP biosensor assay as compared to the other five isoforms. The observed differences in pharmacology between longer and shorter H3R isoforms should be considered in future drug discovery programs.

Effect of moderate prenatal ethanol exposure on the differential expression of two histamine H3 receptor isoforms in different brain regions of adult rat offspring

We have reported that prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) elevates histamine H3 receptor (H3R) agonist-mediated inhibition of glutamatergic neurotransmission in the dentate gyrus. Here, we hypothesized that PAE alters the expression of two prominent H3R isoforms namely, the rH3A and rH3C isoforms, which have differing intrinsic activities for H3R agonists, in a manner that may contribute to heightened H3R function in PAE rats. In contrast to our predictions, we found different effects of sex and PAE in various brain regions with significant interactions between sex and PAE in dentate gyrus and entorhinal cortex for both isoforms. Subsequently, to confirm the PAE-and sex-induced differences on H3R isoform mRNA expression, we developed a polyclonal antibody selective for the rH3A inform. Western blots of rH3A mRNA-transfected HEK-293 cells identified a  ~ 48 kDa band of binding consistent with the molecular weight of rH3A, thus confirming antibody sensitivity for rH3A protein. In parallel, we also established a pan-H3R knockout mice line to confirm antibody specificity in rodent brain membranes. Both qRT-PCR and H3R agonist-stimulated [35S]-GTPγS binding confirmed the absence of mH3A mRNA and H3 receptor-effector coupling in H3R knockout (KO) mice. Subsequent western blotting studies in both rat and mouse brain membranes were unable to detect rH3A antibody binding at ~48 kDa. Rather, the H3RA antibody bound to a  ~ 55 kDa band in both rat and mouse membranes, including H3R KO mice, suggesting H3RA binding was not specific for H3Rs in rodent membranes. Subsequent LC/MS analysis of the ~55 kDa band in frontal cortical membranes identified the highly abundant beta subunit of ATPase in both WT and KO mice. Finally, LC/MS analysis of the ~48 kDa band from rH3A mRNA-transfected HEK-293 cell membranes was able to detect rH3A protein, but its presence was below the limits of quantitative reliability. We conclude that PAE alters rH3A and rH3C mRNA expression in some of the same brain regions where we have previously reported PAE-induced alterations in H3R-effector coupling. However, interpreting the functional consequences of altered H3R isoform expression was limited given the technical challenges of measuring the relatively low abundance of rH3A protein in native membrane preparations.

Effects of histamine on the contractility of the rat distal cauda epididymis

The motor activity of the epididymis duct is an essential process for male fertility and it is regulated by hormonal, neuronal and epithelial mechanisms. However, although there is evidence for the presence of histamine in the epididymis, its effects on epididymal motor activity are unknown. This study sought to evaluate the contractile effects of histamine on the rat distal cauda epididymis duct. Segments of the distal cauda epididymis duct from male Wistar rats were isolated and used in isolated organ bath experiments to evaluate the contractile effects of histamine in the absence or presence of antagonists of histamine receptors, α₁-adrenoceptors and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. The effects of histamine on noradrenaline induced contractions were also investigated. Histamine was able to induce phasic contractions on rat distal cauda epididymis duct which were prevented by promethazine 10-1000 nM (H₁ receptor antagonist), ranitidine 1-100 μM (H₂ receptor antagonist), atropine 100 nM (muscarinic antagonist), and prazosin 100 nM (α₁-adrenoceptor antagonist). In addition, histamine was also able to modify noradrenaline-induced contractions possibly via activation of H₁ and H₂ receptors. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that histamine can induce phasic contractions of rat distal cauda epididymis via H₂ receptors and autonomic neurotransmitters. Histamine may also exert modulatory actions on contractions of rat distal cauda epididymis duct induced by adrenergic receptor agonists. Further studies are necessary to unveil the localization of histamine receptors within the epididymal duct and the consequences of manipulation of the histaminergic system on epididymal function and male fertility.

Histamine receptors in heart failure

The biogenic amine, histamine, is found predominantly in mast cells, as well as specific histaminergic neurons. Histamine exerts its many and varied actions via four G-protein-coupled receptors numbered one through four. Histamine has multiple effects on cardiac physiology, mainly via the histamine 1 and 2 receptors, which on a simplified level have opposing effects on heart rate, force of contraction, and coronary vasculature function. In heart failure, the actions of the histamine receptors are complex, the histamine 1 receptor appears to have detrimental actions predominantly in the coronary vasculature, while the histamine 2 receptor mediates adverse effects on cardiac remodeling via actions on cardiomyocytes, fibroblasts, and even endothelial cells. Conversely, there is growing evidence that the histamine 3 receptor exerts protective actions when activated. Little is known about the histamine 4 receptor in heart failure. Targeting histamine receptors as a therapeutic approach for heart failure is an important area of investigation given the over-the-counter access to many compounds targeting these receptors, and thus the relatively straight forward possibility of drug repurposing. In this review, we briefly describe histamine receptor signaling and the actions of each histamine receptor in normal cardiac physiology, before describing in more detail the known role of each histamine receptor in adverse cardiac remodeling and heart failure. This includes information from both clinical studies and experimental animal models. It is the goal of this review article to bring more focus to the possibility of targeting histamine receptors as therapy for heart failure.

BRET Analysis of GPCR Dimers in Neurons and Non-Neuronal Cells: Evidence for Inactive, Agonist, and Constitutive Conformations

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are dimeric proteins, but the functional consequences of the process are still debated. Active GPCR conformations are promoted either by agonists or constitutive activity. Inverse agonists decrease constitutive activity by promoting inactive conformations. The histamine H₃ receptor (H₃R) is the target of choice for the study of GPCRs because it displays high constitutive activity. Here, we study the dimerization of recombinant and brain H₃R and explore the effects of H₃R ligands of different intrinsic efficacy on dimerization. Co-immunoprecipitations and Western blots showed that H₃R dimers co-exist with monomers in transfected HEK 293 cells and in rodent brains. Bioluminescence energy transfer (BRET) analysis confirmed the existence of spontaneous H₃R dimers, not only in living HEK 293 cells but also in transfected cortical neurons. In both cells, agonists and constitutive activity of the H₃R decreased BRET signals, whereas inverse agonists and GTPγS, which promote inactive conformations, increased BRET signals. These findings show the existence of spontaneous H₃R dimers not only in heterologous systems but also in native tissues, which are able to adopt a number of allosteric conformations, from more inactive to more active states.

The Histamine 3 Receptor Is Expressed in the Heart and Its Activation Opposes Adverse Cardiac Remodeling in the Angiotensin II Mouse Model

Histamine is a basic amine stored in mast cells, with its release capable of activating one of four histamine receptors. The histamine 3 receptor (H3R) is known to be cardioprotective during acute ischemia by acting to limit norepinephrine release. However, a recent study reported that myofibroblasts isolated from the infarct zone of rat hearts responded to H3R activation by up-regulating collagen production. Thus, it is necessary to clarify the potential role of the H3R in relation to fibrosis in the heart. We identified that the mouse left ventricle (LV) expresses the H3R. Isolation of mouse cardiac fibroblasts determined that while angiotensin II (Ang II) increased levels of the H3R, these cells did not produce excess collagen in response to H3R activation. Using the Ang II mouse model of adverse cardiac remodeling, we found that while H3R blockade had little effect on cardiac fibrosis, activation of the H3R reduced cardiac fibrosis and macrophage infiltration. These findings suggest that when activated, the H3R is anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic in the mouse heart and may be a promising target for protecting against cardiac fibrosis.

Region-specific regulation of central histaminergic H3 receptor expression in a mouse model of cow's milk allergy

Central histaminergic H3 receptor (H3R) has been extensively investigated as a potential therapeutic target for various neurological and neurodegenerative disorders. Despite promising results in preclinical rodent models, clinical trials have not provided conclusive evidence for the benefit of H3R antagonists to alleviate cognitive and behavioral symptoms of these disorders. Inconsistent pharmacological efficacies may arise from aberrant changes in H3R over time during disease development. Because H3R is involved in feedback inhibition of histamine synthesis and secretion, the expression of the autoreceptor may also be reciprocally regulated by altered histamine levels in a pathological condition. Thus, we investigated H3R expression in a mouse model of cow's milk allergy, a condition associated with increased histamine levels. Mice were sensitized to bovine whey proteins (WP) over 5 weeks and H3R protein and transcript levels were examined in the brain. Substantially increased H3R immunoreactivity was observed in various brain regions of WP-sensitized mice compared to sham mice. Elevated H3R expression was also found in the thalamic/hypothalamic region. The expression of histaminergic H1, but not H2, receptor subtype was also increased in this and the midbrain regions. Unlike the brain, all three histaminergic receptors were increased in the small intestine. These results indicated that the central histaminergic receptors were altered in WP-sensitized mice in a subtype- and region-specific manner, which likely contributed to behavioral changes we observed in these mice. Our study also suggests that altered levels of H3R could be considered during a pharmacological intervention of a neurological disease.

Histaminergic neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus as a control centre for wakefulness

Histamine plays pleiotropic roles as a neurotransmitter in the physiology of brain function, this includes the maintenance of wakefulness, appetite regulation and memory retrieval. Since numerous studies have revealed an association between histaminergic dysfunction and diverse neuropsychiatric disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia, a large number of compounds acting on the brain histamine system have been developed to treat neurological disorders. In 2016, pitolisant, which was developed as a histamine H₃ receptor inverse agonist by Schwartz and colleagues, was launched for the treatment of narcolepsy, emphasising the prominent role of brain histamine on wakefulness. Recent advances in neuroscientific techniques such as chemogenetic and optogenetic approaches have led to remarkable progress in the understanding of histaminergic neural circuits essential for the control of wakefulness. In this review article, we summarise the basic knowledge about the histaminergic nervous system and the mechanisms underlying sleep/wake regulation that are controlled by the brain histamine system. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue on Neurochemistry in Japan. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v178.4/issuetoc.

Prenatal Alcohol Exposure Increases Histamine H3 Receptor-Mediated Inhibition of Glutamatergic Neurotransmission in Rat Dentate Gyrus

BACKGROUND

We have reported that prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE)-induced deficits in dentate gyrus, long-term potentiation (LTP), and memory are ameliorated by the histamine H3 receptor inverse agonist ABT-239. Curiously, ABT-239 did not enhance LTP or memory in control offspring. Here, we initiated an investigation of how PAE alters histaminergic neurotransmission in the dentate gyrus and other brain regions employing combined radiohistochemical and electrophysiological approaches in vitro to examine histamine H3 receptor number and function.

METHODS

Long-Evans rat dams voluntarily consumed either a 0% or 5% ethanol solution 4 hours each day throughout gestation. This pattern of drinking, which produces a mean peak maternal serum ethanol concentration of 60.8 ± 5.8 mg/dl, did not affect maternal weight gain, litter size, or offspring birthweight.

RESULTS

Radiohistochemical studies in adult offspring revealed that specific [3 H]-A349821 binding to histamine H3 receptors was not different in PAE rats compared to controls. However, H3 receptor-mediated Gi /Go protein-effector coupling, as measured by methimepip-stimulated [35 S]-GTPγS binding, was significantly increased in cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and dentate gyrus of PAE rats compared to control. A LIGAND analysis of detailed methimepip concentration-response curves in dentate gyrus indicated that PAE significantly elevates receptor-effector coupling by a lower affinity H3 receptor population without significantly altering the affinities of H3 receptor subpopulations. In agreement with the [35 S]-GTPγS studies, a similar range of methimepip concentrations also inhibited electrically evoked field excitatory postsynaptic potential responses and increased paired-pulse ratio, a measure of decreased glutamate release, to a significantly greater extent in dentate gyrus slices from PAE rats than in controls.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that a PAE-induced elevation in H3 receptor-mediated inhibition of glutamate release from perforant path terminals as 1 mechanism contributing the LTP deficits previously observed in the dentate gyrus of PAE rats, as well as providing a mechanistic basis for the efficacy of H3 receptor inverse agonists for ameliorating these deficits.

The Histamine H3 Receptor: Structure, Pharmacology, and Function

Among the four G protein-coupled receptors (H₁-H₄) identified as mediators of the biologic effects of histamine, the H₃ receptor (H₃R) is distinguished for its almost exclusive expression in the nervous system and the large variety of isoforms generated by alternative splicing of the corresponding mRNA. Additionally, it exhibits dual functionality as autoreceptor and heteroreceptor, and this enables H₃Rs to modulate the histaminergic and other neurotransmitter systems. The cloning of the H₃R cDNA in 1999 by Lovenberg et al. allowed for detailed studies of its molecular aspects. In this work, we review the characteristics of the H₃R, namely, its structure, constitutive activity, isoforms, signal transduction pathways, regional differences in expression and localization, selective agonists, antagonists and inverse agonists, dimerization with other neurotransmitter receptors, and the main presynaptic and postsynaptic effects resulting from its activation. The H₃R has attracted interest as a potential drug target for the treatment of several important neurologic and psychiatric disorders, such as Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases, Gilles de la Tourette syndrome, and addiction.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. XCVIII. Histamine Receptors

Histamine is a developmentally highly conserved autacoid found in most vertebrate tissues. Its physiological functions are mediated by four 7-transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors (H1R, H2R, H3R, H4R) that are all targets of pharmacological intervention. The receptors display molecular heterogeneity and constitutive activity. H1R antagonists are long known antiallergic and sedating drugs, whereas the H2R was identified in the 1970s and led to the development of H2R-antagonists that revolutionized stomach ulcer treatment. The crystal structure of ligand-bound H1R has rendered it possible to design new ligands with novel properties. The H3R is an autoreceptor and heteroreceptor providing negative feedback on histaminergic and inhibition on other neurons. A block of these actions promotes waking. The H4R occurs on immuncompetent cells and the development of anti-inflammatory drugs is anticipated.

Histamine H3 receptor activation inhibits dopamine synthesis but not release or uptake in rat nucleus accumbens

We studied the effect of activating histamine H3 receptors (H3Rs) on rat nucleus accumbens (rNAcc) dopaminergic transmission by analyzing [(3)H]-dopamine uptake by synaptosomes, and dopamine synthesis and depolarization-evoked [(3)H]-dopamine release in slices. The uptake of [(3)H]-dopamine by rNAcc synaptosomes was not affected by the H3R agonist RAMH (10(-10)-10(-6) M). In rNAcc slices perfusion with RAMH (1 μM) had no significant effect on [(3)H]-dopamine release evoked by depolarization with 30 mM K(+) (91.4 ± 4.5% of controls). The blockade of dopamine D2 autoreceptors with sulpiride (1 μM) enhanced K(+)-evoked [(3)H]-dopamine release (168.8 ± 15.5% of controls), but under this condition RAMH (1 μM) also failed to affect [(3)H]-dopamine release. Dopamine synthesis was evaluated in rNAcc slices incubated with the l-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) decarboxylase inhibitor NSD-1015 (1 mM). Forskolin-induced DOPA accumulation (220.1 ± 10.4% of controls) was significantly reduced by RAMH (41.1 ± 6.5% and 43.5 ± 9.1% inhibition at 100 nM and 1 μM, respectively), and this effect was prevented by the H3R antagonist ciproxifan (10 μM). DOPA accumulation induced by preventing cAMP degradation with IBMX (iso-butyl-methylxantine, 1 mM) or by activating receptors for the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)/pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) with PACAP-27 (1 μM) was reduced (IBMX) or prevented (PACAP-27) by RAMH (100 nM). In contrast, DOPA accumulation induced by 8-Bromo-cAMP (1 mM) was not affected by RAMH (100 nM). These results indicate that in rNAcc H3Rs do not modulate dopamine uptake or release, but regulate dopamine synthesis by inhibiting cAMP formation and thus PKA activation. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Histamine Receptors'.

The histamine autoreceptor is a short isoform of the H₃ receptor

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The histamine H(3) receptor was identified as the autoreceptor of brain histaminergic neurons. After its cloning, functional H(3) receptor isoforms generated by a deletion in the third intracellular loop were found in the brain. Here, we determined if this autoreceptor was the long or the short isoform. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We hypothesized that the deletion would affect H(3) receptor stereoselectivity. The effects of the enantiomers of two chiral ligands, N(α)-methyl-α-chloromethylhistamine (N(α) Me-αClMeHA) and sopromidine, were investigated on cAMP formation at the H(3(445)) and H(3(413)) receptor isoforms, common to all species. They were further compared with their effects at autoreceptors. They were also compared on [(35)S]GTPγ[S] binding to membranes of rat cerebral cortex, striatum and hypothalamus, the richest area in autoreceptors. KEY RESULTS The stereoselectivity of N(α) Me-αClMeHA enantiomers as agonists was similar at the H(3(413)) receptor isoform and autoreceptors, but lower at the long isoform. While (S) sopromidine did not discriminate between the isoforms, (R) sopromidine was an antagonist at the H(3(413)) receptor isoform and autoreceptors, but a full agonist at the long isoform. In rat brain, stereoselectivity of N(α) Me-αClMeHA was higher in the hypothalamus than in cerebral cortex or striatum, whereas the opposite pattern was found for sopromidine. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The pharmacological profiles of H(3) receptor isoforms differed markedly, showing that the function of autoreceptors was fulfilled by a short isoform, such as the H(3(413)) receptor. Development of drugs selectively targeting autoreceptors might enhance their therapeutic efficacy and/or decrease incidence of side effects.

Alterations in the histaminergic system in the substantia nigra and striatum of Parkinson's patients: a postmortem study

Earlier studies showed neuronal histamine production in the hypothalamic tuberomamillary nucleus to be unchanged in Parkinson's disease (PD), whereas the histamine levels and innervation in the substantia nigra (SN) increased. In the present study we used quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) to assess the changes in the histaminergic system in the SN, caudate nucleus (CN), and putamen (PU) in 7 PD patients and 7 controls. The messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of the histamine receptor-3 (H(3)R), which was localized immunocytochemically in the large pigmented neurons, was significantly decreased in the SN in PD, while histamine receptor-4 (H(4)R)-mRNA expression showed a significant increase in caudate nucleus and PU. In addition, significantly increased mRNA levels of histamine methyltransferase (HMT), a key enzyme involved in histamine metabolism, were found in the SN and in the PU in PD. Moreover, in the SN, the histamine methyltransferase-mRNA showed a strong negative correlation with PD disease duration. Our observations imply the presence of local changes in the histaminergic system that may contribute to PD pathology, and may thus provide a rationale for possible novel therapeutic strategies.

Histamine and histamine receptors in pathogenesis and treatment of multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease associated with chronic inflammatory demyelination of the central nervous system (CNS). Due to disease complexity and heterogeneity, its pathogenesis remains unknown and despite extensive studies, specific effective treatments have not yet been developed. The factors behind the initiation of the inflammatory reactions in CNS have not been identified until now. MS is considered as a complex disease depending on genetic as well as environmental factors. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is the preferential experimental rodent model for MS. Histamine [2-(4-imidazole) ethylamine] is a ubiquitous inflammatory mediator of diverse physiological processes including neurotransmission, secretion of pituitary hormones, and regulation of the gastrointestinal and circulatory systems which can modulate immune responses. Histamine functions are mediated through four G-protein coupled receptors that are named H1-H4 receptor. Histamine is implicated as an important factor in pathophysiology of MS and EAE. It has been shown that histamine can change the permeability of blood brain barrier, which leads to elevation of infiltrated cells in CNS and neuroinflammation. In contrast, there are evidence that show the protective role of histamine in MS and its animal model, EAE. In this review, we try to clarify the role of histamine in pathogenesis of MS, as well as we evaluate the efficacy of histamine receptors agonists and antagonists in treatment of this disease.

Effects of splice sites on the intron retention in histamine H3 receptors from rats and mice

In the alternative splicing, intron retention, of histamine H(3) receptors in rats and mice, the short transcript isoforms that are excised alternatively spliced introns are easily detected in a very low level in rats and are undetectable in mice using the regular PCR protocol. The retained introns have common 5' splice site and different 3' splice sites. The detailed mechanism for the special alternative splicing remains largely unclear. In this study, we developed a minigene splicing system to recapitulate natural alternative splicing of the receptors and investigated the effects of 5' and 3' splice sites on intron retention in HeLa cells. Mutating weak 5' and 3' splice sites of the alternatively spliced introns toward the canonical consensus sequences promoted the splicing of the corresponding introns in rat and mouse minigenes. The effect of splice site strength was context-dependent and much more significant for the 3' splice site of the longer alternative intron than for the 3' splice site of the shorter alternative intron and the common 5' splice sites; it was also more significant in the rat minigene than in the mouse minigene. Mutating the 3' splice site of the longer alternative intron resulted in almost complete splicing of the intron and made the corresponding isoform to become the nearly exclusive transcript in the rat minigene.

Multiple sequence elements determine the intron retention in histamine H3 receptors in rats and mice

Intron retention in histamine H(3) receptors has been found in many mammals, including rats and mice. The short transcript isoforms that exclude alternatively spliced introns are readily detected in very low abundance in rats and are undetectable in mice using the regular PCR approach. The detailed mechanism for the special alternative splicing remains poorly understood. The aim of this work was to investigate the effects of essential splice signals on intron retention and to identify sequence elements that determine the differences in splicing between rats and mice. We have constructed a minigene-splicing system to mimic natural alternative receptor splicing and analyzed the regulatory elements in HEK293 cells. Mutating suboptimal 5' and 3' splice sites toward the consensus sequences can enhance the splicing of corresponding alternative introns. The effect is much more significant for the 3' splice site of the longer intron than for the other two splice sites; it is also more significant in rats than in mice. The splicing differences between rats and mice are primarily determined by the six discrepant nucleotides within the alternative introns, which promote or suppress the intron splicing in different ways and cooperate to make splicing of the two introns more efficient in rats. From these results we conclude that (1) the weakness of the splice sites is an important determinant for very low efficiency during intron splicing and, (2) multiple sequence elements determine the splicing differences between rats and mice. The results provide insight into special alternative splicing regulation in H(3) receptors.

Cloning and characterization of the monkey histamine H3 receptor isoforms

We have recently identified three splice isoforms of the histamine H(3) receptor in multiple brain regions of cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis). Two of the novel isoforms displayed a deletion in the third intracellular loop (H(3)(413) and H(3)(410)), the third isoform H(3)(335) displayed a deletion in the i3 intracellular loop and a complete deletion of the putative fifth transmembrane domain TM5. We have confirmed by RT-PCR the expression of full-length H(3)(445) mRNA as well as H(3)(413), H(3)(410), and H(3)(335) splice isoform mRNA in multiple monkey brain regions including the frontal, parietal and occipital cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampus, amygdala, caudate nucleus, putamen, thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebellum. The full-length isoform H(3)(445) was predominant in all of the regions tested, followed by H(3)(335), with the H(3)(413) and H(3)(410) being of low abundance. When expressed in C6 cells, H(3)(445), H(3)(413), and H(3)(410) exhibit high affinity binding to the agonist ligand [(3)H]-(N)-alpha-methylhistamine with respective pK(D) values of 9.7, 9.7, and 9.6. As expected, the H(3)(335) isoform did not display any saturable binding with [(3)H]-(N)-alpha-methylhistamine. The histamine H(3) receptor agonists histamine, (R)-alpha-methylhistamine, imetit and proxyfan were able to activate calcium mobilization responses through H(3)(445), H(3)(413) and H(3)(410) receptors when they were co-expressed with the chimeric G alpha(qi5)-protein in HEK293 cells, while no response was elicited in cells expressing the H(3)(335) isoform. The existence of multiple H(3) receptor splice isoforms across species raises the possibility that isoform specific properties including ligand affinity, signal transduction coupling, and brain localization may differentially contribute to observed in vivo effects of histamine H(3) receptor antagonists.

The histamine H3 receptor: an attractive target for the treatment of cognitive disorders

The histamine H3 receptor, first described in 1983 as a histamine autoreceptor and later shown to also function as a heteroreceptor that regulates the release of other neurotransmitters, has been the focus of research by numerous laboratories as it represents an attractive drug target for a number of indications including cognition. The purpose of this review is to acquaint the reader with the current understanding of H3 receptor localization and function as a modulator of neurotransmitter release and its effects on cognitive processes, as well as to provide an update on selected H3 antagonists in various states of preclinical and clinical advancement. Blockade of centrally localized H3 receptors by selective H3 receptor antagonists has been shown to enhance the release of neurotransmitters such as histamine, ACh, dopamine and norepinephrine, among others, which play important roles in cognitive processes. The cognitive-enhancing effects of H3 antagonists across multiple cognitive domains in a wide number of preclinical cognition models also bolster confidence in this therapeutic approach for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. However, although a number of clinical studies examining the efficacy of H3 receptor antagonists for a variety of cognitive disorders are currently underway, no clinical proof of concept for an H3 receptor antagonist has been reported to date. The discovery of effective H3 antagonists as therapeutic agents for the novel treatment of cognitive disorders will only be accomplished through continued research efforts that further our insights into the functions of the H3 receptor.

Molecular aspects of the histamine H3 receptor

The cloning of the histamine H(3) receptor (H(3)R) cDNA in 1999 by Lovenberg et al. [10] allowed detailed studies of its molecular aspects and indicated that the H(3)R can activate several signal transduction pathways including G(i/o)-dependent inhibition of adenylyl cyclase, activation of phospholipase A(2), Akt and the mitogen activated kinase as well as the inhibition of the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger and inhibition of K(+)-induced Ca(2+) mobilization. Moreover, cloning of the H(3)R has led to the discovery several H(3)R isoforms generated through alternative splicing of the H(3)R mRNA. The H(3)R has gained the interest of many pharmaceutical companies as a potential drug target for the treatment of various important disorders like obesity, myocardial ischemia, migraine, inflammatory diseases and several CNS disorders like Alzheimer's disease, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and schizophrenia. In this paper, we review various molecular aspects of the hH(3)R including its signal transduction, dimerization and the occurrence of different H(3)R isoforms.

Identification of zebrafish histamine H1, H2 and H3 receptors and effects of histaminergic ligands on behavior

Neuronal histamine regulates several functions in the vertebrate brain. The zebrafish brain contains a widespread histaminergic system and H(3) receptor ligand binding has been reported. In this study we provide evidence for the existence of histamine H(1), H(2) and H(3) receptor genes in zebrafish. Single copies of putative histamine H(1), H(2) and H(3) receptors were identified and cloned from the zebrafish brain. Expression analysis suggested that they are expressed in the brain and a few other tissues. Widespread distribution of zebrafish H(2) receptor binding sites was detected with [(125)I]iodoaminopotentidine in brain sections. Zebrafish larvae were exposed to 1, 10 or 100 microM of the H(1) ligand pyrilamine, the H(2) ligand cimetidine and the H(3) ligands thioperamide and immepip for 5 days. Significant decreases in swimming distance were observed with the highest dose of all ligands, whereas cimetidine gave a significant decrease also with 1 and 10 microM doses. These results provide the first molecular biological evidence for the presence of histamine receptors in zebrafish. These histamine receptors resemble those of higher vertebrates and they provide a useful model for pharmacological and behavioral studies for characterizing the functions of histamine in more detail.

Compared pharmacology of human histamine H3 and H4 receptors: structure-activity relationships of histamine derivatives

Various histamine derivatives were investigated at the human H3 receptor (H3R) and H4 receptor (H4R) stably expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293 cells using [125I]iodoproxyfan and [3H]histamine binding, respectively. In Tris buffer, [3H]histamine binding to membranes of HEK(hH4R) cells was monophasic (K(D) of 3.8+/-0.8 nM). In phosphate buffer, the Hill coefficient was decreased (n(H) = 0.5+/-0.1) and a large fraction of the binding was converted into a low-affinity component (K(D) = 67+/-27 nM). The inhibition of [3H]histamine binding by two agonists, a protean agonist and five antagonists/inverse agonists confirms that the potency of many H3R ligands is retained or only slightly reduced at the H4R. Histamine derivatives substituted with methyl groups in alpha, beta or N(alpha) position of the side chain retained a nanomolar potency at the H3R, but their affinity was dramatically decreased at the H4R. With relative potencies to histamine of 282 and 0.13% at the H3R and H4R, respectively, (+/-)-alpha,beta-dimethylhistamine is a potent and selective H3R agonist. Chiral alpha-branched analogues exhibited a marked stereoselectivity at the H3R and H4R, the enantiomers with a configuration equivalent to L-histidine being preferred at both receptors. The methylsubstitution of the imidazole ring was also studied. The relative potency to histamine of 4-methylhistamine (4-MeHA) at the H4R (67%) was similar to that reported at H2 receptors but, owing to its high affinity at the H4R (Ki = 7.0+/-1.2 nM) and very low potency at H1- and H3-receptors, it can be considered as a potent and selective H4R agonist. On inhibition of forskolin-induced cAMP formation, all the compounds tested, including 4-MeHA, behaved as full agonists at both receptors. However, the maximal inhibition achieved at the H4R (approximately -30%) was much lower than at the H3R (approximately -80%). Thioperamide behaved as an inverse agonist at both receptors and increased cAMP formation with the same maximal effect (approximately +25%). In conclusion, although the pharmacological profiles of the human H3R and H4R overlap, the structure-activity relationships of histamine derivatives at both receptors strongly differ and lead to the identification of selective compounds.

Perspectives on cognitive domains, H3 receptor ligands and neurological disease

Histamine H(3) receptor agonists and antagonists have been evaluated in numerous in vitro and in vivo animal models to better understand how H(3) receptors modulate neurotransmitter function in the central nervous system. Likewise, behavioural models have explored the hypothesis that changes in neurotransmitter release could enhance cognitive function in human diseases. This review examines the reported effects of H(3) receptor ligands and how they influence cognitive behaviour. These data are interpreted on the basis of different cognitive domains that are relevant to neuropsychiatric diseases. Because of the diversity of H(3) receptors, their function and their influence on neurotransmitter systems, considerable promise exists for H(3) ligands to treat diseases in which aspects of learning and memory are impaired. However, because of the complexities of the histaminergic system and H(3) receptors and the lack of clinical data so far, proof of principle for use in human disease remains to be established.

Discovery of naturally occurring splice variants of the rat histamine H3 receptor that act as dominant-negative isoforms

We described previously the cDNA cloning of three functional rat histamine H3 receptor (rH3R) isoforms as well as the differential brain expression patterns of their corresponding mRNAs and signaling properties of the resulting rH3A, rH3B, and rH3C receptor isoforms (Mol Pharmacol 59:1-8). In the current report, we describe the cDNA cloning, mRNA localization in the rat central nervous system, and pharmacological characterization of three additional rH3R splice variants (rH3D, rH3E, and rH3F) that differ from the previously published isoforms in that they result from an additional alternative-splicing event. These new H3R isoforms lack the seventh transmembrane (TM) helix and contain an alternative, putatively extracellular, C terminus (6TM-rH3 isoforms). After heterologous expression in COS-7 cells, radioligand binding or functional responses upon the application of various H3R ligands could not be detected for the 6TM-rH3 isoforms. In contrast to the rH3A receptor (rH3AR), detection of the rH3D isoform using hemagglutinin antibodies revealed that the rH3D isoform remains mainly intracellular. The expression of the rH3D-F splice variants, however, modulates the cell surface expression-levels and subsequent functional responses of the 7TM H3R isoforms. Coexpression of the rH3AR and the rH3D isoforms resulted in the intracellular retention of the rH3AR and reduced rH3AR functionality. Finally, we show that in rat brain, the H3R mRNA expression levels are modulated upon treatment with the convulsant pentylenetetrazole, suggesting that the rH3R isoforms described herein thus represent a novel physiological mechanism for controlling the activity of the histaminergic system.

Combining restriction digestion and touchdown PCR permits detection of trace isoforms of histamine H3 receptor

The conserved sequences of the mouse histamine H3 receptor at the potential alternative splice junctions suggest that the splice isoforms found in guinea pig, rat, human, and hamster may also be present in the mouse. However, the trace amount isoforms are hard to be detected by the regular PCR approach. In this paper, we report a method in which the unspliced long isoform is cut by restriction endonuclease so that the short isoforms can be amplified to detectable levels to confirm the existence of the splice isoforms of H3 receptor mRNA in the mouse. This method is applicable to the detection of trace amounts of splice isoforms that coexist with the long, more abundant isoforms.

Assessment of pharmacology and potential anti-obesity properties of H3receptor antagonists/inverse agonists

Histamine is a key neurotransmitter that alters central nervous system functions in both behavioural and homeostatic contexts through its actions on the histamine (H) subreceptors H(1), H(2) and H(3) G-protein-coupled receptors. H(3)receptors have a diverse central nervous system distribution where they function as both homo- and hetero-receptors to modulate the synthesis and/or release of several neurotransmitters. H(3) receptors are constitutively active, which implies that antagonists of H(3) receptors may also function as inverse agonists to alter the basal state of the receptor and uncouple constitutive receptor-G-protein interactions. Reference H(3) antagonists such as thioperamide and ciproxifan, administered either centrally or systemically, have been shown to cause changes in food consumption and/or body weight in proof-of-concept studies. More recently, several non-imidazole-based H(3) antagonists/inverse agonists have also been described with efficacy in at least one animal model of human obesity. Considerable preclinical effort remains necessary before such compounds achieve therapeutic success or failure. Moreover, ongoing research in a number of laboratories has shed new insights into the effects of H(3) ligands in the control of feeding, appetite and body weight, which offer different results and conclusions. The goal of this review is to appraise these findings and forecast whether any H(3) antagonists/inverse agonists will provide clinical utility to treat human obesity.

The H3 receptor protean agonist proxyfan enhances the expression of fear memory in the rat

Consolidation of fear memory requires neural changes to occur in the basolateral amygdala (BLA), including modulation of histaminergic neurotransmission. We previously demonstrated that local blockade or activation of histamine H3 receptors in the BLA impaired or ameliorated, respectively, retention of fear memory. The histamine H3 receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) displaying high constitutive activity that regulates histamine neurons in the brain. Proxyfan is a high-affinity histamine H3 receptor protean agonist exhibiting the full spectrum of pharmacological activities, from full agonist to full inverse agonist depending on the competition between constitutively active and quiescent H3 receptors in a given tissue or brain region. Therefore, protean agonists are powerful tools to investigate receptor conformation and may be useful in designing specific compounds selective for the various receptor conformations. In the present study we examined the effect of post-training, systemic or intra-BLA injections of proxyfan on contextual fear memory. Rats receiving intra-BLA, bilateral injections of 1.66 ng proxyfan immediately after fear conditioning showed stronger memory for the context-footshock association, as demonstrated by longer freezing assessed at retention performed 72 hr later compared to controls. Comparable results were obtained when doses as low as 0.04 mg/kg of proxyfan were injected systemically. Hence, our results suggest that proxyfan behaves as an H3 receptor agonist with a low level of constitutive activity of the H3 receptor in the rat BLA.

The histamine H3 receptor: from gene cloning to H3 receptor drugs

Since the cloning of the histamine H(3) receptor cDNA in 1999 by Lovenberg and co-workers, this histamine receptor has gained the interest of many pharmaceutical companies as a potential drug target for the treatment of various important disorders, including obesity, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, as well as for myocardial ischaemia, migraine and inflammatory diseases. Here, we discuss relevant information on this target protein and describe the development of various H(3) receptor agonists and antagonists, and their effects in preclinical animal models.

Non-imidazole histamine H3 ligands. Part III. New 4-n-propylpiperazines as non-imidazole histamine H3-antagonists

In search for a new lead of non-imidazole histamine H3-receptor antagonists, a series of 1[(2-thiazolopyridine)-4-n-propyl]piperazines, the analogous 1-[(2-oxazolopyridine)-4-npropyl]piperazines, 1-[(2-benzothiazole)-4-n-propyl]piperazine and 1-[(2-benzooxazole)4-n-propyl]piperazine were prepared and in vitro tested as H3-receptor antagonists (the electrically evoked contraction of the guinea-pig jejunum). It appeared that by comparison of homologous pairs the thiazolo derivatives have slightly higher activity than their oxazolo analogues. The most potent compound of these series is the 1-(2-thiazolo[4,5-c]pyridine)-4-n-propylpiperazine (3c) with pA2 = 7.25 (its oxazole analogue (4g) showed pA2 = 6.9). The structure-activity relationships for compounds with various positions of the nitrogen in the benzene ring for the thiazoles compared with oxazoles are discussed.

The histamine H3 receptor as a novel therapeutic target for cognitive and sleep disorders

Histamine H3 receptor pharmacology, functions and biochemistry are far from being fully understood; however, progress is being made. Activation of this Gi/GO-protein-coupled receptor affects cognition, the sleep-wake cycle, obesity and epilepsy, which are physiological and pathological conditions that are the main focus of research into the therapeutic potential of selective H3 receptor ligands. This heterogeneity of targets can be reconciled partially by the fact that the histamine system constitutes one of the most important brain-activating systems and that H3 receptors regulate the activity of histamine and other neurotransmitter systems. Furthermore, the H3 receptor shows functional constitutive activity, polymorphisms in humans and rodents with a differential distribution of splice variants in the CNS, and potential coupling to different intracellular signal transduction mechanisms. In light of the genetic, pharmacological and functional complexity of the H3 receptor, the importance of the histamine system as a therapeutic target to control the sleep-wake cycle and cognitive disorders will be discussed.

Plasticity of histamine H3 receptor expression and binding in the vestibular nuclei after labyrinthectomy in rat

Background

In rat, deafferentation of one labyrinth (unilateral labyrinthectomy) results in a characteristic syndrome of ocular and motor postural disorders (e.g., barrel rotation, circling behavior, and spontaneous nystagmus). Behavioral recovery (e.g., diminished symptoms), encompassing 1 week after unilateral labyrinthectomy, has been termed vestibular compensation. Evidence suggesting that the histamine H₃ receptor plays a key role in vestibular compensation comes from studies indicating that betahistine, a histamine-like drug that acts as both a partial histamine H₁ receptor agonist and an H₃ receptor antagonist, can accelerate the process of vestibular compensation.

Results

Expression levels for histamine H₃ receptor (total) as well as three isoforms which display variable lengths of the third intracellular loop of the receptor were analyzed using in situ hybridization on brain sections containing the rat medial vestibular nucleus after unilateral labyrinthectomy. We compared these expression levels to H₃ receptor binding densities.

Total H₃ receptor mRNA levels (detected by oligo probe H_3X) as well as mRNA levels of the three receptor isoforms studied (detected by oligo probes H_3A, H_3B, and H_3C) showed a pattern of increase, which was bilaterally significant at 24 h post-lesion for both H_3X and H_3C, followed by significant bilateral decreases in medial vestibular nuclei occurring 48 h (H_3X and H_3B) and 1 week post-lesion (H_3A, H_3B, and H_3C). Expression levels of H_3B was an exception to the forementioned pattern with significant decreases already detected at 24 h post-lesion. Coinciding with the decreasing trends in H₃ receptor mRNA levels was an observed increase in H₃ receptor binding densities occurring in the ipsilateral medial vestibular nuclei 48 h post-lesion.

Conclusion

Progressive recovery of the resting discharge of the deafferentated medial vestibular nuclei neurons results in functional restoration of the static postural and occulomotor deficits, usually occurring within a time frame of 48 hours in rats. Our data suggests that the H₃ receptor may be an essential part of pre-synaptic mechanisms required for reestablishing resting activities 48 h after unilateral labyrinthectomy.

Structural variations of 1-(4-(phenoxymethyl)benzyl)piperidines as nonimidazole histamine H3 receptor antagonists

Recent bioisoteric replacements in histamine H3 receptor ligands with an exchange of the imidazole moiety by a piperidino group as well as of the trimethylene chain in 4-((3-phenoxy)propyl)-lH-imidazole derivatives (proxifan class) by an alpha,alpha'-xylendiyl linker represents the starting point in the development of 1-(4-(phenoxymethyl)benzyl)piperidines as a new class of nonimidazole histamine H3 receptor antagonists. According to different strategies in optimization of imidazole-containing antagonists the central benzyl phenyl ether moiety was replaced by numerous other polar functionalities. Additionally, the ortho- and meta-analogues of the lead were synthesized to determine the influence of the position of the piperidinomethyl substituent. The new compounds were tested in an in vitro binding assay for their affinities for cloned human H3 receptors stably expressed in CHO-K1 cells and for their oral in vivo potencies brain in a functional screening assay in the brain of mice. Additionally, activities of selected compounds were determined in the guinea-pig ileum functional test model. In contrast to the analogues ortho-substituted compounds all other compounds maintained respectable affinities for the human H3 receptor (-log Ki values 6.3-7.5). Despite the results from other classes of compounds the 4-methyl substituted derivatives generally displayed higher affinities than the corresponding 4-chloro substituted compounds. In vivo only the inverse phenyl benzyl ether (3) showed worthwhile antagonist potencies.

Cloning and pharmacological characterization of the monkey histamine H3 receptor

Species differences have been described previously for histamine H(3) receptor pharmacology. Rat selective histamine H(3) receptor ligands such as ciproxifan and A-304121 (2-amino-1-[4-[3-(4-cyclopropanecarbonyl-phenoxy)-propyl]-piperazin-1-yl]-propan-1-one) show over 100-fold selectivity for the rat receptor compared to the human receptor. To date, however, the pharmacology of the cloned monkey histamine H(3) receptor has not been examined. In this study, we cloned the monkey histamine H(3) receptor gene (H(3)R) and evaluated the receptor pharmacology in binding and functional assays. The monkey histamine H(3) receptor is highly homologous to the human receptor with 438 identities in their 445 amino acid sequences, but less homologous to the rat receptor. However, unlike the human or rat, we found no evidence for additional splicing for the monkey H(3)R. Pharmacological analysis indicated that the monkey receptor exhibited similar pharmacological profiles to those of the human receptor, providing critical information for characterizing histamine H(3) receptor ligands in monkey behavioral models.

Regulation of the Rat PhenylethanolamineN-Methyltransferase Gene by Transcription Factors Sp1 and MAZ

The rat phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) gene promoter contains 1-base pair (bp) overlapping consensus sequences for Sp1 and MAZ transcription factors at -48 and -38 bp, respectively. Gel mobility assays using PC-12-derived RS1 cell nuclear extracts or in vitro translated proteins showed that Sp1 and MAZ specifically bind to these elements, that MAZ displaces/prevents Sp1 binding, and that Sp1 and MAZ binding is mutually exclusive, with occupancy dependent on each factor's concentration and affinity for its consensus element. In transfection assays, PNMT promoter activation by Sp1 and MAZ depends on promoter length, with -893 bp of sequence yielding greatest activation. Although MAZ has higher affinity for its binding element, it is a less effective activator. Changes in PNMT promoter activity for the constructs pGL3RP60 or pGL3RP893 using a fixed amount of MAZ expression construct and a variable amount of Sp1 expression construct or vice versa confirmed the latter. Mutation of the MAZ or Sp1 sites in pGL3RP60 attenuated but did not eliminate PNMT promoter activity, even though the proteins no longer bind to their consensus elements. Phosphatase treatment of RS1 cell nuclear extracts prevented MAZ- and Sp1-DNA binding complex formation. Although MAZ and Sp1 elevate endogenous PNMT mRNA in RS1 cells, MAZ preferentially increases intron-retaining whereas Sp1 preferentially increases intronless mRNA. Thus, expression of the PNMT gene seems to be modulated through competitive binding of phosphorylated Sp1 and MAZ to their consensus elements in the promoter. In addition, post-transcriptional regulation seems to be another important mechanism controlling PNMT expression.

Genetic and pharmacological aspects of histamine H3 receptor heterogeneity

Histaminergic H3 receptors modulate the release of neurotransmitters within the CNS and periphery. Ligands for these receptors have potential clinical utility in a variety of disease states. However, the pharmacological characteristics of these receptors have been enigmatic for more than a decade because of the diversity of pharmacological effects observed with the limited number of heretofore-available compounds. Recent cloning of the H3 receptor has revealed interspecies differences in the protein sequences in key regions, the existence of splice variants that differ in composition between species, and potential differences in signal transduction processes between either different tissues and/or species. This review attempts to summarize these findings within the context of the molecular biological and pharmacological data accumulated to date. Also, we suggest a nomenclature strategy to reduce potential confusion that has arisen from different naming systems used by various investigators. While some facets of this genetic and pharmacological diversity help to rationalize various aspects of H3 receptor heterogeneity, there remains an insufficient repertoire of selective ligands, assays, or other measures to completely resolve all components of this diversity. The promise of newly available tools to further explore H3 receptor function may provide the insight to bring the promised clinical potential of H3 receptor ligands to realization.

Protean agonism at histamine H3 receptors in vitro and in vivo

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are allosteric proteins that adopt inactive (R) and active (R*) conformations in equilibrium. R* is promoted by agonists or occurs spontaneously, leading to constitutive activity of the receptor. Conversely, inverse agonists promote R and decrease constitutive activity. The existence of another pharmacological entity, referred to as "protean" agonists (after Proteus, the Greek god who could change shape), was assumed on theoretical grounds. It was predicted from the existence of constitutive activity that a same ligand of this class could act either as an agonist or an inverse agonist at the same GPCR. Here, we show that proxyfan, a high-affinity histamine H3-receptor ligand, acts as a protean agonist at recombinant H3 receptors expressed in the same Chinese hamster ovary cells. In support of the physiological relevance of the process, we show that proxyfan also behaves as a protean agonist at native H3 receptors known to display constitutive activity. On neurochemical and behavioral responses in rodents and cats, proxyfan displays a spectrum of activity ranging from full agonism to full inverse agonism. Thus, protean agonism demonstrates the existence of ligand-directed active states LR* different from, and competing with, constitutively active states R* of GPCRs, and defines a pharmacological entity with important therapeutic implications.

Signal transduction by histamine in the cerebellum and its modulation by N-methyltransferase

Histamine has been suggested to have roles as a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator. Direct fiber connections between the hypothalamus and the cerebellum have recently been demonstrated and it is suggested that the cerebellum is involved in the control of autonomic and emotional functions. These fibers include histaminergic fibers. The components of histaminergic signal transmission are demonstrated in the cerebellum as follows: (1) the histaminergic fibers are visualized immunohistochemically in the cerebellar cortex of rat, guinea pig and human; (2) histamine H1 receptors are visualized by autoradiographic studies in the molecular layer of mouse and guinea pig. In situ hybridization study also detects the expression of H1 receptors in the Purkinje cells. H2 receptors are expressed in the Purkinje cells and granule cells of guinea pig; and (3) the application of histamine to the slices of guinea pig or rat cerebellar cortex elicits an increase in the turnover of phosphoinositides, so H1 receptors in the cerebellum are functional. Additionally, we have recently shown in the guinea pig that Purkinje cells express one of the histamine inactivating enzymes, and that inhibition of this enzyme enhances phosphoinositide turnover by histamine. Therefore, all the components of histaminergic neurotransmission are demonstrated in the cerebellum. These data suggest that histamine is involved in the signal transmission from the hypothalamus to the cerebellum. Here we review each component of histaminergic neurotransmission in the cerebellum.

An in vitro study of histamine on the pulmonary artery of the Wistar-Kyoto and spontaneously hypertensive rats

The vascular response to most neurotransmitters of different vascular beds is altered under hypertensive condition. The modulatory effect of genetic pulmonary arterial hypertension on histamine responses is not known. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the modulatory effect of enzymatic degradation (via histamine N-methyl-transferase and diamine oxidase) on the vascular response of histamine, and the subtype(s) of histamine receptor present in the pulmonary artery (first branch, O.D. approximately 800 microm) of the normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) (male, 22-26 weeks old). In phenylephrine (1 microM) pre-contracted preparations, histamine and 6-[2-(4-imidazolyl)ethylamino]-N-(4-trifluoromethylphenyl) heptanecarboxamide (HTMT, a histamine H(1) receptor agonist) elicited a concentration-dependent relaxation, with a smaller magnitude recorded in SHR. Application of 10 microM S-[4-(N,N-dimethylamino)-butyl]isothiourea (SKF 91488, a selective histamine N-methyl-transferase inhibitor), but not aminoguanidine (100 microM, a diamine oxidase inhibitor), significantly attenuated histamine-induced relaxation. Clobenpropit (1 nM, a potent histamine H(3) receptor antagonist) "antagonised" the suppressive effect of SKF 91488 and histamine-evoked relaxation was restored. Endothelial denudation reduced histamine- and abolished HTMT-elicited relaxation. Dimaprit (a histamine H(2) receptor agonist) caused an endothelium-independent, cis-N-(2-phenylcyclopentyl)azacyclotridec-1-en-2-amine (MDL 12330A, 10 microM, an adenylate cyclase inhibitor)-sensitive, concentration-dependent relaxation, with a similar magnitude in both strains of rat. Histamine-evoked relaxation was reversed into a further contraction (clobenpropit (10 nM)-sensitive) (with a greater magnitude occurred in the WKY rat) after blocking the histamine H(1) and H(2) receptors with diphenhydramine plus cimetidine (30 microM each). A similar further contraction (clobenpropit-sensitive) was observed with imetit (a histamine H(3)/H(4) receptor agonist) (> or =3 microM). Under resting tension, imetit (> or =0.3 microM) caused a clobenpropit (10 nM)- and prazosin (1 microM)-sensitive, concentration-dependent contraction, with a greater contraction in the WKY rats. Our results suggest that inhibition of histamine catabolism using SKF 91488 (histamine N-methyl-transferase inhibitor) resulted in a reduction of histamine-mediated relaxation that was due to the activation of the clobenpropit-sensitive, histamine H(3)/H(4) receptor and the release of catecholamine. In addition, activation of histamine H(1) and H(2) receptors resulted in relaxation whereas histamine H(3)/H(4) receptor activation by imetit yielded a prazosin-sensitive contraction of the pulmonary artery.

Novel nonimidazole histamine H3 receptor antagonists: 1-(4-(phenoxymethyl)benzyl)piperidines and related compounds

In an extension of very recently published studies on successful imidazole replacements in some series of histamine H(3) receptor antagonists, we report on a new class of lipophilic nonimidazole antagonist having an aliphatic tertiary amino moiety connected to a benzyl template substituted in the 4-position by a phenoxymethyl group. The structural modifications were performed with the intention to avoid possible negative side effects reported for other series of antagonists. The novel compounds combine different characteristics of recently developed histamine H(3) receptor antagonists. The compounds were screened for their affinity in a binding assay for the human histamine H(3) receptor stably expressed in CHO-K1 cells and tested for their in vivo potency in the central nervous system of mice after oral administration. Different substitution patterns on the phenoxy group were used to optimize in vitro and/or in vivo potency leading to some compounds with low nanomolar affinity and high oral in vivo potency. Modifications of the basic piperidino moiety were performed by ring expansion, contraction, and opening. Selected compounds exhibited selectivity in functional assays on isolated organs of guinea-pig for H(3) vs H(1) and H(2) receptors. Unexpectedly, some of the novel antagonists also showed a slight preference for the human histamine H(3) receptor compared to their affinities for the guinea-pig H(3) receptor.

Ciproxifan, a histamine H3-receptor antagonist/inverse agonist, modulates the effects of methamphetamine on neuropeptide mRNA expression in rat striatum

We have explored the effect of histamine H3-receptor ligands on the regulation of neuropeptide mRNA expression in the striatum by using in situ hybridization performed with proenkephalin, prodynorphin, substance P and proneurotensin riboprobes. Acute administration of ciproxifan, an H3-receptor antagonist/inverse agonist, or (R)-alpha-methylhistamine, an H3-receptor agonist, did not modify the striatal expression of the neuropeptides by itself. However, ciproxifan strongly and differentially modulated the effect of a single administration of 3 mg/kg methamphetamine on neuropeptide mRNA expression. This modulation was suppressed by the administration of (R)-alpha-methylhistamine and occurred in both the caudate-putamen and nucleus accumbens. Ciproxifan strongly potentiated the decrease of proenkephalin mRNA expression induced by methamphetamine. In contrast, it suppressed the increase in prodynorphin and substance P mRNA expression induced by methamphetamine. Methamphetamine alone or with ciproxifan did not modify proneurotensin mRNA expression. These neurochemical findings indicate that ciproxifan differentially regulates the effect of methamphetamine on the neuropeptides contained in striatonigral and striatopallidal neurons. They suggest that endogenous histamine and dopamine cooperate to modulate the activity of striatal projection neurons and strengthen the interest of H3-receptors as new targets for the treatment of psychotic disorders and drug abuse.

A detailed mapping of the histamine H(3) receptor and its gene transcripts in rat brain

The detailed distribution of histamine H(3) receptor mRNAs in rat brain was analyzed by in situ hybridization using a 33P-labelled riboprobe and was combined for the first time with the detailed autoradiographic distribution of the receptor determined in the same animals with [(125)I]iodoproxyfan, a selective radioligand. The signals generated on adjacent brain sections by each probe were quantified and/or rated and were compared in order to identify neuronal populations expressing the receptor. In addition, the cellular localization of the transcripts within various brain structures was analyzed in sections dipped in a photographic emulsion. In the cerebral cortex, the strong mRNA expression in intermediate and deep layers indicates the presence of H(3) receptors on several types of neurons. The binding is dense except in layer V, suggesting that H(3) receptors are located on granule cells and apical dendrites of pyramidal cells. In addition to their localization on monoaminergic afferents, the dense binding in layer IV and strong mRNA expression in thalamic nuclei suggest the presence of heteroreceptors on thalamocortical projections. In the hippocampus, the strong mRNA expression but low binding in pyramidal layers of the CA1 and ventral CA3 fields suggest that H(3) receptors are abundant on efferent projections of pyramidal cells. In the dentate gyrus, some binding sites in the molecular layer may correspond to H(3) receptors synthesized in granule cells and coexpressed with H(1) and H(2) receptors in their dendrites. In the basal ganglia, H(3) receptors are highly expressed in the striatal complex and olfactory tubercles but not in islands of Calleja. Some of the striatal binding sites may correspond to presynaptic receptors present on afferents. The mRNAs in cortical layer V may encode for heteroreceptors on corticostriatal neurons. The presence of mRNAs in the substantia nigra pars compacta suggests that H(3) receptors are located upon nigrostriatal afferents. However, the absence of any signal in the ventral tegmental area indicates that some but not all dopaminergic neurons express H(3) receptors. In addition, the homogeneous mRNA expression within the caudate putamen and nucleus accumbens suggests that many striatal H(3) receptors are present on medium-sized, spiny projection neurons of both the direct and indirect movement pathways. In agreement, a dense binding, but low mRNA expression, is observed in external and internal pallidum and in substantia nigra pars reticulata. In the amygdala, the dense binding and mRNA expression indicate the presence of receptors on both afferents and projections. In the thalamus, the binding in some association nuclei may correspond to receptors present on neurons emanating from the deep cortical layers that strongly express the mRNAs, as well as receptors on the visual systems. However, the low binding and high mRNA expression in most nuclei indicate that many receptors are present upon thalamic projections. In the hypothalamus, the mRNA expression parallels the density of binding sites and is the highest in the tuberomammillary nucleus. Further investigation is needed to know if the dense binding and mRNA expression observed in other nuclei such as the paraventricular, ventromedial and medial tuberal nuclei correspond to pre- and/or postsynaptic receptors. mRNAs are also observed in several areas projecting to the tuberomammillary nucleus, such as the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus. In the lower brainstem, the high mRNA expression and very low binding in the locus coeruleus and raphe nuclei indicate that presynaptic rather than somatodendritic receptors regulate noradrenaline and serotonin release, respectively. A similar pattern in vestibular nuclei suggests that receptors located on projections account for the anti-vertigo properties of H(3) receptor antagonists. In the cerebellum, binding is hardly detectable but a strong mRNA expression is found in most, if not all, Purkinje cells as well as in several central cerebellar nuclei, suggesting the presence of H(3) receptors on efferent projections. The present study reports the first detailed quantification and/or rating of H(3) receptor mRNAs in the brain. The comparison, performed in the same animals, with the distribution of the H(3) receptor protein provides evidence for the presence of H(3) receptors on many neuronal perikarya, dendrites and projections. Although some localizations, mainly as auto- or heteroreceptors, are consistent with previous functional studies, the physiological role, if any, of most of these presynaptic or postsynaptic receptors remains to be established.

Characteristics of recombinantly expressed rat and human histamine H3 receptors

Human and rat histamine H(3) receptors were recombinantly expressed and characterized using receptor binding and a functional cAMP assay. Seven of nine agonists had similar affinities and potencies at the rat and human histamine H(3) receptor. S-alpha-methylhistamine had a significantly higher affinity and potency at the human than rat receptor, and for 4-[(1R*,2R*)-2-(5,5-dimethyl-1-hexynyl)cyclopropyl]-1H-imidazole (Perceptin) the preference was the reverse. Only two of six antagonists had similar affinities and potencies at the human and the rat histamine H(3) receptor. Ciproxifan, thioperamide and (1R*,2R*)-trans-2-imidazol-4 ylcyclopropyl) (cyclohexylmethoxy) carboxamide (GT2394) had significantly higher affinities and potencies at the rat than at the human histamine H(3) receptor, while for N-(4-chlorobenzyl)-N-(7-pyrrolodin-1-ylheptyl)guanidine (JB98064) the preference was the reverse. All antagonists also showed potent inverse agonism properties. Iodoproxyfan, Perceptin, proxyfan and GR175737, compounds previously described as histamine H(3) receptor antagonists, acted as full or partial agonists at both the rat and the human histamine H(3) receptor.

Ciproxifan, a histamine H3-receptor antagonist/inverse agonist, potentiates neurochemical and behavioral effects of haloperidol in the rat

By using double in situ hybridization performed with proenkephalin and H3-receptor riboprobes on the same sections from rat brain, we show that histamine H3 receptors are expressed within striatopallidal neurons of the indirect movement pathway. The majority ( approximately 70%) of striatal enkephalin neurons express H3-receptor mRNAs. This important degree of coexpression of proenkephalin and H3-receptor mRNAs prompted us to explore the effect of H3-receptor ligands on the regulation of enkephalin mRNA expression in the striatum. Acute administration of ciproxifan, a H3-receptor antagonist/inverse agonist, did not modify the expression of the neuropeptide by itself but strongly increased the upregulation of its expression induced by haloperidol. This potentiation (1) was suppressed by the administration of (R)-alpha-methylhistamine, a H3-receptor agonist, (2) occurred both in the caudate-putamen and nucleus accumbens, and (3) was also observed with a similar pattern on c-fos and neurotensin mRNA expression. Similarly, whereas it was devoid of any motor effect when used alone, ciproxifan strongly potentiated haloperidol-induced locomotor hypoactivity and catalepsy, two behaviors in which striatal neurons are involved. The strong H3-receptor mRNA expression in enkephalin neurons suggests that the synergistic neurochemical and motor effects of ciproxifan and haloperidol result from direct H3/D2-receptor interactions, leading to an enhanced activation of striatopallidal neurons of the indirect movement pathway. The potentiation of the effects of haloperidol by ciproxifan strengthens the potential interest of H3-receptor antagonists/inverse agonists to improve the symptomatic treatment of schizophrenia.

Ligands for histamine H(3) receptors modulate cell proliferation and migration in rat oxyntic mucosa

1. (R)-alpha-methylhistamine, a selective agonist of histamine H(3) receptors, promotes mucus secretion and increases the number and volume of mucus-secreting cells. The hypothesis that the increased number of mucous cells could reside in an alteration of homeostasis in the gastric epithelium was investigated. 2. (R)-alpha-methylhistamine was administered to rats 1 h (10-100 mg kg(-1) by intragastric and by intraperitoneal route) and 24 h (100 mg kg(-1) by intragastric route) prior to killing. The (S)-isomer of alpha-methylhistamine (55.4 mg kg(-1)), 100 times less potent than the (R)-isomer at H(3) receptors, and the H(3)-receptor agonist FUB 407 (9.14-91.35 mg kg(-1)) were intragrastically administered 1 h prior to killing. The H(1)-receptor antagonist mepyramine (30 mg kg(-1)), the H(2)-receptor antagonist famotidine (3 mg kg(-1)), and the H(3)-receptor antagonists ciproxifan (3 mg kg(-1)) and clobenpropit (30 mg kg(-1)) were intragastrically administered 30 min before (R)-alpha-methylhistamine. Gastric tissue was processed for histology and immunohistochemistry. 3. Within 1 h, (R)-alpha-methylhistamine and FUB 407 dose-dependently increased the number of BrdU-positive cells and of apoptotic cells. (S)-alpha-methylhistamine failed to modify proliferation and apoptosis. The increase in proliferation by (R)-alpha-methylhistamine was reversed by ciproxifan and clobenpropit, but not by mepyramine and famotidine. 4. (R)-alpha-methylhistamine accelerated the differentiation towards pit cells and their outward migration 24 h after its administration. These effects were counteracted by ciproxifan. The apoptosis rate was unaffected at 24 h. 5. These findings reveal a primary role of histamine H(3)-receptor ligands in modulating cell proliferation and migration in rat fundic mucosa.