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Hayes AJ, Melrose J. Neural Tissue Homeostasis and Repair Is Regulated via CS and DS Proteoglycan Motifs. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:696640. [PMID: 34409033 PMCID: PMC8365427 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.696640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is the most abundant and widely distributed glycosaminoglycan (GAG) in the human body. As a component of proteoglycans (PGs) it has numerous roles in matrix stabilization and cellular regulation. This chapter highlights the roles of CS and CS-PGs in the central and peripheral nervous systems (CNS/PNS). CS has specific cell regulatory roles that control tissue function and homeostasis. The CNS/PNS contains a diverse range of CS-PGs which direct the development of embryonic neural axonal networks, and the responses of neural cell populations in mature tissues to traumatic injury. Following brain trauma and spinal cord injury, a stabilizing CS-PG-rich scar tissue is laid down at the defect site to protect neural tissues, which are amongst the softest tissues of the human body. Unfortunately, the CS concentrated in gliotic scars also inhibits neural outgrowth and functional recovery. CS has well known inhibitory properties over neural behavior, and animal models of CNS/PNS injury have demonstrated that selective degradation of CS using chondroitinase improves neuronal functional recovery. CS-PGs are present diffusely in the CNS but also form denser regions of extracellular matrix termed perineuronal nets which surround neurons. Hyaluronan is immobilized in hyalectan CS-PG aggregates in these perineural structures, which provide neural protection, synapse, and neural plasticity, and have roles in memory and cognitive learning. Despite the generally inhibitory cues delivered by CS-A and CS-C, some CS-PGs containing highly charged CS disaccharides (CS-D, CS-E) or dermatan sulfate (DS) disaccharides that promote neural outgrowth and functional recovery. CS/DS thus has varied cell regulatory properties and structural ECM supportive roles in the CNS/PNS depending on the glycoform present and its location in tissue niches and specific cellular contexts. Studies on the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans have provided insightful information on neural interconnectivity and the role of the ECM and its PGs in neural development and in tissue morphogenesis in a whole organism environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J. Hayes
- Bioimaging Research Hub, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - James Melrose
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratories, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital and The Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, St. Leonard’s, NSW, Australia
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Kelly A, O'Malley A, Redha M, O'Keeffe GW, Barry DS. The distribution of the proteoglycan FORSE-1 in the developing mouse central nervous system. J Anat 2018; 234:216-226. [PMID: 30474148 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycosylation is a major post-translational modification in which a carbohydrate known as a glycan is enzymatically attached to target proteins which regulate protein folding and stability. Glycans are strongly expressed in the developing nervous system where they play multiple roles during development. The importance of these glycan epitopes in neural development is highlighted by a group of conditions known as congenital disorders of glycosylation which lead to psychomotor difficulties, mental retardation, lissencephaly, microencephaly and epilepsy. One of these glycan epitopes, known as Lewis X, is recognised by the FORSE-1 antibody and is regionally expressed in the developing nervous system. In this study, we report the regional and temporal expression patterns of FORSE-1 immunolabelling during the periods of neurogenesis, gliogenesis and axonogenesis in developing mouse nervous system. We demonstrate the localisation of FORSE-1 on subsets of neuroepithelial cells and radial glial cells, and in compartments corresponding to axon tract formation. These spatial, temporal and regional expression patterns are suggestive of roles in the determination of different cell lineages and in the patterning of white matter during development, and help provide insights into the neuroanatomical regions affected by congenital disorders of glycosylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Kelly
- Department of Anatomy, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Aisling O'Malley
- Department of Anatomy, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Mohammad Redha
- Department of Anatomy, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Gerard W O'Keeffe
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Denis S Barry
- Department of Anatomy, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Theis T, Johal AS, Kabat M, Basak S, Schachner M. Enhanced Neuronal Survival and Neurite Outgrowth Triggered by Novel Small Organic Compounds Mimicking the LewisX Glycan. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:8203-8215. [PMID: 29520715 PMCID: PMC6314473 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-0953-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Glycosylation fine-tunes signal transduction of adhesion molecules during neural development and supports synaptic plasticity and repair after injury in the adult nervous system. One abundantly expressed neural glycan is LewisX (LeX). Although it is known that its expression starts at the formation of the neural tube during the second embryonic week in the mouse and peaks during the first postnatal week, its functional relevance is only rudimentarily understood. To gain better insights into the functions of this glycan, we identified small organic compounds that mimic structurally and functionally this glycan glycosidically linked to several neural adhesion molecules. Mimetic compounds were identified by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using the LeX-specific monoclonal antibodies L5 and SSEA-1 for screening a library of small organic molecules. In this assay, antibody binding to substrate-coated LeX glycomimetic peptide is measured in the presence of compounds, allowing identification of molecules that inhibit antibody binding and thereby mimic LeX. Gossypol, orlistat, ursolic acid, folic acid, and tosufloxacin inhibited antibody binding in a concentration-dependent manner. With the aim to functionally characterize the molecular consequences of the compounds' actions, we here present evidence that, at nM concentrations, the mimetic compounds enhance neurite outgrowth and promote neuronal survival of cultured mouse cerebellar granule cells via, notably, distinct signal transduction pathways. These findings raise hopes that these LeX mimetics will be powerful tools for further studying the functions of LeX and its effects in acute and chronic nervous system disease models. It is worth mentioning in this context that the LeX compounds investigated in the present study have been clinically approved for different therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Theis
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08554, USA
| | - Anmol Singh Johal
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08554, USA
| | - Maciej Kabat
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08554, USA
| | - Sayantani Basak
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08554, USA
- Developmental Sciences-Safety Assessment, Genentech, 1 DNA Way, South San Francisco, CA, 94080-4990, USA
| | - Melitta Schachner
- Keck Center for Collaborative Neuroscience and Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08554, USA.
- Center for Neuroscience, Shantou University Medical College, 22 Xin Ling Road, Shantou, Guangdong, 515041, China.
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Luque-Molina I, Khatri P, Schmidt-Edelkraut U, Simeonova IK, Hölzl-Wenig G, Mandl C, Ciccolini F. Bone Morphogenetic Protein Promotes Lewis X Stage-Specific Embryonic Antigen 1 Expression Thereby Interfering with Neural Precursor and Stem Cell Proliferation. Stem Cells 2017; 35:2417-2429. [PMID: 28869691 DOI: 10.1002/stem.2701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The glycoprotein Prominin-1 and the carbohydrate Lewis X stage-specific embryonic antigen 1 (LeX-SSEA1) both have been extensively used as cell surface markers to purify neural stem cells (NSCs). While Prominin-1 labels a specialized membrane region in NSCs and ependymal cells, the specificity of LeX-SSEA1 expression and its biological significance are still unknown. To address these issues, we have here monitored the expression of the carbohydrate in neonatal and adult NSCs and in their progeny. Our results show that the percentage of immunopositive cells and the levels of LeX-SSEA1 immunoreactivity both increase with postnatal age across all stages of the neural lineage. This is associated with decreased proliferation in precursors including NSCs, which accumulate the carbohydrate at the cell surface while remaining quiescent. Exposure of precursors to bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) increases LEX-SSEA1 expression, which promotes cell cycle withdrawal by a mechanism involving LeX-SSEA1-mediated interaction at the cell surface. Conversely, interference with either BMP signaling or with LeX-SSEA1 promotes proliferation to a similar degree. Thus, in the postnatal germinal niche, the expression of LeX-SSEA1 increases with age and exposure to BMP signaling, thereby downregulating the proliferation of subependymal zone precursors including NSCs. Stem Cells 2017;35:2417-2429.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inma Luque-Molina
- Department of Neurobiology, Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences (IZN), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Priti Khatri
- Department of Neurobiology, Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences (IZN), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Udo Schmidt-Edelkraut
- Department of Neurobiology, Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences (IZN), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ina K Simeonova
- Department of Neurobiology, Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences (IZN), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gabriele Hölzl-Wenig
- Department of Neurobiology, Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences (IZN), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Claudi Mandl
- Department of Neurobiology, Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences (IZN), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Francesca Ciccolini
- Department of Neurobiology, Interdisciplinary Center for Neurosciences (IZN), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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Kandasamy M, Roll L, Langenstroth D, Brüstle O, Faissner A. Glycoconjugates reveal diversity of human neural stem cells (hNSCs) derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs). Cell Tissue Res 2017; 368:531-549. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-017-2594-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Walter D, Herrmann E, Winkelmann R, Albert JG, Liese J, Schnitzbauer A, Zeuzem S, Hansmann ML, Peveling-Oberhag J, Hartmann S. Role of CD15 expression in dysplastic and neoplastic tissue of the bile duct - a potential novel tool for differential diagnosis of indeterminate biliary stricture. Histopathology 2016; 69:962-970. [DOI: 10.1111/his.13041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Walter
- Department of Internal Medicine I; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Eva Herrmann
- Institute of Biostatistics and Mathematical Modeling; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Ria Winkelmann
- Dr Senckenberg Institute of Pathology; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Jörg G Albert
- Department of Internal Medicine I; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Juliane Liese
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ); Heidelberg Germany
| | - Andreas Schnitzbauer
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Stefan Zeuzem
- Department of Internal Medicine I; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Martin-Leo Hansmann
- Dr Senckenberg Institute of Pathology; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Jan Peveling-Oberhag
- Department of Internal Medicine I; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
| | - Sylvia Hartmann
- Dr Senckenberg Institute of Pathology; Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Hospital; Frankfurt Germany
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Noro E, Togayachi A, Sato T, Tomioka A, Fujita M, Sukegawa M, Suzuki N, Kaji H, Narimatsu H. Large-Scale Identification of N-Glycan Glycoproteins Carrying Lewis x and Site-Specific N-Glycan Alterations in Fut9 Knockout Mice. J Proteome Res 2015; 14:3823-34. [PMID: 26244810 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.5b00178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The Lewis x (Le(x)) structure (Galβ1-4(Fucα1-3)GlcNAc-R) is a carbohydrate epitope comprising the stage-specific embryonic antigen-1 (SSEA-1) and CD15, and it is synthesized by α1,3-fucosyltransferase 9 (Fut9). Fut9 is expressed specifically in the stomach, kidney, brain, and in leukocytes, suggesting a specific function in these tissues. In this study, the N-linked glycan mass spectrometry profile of wild-type mouse kidney glycoproteins revealed the presence of abundant terminal fucoses, which were lost following knockout of the Fut9 gene; the terminal fucose was therefore concluded to be Le(x). These results suggested that Le(x) presence is widespread rather than being limited to specific proteins. We endeavored to comprehensively identify the Le(x) carriers in the mouse kidney. Glycopeptides carrying fucosylated glycans were collected by Aleuria aurantia lectin (AAL) affinity chromatography from kidney homogenates of wild-type and Fut9 knockout mice. The site-specific N-glycomes on the glycopeptides were subsequently analyzed by adopting a new glycoproteomic technology composed of dissociation-independent assignment of glycopeptide signals and accurate mass-based prediction of the N-glycome on the glycopeptides. Our analyses demonstrated that 24/32 glycoproteins contained the Le(x) N-glycan structure in wild-type kidney; of these, Le(x) was lost from 21 in the knockout mice. This is the first report of large-scale identification of Le(x)-carrying glycoproteins from a native sample based on the site-specific glycome analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Noro
- Research Center for Medical Glycoscience (RCMG), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan.,Department of Biomolecular Function, Doctoral Program in Life System Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba 305-8572, Japan
| | - Akira Togayachi
- Research Center for Medical Glycoscience (RCMG), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan
| | - Takashi Sato
- Research Center for Medical Glycoscience (RCMG), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan
| | - Azusa Tomioka
- Research Center for Medical Glycoscience (RCMG), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan
| | - Mika Fujita
- Research Center for Medical Glycoscience (RCMG), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan
| | - Masako Sukegawa
- Research Center for Medical Glycoscience (RCMG), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan
| | - Nami Suzuki
- Research Center for Medical Glycoscience (RCMG), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kaji
- Research Center for Medical Glycoscience (RCMG), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan
| | - Hisashi Narimatsu
- Research Center for Medical Glycoscience (RCMG), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) , Tsukuba 305-8568, Japan.,Department of Biomolecular Function, Doctoral Program in Life System Medical Sciences, Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba 305-8572, Japan
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8
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Glaser T, de Oliveira SLB, Cheffer A, Beco R, Martins P, Fornazari M, Lameu C, Junior HMC, Coutinho-Silva R, Ulrich H. Modulation of mouse embryonic stem cell proliferation and neural differentiation by the P2X7 receptor. PLoS One 2014; 9:e96281. [PMID: 24798220 PMCID: PMC4010452 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Novel developmental functions have been attributed to the P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) including proliferation stimulation and neural differentiation. Mouse embryonic stem cells (ESC), induced with retinoic acid to neural differentiation, closely assemble processes occurring during neuroectodermal development of the early embryo. Principal Findings P2X7R expression together with the pluripotency marker Oct-4 was highest in undifferentiated ESC. In undifferentiated cells, the P2X7R agonist Bz-ATP accelerated cell cycle entry, which was blocked by the specific P2X7R inhibitor KN-62. ESC induced to neural differentiation with retinoic acid, reduced Oct-4 and P2X7R expression. P2X7R receptor-promoted intracellular calcium fluxes were obtained at lower Bz-ATP ligand concentrations in undifferentiated and in neural-differentiated cells compared to other studies. The presence of KN-62 led to increased number of cells expressing SSEA-1, Dcx and β3-tubulin, as well as the number of SSEA-1 and β3-tubulin-double-positive cells confirming that onset of neuroectodermal differentiation and neuronal fate determination depends on suppression of P2X7R activity. Moreover, an increase in the number of Ki-67 positive cells in conditions of P2X7R inhibition indicates rescue of progenitors into the cell cycle, augmenting the number of neuroblasts and consequently neurogenesis. Conclusions In embryonic cells, P2X7R expression and activity is upregulated, maintaining proliferation, while upon induction to neural differentiation P2X7 receptor expression and activity needs to be suppressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talita Glaser
- Departamento de Bioquímica; Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | | | - Arquimedes Cheffer
- Departamento de Bioquímica; Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Renata Beco
- Departamento de Bioquímica; Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Patrícia Martins
- Departamento de Bioquímica; Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Maynara Fornazari
- Departamento de Bioquímica; Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Claudiana Lameu
- Departamento de Bioquímica; Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Helio Miranda Costa Junior
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Robson Coutinho-Silva
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Departamento de Bioquímica; Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil
- * E-mail:
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Human cytomegalovirus infection of human embryonic stem cell-derived primitive neural stem cells is restricted at several steps but leads to the persistence of viral DNA. J Virol 2014; 88:4021-39. [PMID: 24453373 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03492-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Congenital human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is a major cause of central nervous system structural anomalies and sensory impairments. It is likely that the stage of fetal development, as well as the state of differentiation of susceptible cells at the time of infection, affects the severity of the disease. We used human embryonic stem (ES) cell-derived primitive prerosette neural stem cells (pNSCs) and neural progenitor cells (NPCs) maintained in chemically defined conditions to study HCMV replication in cells at the early stages of neural development. In contrast to what was observed previously using fetus-derived NPCs, infection of ES cell-derived pNSCs with HCMV was nonprogressive. At a low multiplicity of infection, we observed only a small percentage of cells expressing immediate-early genes (IE) and early genes. IE expression was found to be restricted to cells negative for the anterior marker FORSE-1, and treatment of pNSCs with retinoic acid restored IE expression. Differentiation of pNSCs into NPCs restored IE expression but not the transactivation of early genes. Virions produced in NPCs and pNSCs were exclusively cell associated and were mostly non-neural tropic. Finally, we found that viral genomes could persist in pNSC cultures for up to a month after infection despite the absence of detectable IE expression by immunofluorescence, and infectious virus could be produced upon differentiation of pNSCs to neurons. In conclusion, our results highlight the complex array of hurdles that HCMV must overcome in order to infect primitive neural stem cells and suggest that these cells might act as a reservoir for the virus. IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a betaherpesvirus that is highly prevalent in the population. HCMV infection is usually asymptomatic but can lead to severe consequences in immunosuppressed individuals. HCMV is also the most important infectious cause of congenital developmental birth defects. Manifestations of fetal HCMV disease range from deafness and learning disabilities to more severe symptoms such as microcephaly. In this study, we have used embryonic stem cells to generate primitive neural stem cells and have used these to model HCMV infection of the fetal central nervous system (CNS) in vitro. Our results reveal that these cells, which are similar to those present in the developing neural tube, do not support viral replication but instead likely constitute a viral reservoir. Future work will define the effect of viral persistence on cellular functions as well as the exogenous signals leading to the reactivation of viral replication in the CNS.
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Mamber C, Kozareva DA, Kamphuis W, Hol EM. Shades of gray: The delineation of marker expression within the adult rodent subventricular zone. Prog Neurobiol 2013; 111:1-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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11
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Chu PM, Ma HI, Chen LH, Chen MT, Huang PI, Lin SZ, Chiou SH. Deregulated microRNAs identified in isolated glioblastoma stem cells: an overview. Cell Transplant 2012; 22:741-53. [PMID: 23127968 DOI: 10.3727/096368912x655190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most common and aggressive primary brain tumor, is extremely resistant to current treatment paradigms and has a high rate of tumor recurrence. Recent progress in the field of tumor-initiating cells suggests that GBM stem cells (GBMSCs) may be responsible for tumor progression, resistance to treatment, and tumor relapse. Therefore, understanding the biologically significant pathways involved in modulating GBMSC-specific characteristics offers great promise for development of novel therapeutics, which may improve therapeutic efficacy and overcome present drug resistance. In addition, targeting deregulated microRNA (miRNA) has arisen as a new therapeutic strategy in treating malignant gliomas. In GBMSCs, miRNAs regulate a wide variety of tumorigenic processes including cellular proliferation, stemness maintenance, migration/invasion, apoptosis, and tumorigenicity. Nevertheless, the latest progress with GBMSCs and subsequent miRNA profiling is limited by the identification and isolation of GBMSCs. In this review, we thus summarize current markers and known features for isolation as well as the aberrant miRNAs that have been identified in GBM and GBMSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Ming Chu
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan, ROC
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12
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Zhang L, Liu J, Cheng C, Yuan Y, Yu B, Shen A, Yan M. The neuroprotective effect of pyrroloquinoline quinone on traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 2011; 29:851-64. [PMID: 22040225 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2011.1882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) is a water-soluble, anionic, quinonoid substance that has been established as an essential nutrient in animals. Owing to the inherent properties of PQQ as an antioxidant and redox modulator in various systems, PQQ is expected to be used in pharmacological applications in the near future. Although many recent studies have investigated its neuroprotective effects, the effect of PQQ on traumatic brain injury (TBI) has not been examined. In this study we employed Morris water maze (MWM) training, the results of which showed that PQQ led to improved behavioral performance in post-TBI animals. Considering that many experiments have suggested that β-1,4-galactosyltransferase I (β-1,4-GalT-I) and -V play significant roles in inflammation and the nervous system, in the present study we used Western blot analysis to study the effect of PQQ on the expression of β-1,4-GalT-I and -V. We found apparent expression upregulation of β-1,4-GalT-I and -V after PQQ was systemically administered. Lectin-fluorescent staining with RCA-I also revealed that PQQ contributed to expression upregulation of the galactosidase β-1 (Gal β-1), 4-galactosyltransferase N-acylsphingosine (4-GlcNAc) group in microglia and neurons of the cortex and hippocampal CA2 region. In summary, our experiment established that PQQ may play an important role in recovery post-TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu Province, PR China
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13
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Heimburg-Molinaro J, Lum M, Vijay G, Jain M, Almogren A, Rittenhouse-Olson K. Cancer vaccines and carbohydrate epitopes. Vaccine 2011; 29:8802-26. [PMID: 21964054 PMCID: PMC3208265 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Revised: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 09/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Tumor-associated carbohydrate antigens (TACA) result from the aberrant glycosylation that is seen with transformation to a tumor cell. The carbohydrate antigens that have been found to be tumor-associated include the mucin related Tn, Sialyl Tn, and Thomsen-Friedenreich antigens, the blood group Lewis related Lewis(Y), Sialyl Lewis(X) and Sialyl Lewis(A), and Lewis(X) (also known as stage-specific embryonic antigen-1, SSEA-1), the glycosphingolipids Globo H and stage-specific embryonic antigen-3 (SSEA-3), the sialic acid containing glycosphingolipids, the gangliosides GD2, GD3, GM2, fucosyl GM1, and Neu5GcGM3, and polysialic acid. Recent developments have furthered our understanding of the T-independent type II response that is seen in response to carbohydrate antigens. The selection of a vaccine target antigen is based on not only the presence of the antigen in a variety of tumor tissues but also on the role this antigen plays in tumor growth and metastasis. These roles for TACAs are being elucidated. Newly acquired knowledge in understanding the T-independent immune response and in understanding the key roles that carbohydrates play in metastasis are being applied in attempts to develop an effective vaccine response to TACAs. The role of each of the above mentioned carbohydrate antigens in cancer growth and metastasis and vaccine attempts using these antigens will be described.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michelle Lum
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY 14263
| | - Geraldine Vijay
- University of Texas, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas 77030
| | - Miten Jain
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, CA 95064
| | - Adel Almogren
- Department Of Pathology, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11461 Saudi Arabia
| | - Kate Rittenhouse-Olson
- Department Of Pathology, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11461 Saudi Arabia
- Department of Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214
- Department of Immunology, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY 14263
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14
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Hennen E, Czopka T, Faissner A. Structurally distinct LewisX glycans distinguish subpopulations of neural stem/progenitor cells. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:16321-31. [PMID: 21385876 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.201095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that the stem and progenitor cell population that builds the central nervous system is very heterogeneous. Stem cell markers with the potential to divide this cell pool into subpopulations with distinct characteristics are sparse. We were looking for new cell type-specific antigens to further subdivide the progenitor pool. Here, we introduce the novel monoclonal antibody clone 5750. We show that it specifically labels cell surfaces of neural stem and progenitor cells. When 5750-expressing cells were isolated by fluorescence-activated cell sorting from embryonic mouse brains, the sorted population showed increased neurosphere forming capacity and multipotency. Neurospheres generated from 5750-positive cells could self-renew and remained multipotent even after prolonged passaging. Carbohydrate binding assays revealed that the 5750 antibody specifically binds to LewisX-related carbohydrates. Interestingly, we found that the LewisX epitope recognized by clone 5750 differs from those detected by other anti-LewisX antibody clones like 487(LeX), SSEA-1(LeX), and MMA(LeX). Our data further reveal that individual anti-LewisX clones can be successfully used to label and deplete different subpopulations of neural cells in vivo and in vitro. In conclusion, we present a new tool for the isolation and characterization of neural subpopulations and provide insights into the complexity of cell surface glycosylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Hennen
- Department of Cell Morphology and Molecular Neurobiology, Ruhr-University, Bochum, Germany
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15
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Baas S, Sharrow M, Kotu V, Middleton M, Nguyen K, Flanagan-Steet H, Aoki K, Tiemeyer M. Sugar-free frosting, a homolog of SAD kinase, drives neural-specific glycan expression in the Drosophila embryo. Development 2011; 138:553-63. [PMID: 21205799 PMCID: PMC3014640 DOI: 10.1242/dev.055376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Precise glycan structures on specific glycoproteins impart functionalities essential for neural development. However, mechanisms controlling embryonic neural-specific glycosylation are unknown. A genetic screen for relevant mutations in Drosophila generated the sugar-free frosting (sff) mutant that reveals a new function for protein kinases in regulating substrate flux through specific Golgi processing pathways. Sff is the Drosophila homolog of SAD kinase, which regulates synaptic vesicle tethering and neuronal polarity in nematodes and vertebrates. Our Drosophila sff mutant phenotype has features in common with SAD kinase mutant phenotypes in these other organisms, but we detect altered neural glycosylation well before the initiation of embryonic synaptogenesis. Characterization of Golgi compartmentation markers indicates altered colocalization that is consistent with the detected shift in glycan complexity in sff mutant embryos. Therefore, in analogy to synaptic vesicle tethering, we propose that Sff regulates vesicle tethering at Golgi membranes in the developing Drosophila embryo. Furthermore, neuronal sff expression is dependent on transcellular signaling through a non-neural toll-like receptor, linking neural-specific glycan expression to a kinase activity that is induced in response to environmental cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Baas
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, B122 Life Sciences Building, Green Street, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
| | - Mary Sharrow
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
| | - Varshika Kotu
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, B122 Life Sciences Building, Green Street, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
| | - Meg Middleton
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
| | - Khoi Nguyen
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
| | - Heather Flanagan-Steet
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
| | - Kazuhiro Aoki
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
| | - Michael Tiemeyer
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, B122 Life Sciences Building, Green Street, Athens, GA, 30602-4712, USA
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16
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Pruszak J, Ludwig W, Blak A, Alavian K, Isacson O. CD15, CD24, and CD29 define a surface biomarker code for neural lineage differentiation of stem cells. Stem Cells 2010; 27:2928-40. [PMID: 19725119 DOI: 10.1002/stem.211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Identification and use of cell surface cluster of differentiation (CD) biomarkers have enabled much scientific and clinical progress. We identify a CD surface antigen code for the neural lineage based on combinatorial flow cytometric analysis of three distinct populations derived from human embryonic stem cells: (1) CD15(+)/CD29(HI)/CD24(LO) surface antigen expression defined neural stem cells; (2) CD15(-)/CD29(HI)/CD24(LO) revealed neural crest-like and mesenchymal phenotypes; and (3) CD15(-)/CD29(LO)/CD24(HI) selected neuroblasts and neurons. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for the CD15(-)/CD29(LO)/CD24(HI) profile reduced proliferative cell types in human embryonic stem cell differentiation. This eliminated tumor formation in vivo, resulting in pure neuronal grafts. In conclusion, combinatorial CD15/CD24/CD29 marker profiles define neural lineage development of neural stem cell, neural crest, and neuronal populations from human stem cells. We believe this set of biomarkers enables analysis and selection of neural cell types for developmental studies and pharmacological and therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Pruszak
- McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Center for Neuroregeneration Research, Belmont, Massachusetts 02478, USA
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17
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Yang H, Yan M, Cheng C, Jiang J, Zhang L, Liu J, Zhou Z, Shen A. Expression of β-1,4-galactosyltransferase I in rat Schwann cells. J Cell Biochem 2009; 108:75-86. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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18
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Brito C, Danglot L, Galli T, Costa J. Subcellular localization of the carbohydrate Lewis(x) adhesion structure in hippocampus cell cultures. Brain Res 2009; 1287:39-46. [PMID: 19576189 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.06.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2008] [Revised: 06/19/2009] [Accepted: 06/23/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The Lewis(x) (Le(x)) epitope (Gal(beta1-4)[Fuc(alpha1-3)]GlcNAc-R) has been associated with the development of the central nervous system of diverse species including human and rodents. In this work, Le(x) has been found in the tetanus neurotoxin insensitive vesicle-associated membrane protein (TI-VAMP) compartment of rat hippocampus neurons in culture, at 7 days in vitro (DIV), when neurite extension is abundant. The TI-VAMP compartment is known to be associated with neurite outgrowth. Le(x) was found predominantly in neurites but also in somata and in growth cones. Abundant Le(x)-carrier glycoproteins specific to neurons have been identified at this stage of differentiation. At a later stage of differentiation, at 14 DIV, Le(x) appeared in extrasynaptic sites of GABAergic neurons, and in synaptic sites of glutamatergic neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Brito
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Avenida da República, Apartado 127, 2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal
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19
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Expression change of beta-1,4 galactosyltransferase I, V mRNAs and Galbeta1,4GlcNAc group in rat sciatic nerve after crush. J Mol Histol 2008; 39:317-28. [PMID: 18320333 DOI: 10.1007/s10735-008-9168-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2007] [Accepted: 02/15/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Glycosylation is one of the most important post-translational modifications. It is clear that the single step of beta-1,4-galactosylation is performed by a family of beta-1,4-galactosyltransferases (beta-1,4-GalTs), and that each member of this family may play a distinct role in different tissues and cells. beta-1,4-GalT I and V are involved in the biosynthesis of N-linked oligosaccharides. In the present study, Real-time PCR revealed that the beta-1,4-GalT I and V mRNAs reached peaks at 2 w after sciatic nerve crush. In situ hybridization showed that at 1 d after sciatic nerve crush, the expression levels of beta-1,4-GalT I and V mRNAs were strong at the crush site, and decreased gradually from crush site to the distal segments. In addition, combined in situ hybridization for beta1,4-GalT I and V mRNAs and immunohistochemistry for S100 showed that beta1,4-GalT I and V mRNAs were mainly located in Schwann cells. Lectin blot showed that the expression of Galbeta1,4GlcNAc group increased at 6 h immediately, reached a peak at 12 h and remained elevated up to 4 w after sciatic nerve crush. In conclusion, beta1,4-GalT I and V might play important roles in the regeneration of the injured sciatic nerve, and upregulation of Galbeta1,4GlcNAc group might be correlated with the process of the sciatic nerve injury.
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20
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Nguyen K, van Die I, Grundahl KM, Kawar ZS, Cummings RD. Molecular cloning and characterization of the Caenorhabditis elegans alpha1,3-fucosyltransferase family. Glycobiology 2007; 17:586-99. [PMID: 17369288 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwm023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of Caenorhabditis elegans encodes five genes with homology to known alpha1,3 fucosyltransferases (alpha1,3FTs), but their expression and functions are poorly understood. Here we report the molecular cloning and characterization of these C. elegans alpha1,3FTs (CEFT-1 through -5). The open-reading frame for each enzyme predicts a type II transmembrane protein and multiple potential N-glycosylation sites. We prepared recombinant epitope-tagged forms of each CEFT and found that they had unusual acceptor specificity, cation requirements, and temperature sensitivity. CEFT-1 acted on the N-glycan pentasaccharide core acceptor to generate Manalpha1-3(Manalpha1-6)Manbeta1-4GlcNAcbeta1-4(Fucalpha1-3)GlcNAcbeta1-Asn. In contrast, CEFT-2 did not act on the pentasaccharide acceptor, but instead utilized a LacdiNAc acceptor to generate GalNAcbeta1-4(Fucalpha1-3)GlcNAcbeta1-3Galbeta1-4Glc, which is a novel activity. CEFT-3 utilized a LacNAc acceptor to generate Galbeta1-4(Fucalpha1-3)GlcNAcbeta1-3Galbeta1-4Glc without requiring cations. CEFT-4 was similar to CEFT-3, but its activity was enhanced by some divalent cations. Recombinant CEFT-5 was well expressed, but did not act on available acceptors. Each CEFT was optimally active at room temperature and rapidly lost activity at 37 degrees C. Promoter analysis showed that CEFT-1 is expressed in C. elegans eggs and adults, but its expression was restricted to a few neuronal cells at the head and tail. We prepared deletion mutants for each enzyme for phenotypic analysis. While loss of CEFT-1 correlated with loss of pentasaccharide core activity and core alpha1,3-fucosylated glycans in worms, loss of other enzymes did not correlate with any phenotypic changes. These results suggest that each of the alpha1,3FTs in C. elegans has unique specificity and expression patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiem Nguyen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma Center for Medical Glycobiology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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21
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Klassen H, Kiilgaard JF, Zahir T, Ziaeian B, Kirov I, Scherfig E, Warfvinge K, Young MJ. Progenitor cells from the porcine neural retina express photoreceptor markers after transplantation to the subretinal space of allorecipients. Stem Cells 2007; 25:1222-30. [PMID: 17218397 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.2006-0541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Work in rodents has shown that cultured retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) integrate into the degenerating retina, thus suggesting a potential strategy for treatment of similar degenerative conditions in humans. To demonstrate the relevance of the rodent work to large animals, we derived progenitor cells from the neural retina of the domestic pig and transplanted them to the laser-injured retina of allorecipients. Prior to grafting, immunocytochemical analysis showed that cultured porcine RPCs widely expressed neural cell adhesion molecule, as well as markers consistent with immature neural cells, including nestin, Sox2, and vimentin. Subpopulations expressed the neurodevelopmental markers CD-15, doublecortin, beta-III tubulin, and glial fibrillary acidic protein. Retina-specific markers expressed included the bipolar marker protein kinase Calpha and the photoreceptor-associated markers recoverin and rhodopsin. In addition, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed expression of the transcription factors Dach1, Hes1, Lhx2, Pax6, Six3, and Six6. Progenitor cells prelabeled with vital dyes survived as allografts in the subretinal space for up to 5 weeks (11 of 12 recipients) without exogenous immune suppression. Grafted cells expressed transducin, recoverin, and rhodopsin in the pig subretinal space, suggestive of differentiation into photoreceptors or, in a few cases, migrated into the neural retina and extended processes, the latter typically showing radial orientation. These results demonstrate that many of the findings seen with rodent RPCs can be duplicated in a large mammal. The pig offers a number of advantages over mice and rats, particularly in terms of functional testing and evaluation of the potential for clinical translation to human subjects. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest is found at the end of this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Klassen
- Stem Cell Research, Children's Hospital of Orange County, Orange, California, USA.
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22
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Kudo T, Fujii T, Ikegami S, Inokuchi K, Takayama Y, Ikehara Y, Nishihara S, Togayachi A, Takahashi S, Tachibana K, Yuasa S, Narimatsu H. Mice lacking alpha1,3-fucosyltransferase IX demonstrate disappearance of Lewis x structure in brain and increased anxiety-like behaviors. Glycobiology 2006; 17:1-9. [PMID: 16973732 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwl047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The 3-fucosyl-N-acetyllactosamine [Lewis x (Le(x)), CD15, SSEA-1] carbohydrate structure is expressed on several glycolipids, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans of the nervous system and has been implicated in cell-cell recognition, neurite outgrowth, and neuronal migration during development. To characterize the functional role of Le(x) carbohydrate structure in vivo, we have generated mutant mice that lack alpha1,3-fucosyltransferase IX (Fut9(-/-)). Fut9(-/-) mice were unable to synthesize the Le(x) structure carried on glycoproteins and glycolipids in embryonic and adult brain. However, no obvious pathological differences between wild-type and Fut9(-/-) mice were found in brain. In behavioral tests, Fut9(-/-) mice exhibited increased anxiety-like responses in dark-light preference and in elevated plus maze tests. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that the number of calbindin-positive neurons was decreased in the basolateral amygdala in Fut9(-/-) mice. These observations indicated that the carbohydrates synthesized by Fut9 play critical roles in functional regulations of interneurons in the amygdalar subdivisions and suggested a role for the Le(x) structure in some aspects of emotional behavior in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Kudo
- Glycogene Function Team, Research Center for Glycoscience, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central-2, Open Space Laboratory, 1-1-1 Umezono, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8568, Japan
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23
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Elola MT, Capurro MI, Barrio MM, Coombs PJ, Taylor ME, Drickamer K, Mordoh J. Lewis x antigen mediates adhesion of human breast carcinoma cells to activated endothelium. Possible involvement of the endothelial scavenger receptor C-type lectin. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2006; 101:161-74. [PMID: 16850248 PMCID: PMC2288708 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-006-9286-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2006] [Accepted: 05/19/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Lewis x (Le(x), CD15), also known as SSEA-1 (stage specific embryonic antigen-1), is a trisaccharide with the structure Galbeta(1-4)Fucalpha(1-3)GlcNAc, which is expressed on glycoconjugates in human polymorphonuclear granulocytes and various tumors such as colon and breast carcinoma. We have investigated the role of Le(x) in the adhesion of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells and PMN to human umbilical endothelial cells (HUVEC) and the effects of two different anti-Le(x) mAbs (FC-2.15 and MCS-1) on this adhesion. We also analyzed the cytolysis of Le(x+)-cells induced by anti-Le(x) mAbs and complement when cells were adhered to the endothelium, and the effect of these antibodies on HUVEC. The results indicate that MCF-7 cells can bind to HUVEC, and that MCS-1 but not FC-2.15 mAb inhibit this interaction. Both mAbs can efficiently lyse MCF-7 cells bound to HUVEC in the presence of complement without damaging endothelial cells. We also found a Le(x)-dependent PMN interaction with HUVEC. Although both anti-Le(x) mAbs lysed PMN in suspension and adhered to HUVEC, PMN aggregation was only induced by mAb FC-2.15. Blotting studies revealed that the endothelial scavenger receptor C-type lectin (SRCL), which binds Le(x)-trisaccharide, interacts with specific glycoproteins of M (r ) approximately 28 kD and 10 kD from MCF-7 cells. The interaction between Le(x+)-cancer cells and vascular endothelium is a potential target for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Teresa Elola
- Fundación Instituto Leloir, Patricias Argentinas 435 (1405), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mariana Isabel Capurro
- Division of Molecular and Cell Biology, Sunnybrook and Women's College Health Sciences Center and Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - María Marcela Barrio
- Centro de Investigaciones Oncológicas – FUCA, Zabala 2836, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Peter J. Coombs
- Division of Molecular Biosciences, Biochemistry Building, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Maureen E. Taylor
- Division of Molecular Biosciences, Biochemistry Building, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Kurt Drickamer
- Division of Molecular Biosciences, Biochemistry Building, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - José Mordoh
- Fundación Instituto Leloir, Patricias Argentinas 435 (1405), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Centro de Investigaciones Oncológicas – FUCA, Zabala 2836, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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24
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Capela A, Temple S. LeX is expressed by principle progenitor cells in the embryonic nervous system, is secreted into their environment and binds Wnt-1. Dev Biol 2006; 291:300-13. [PMID: 16458284 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.12.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2005] [Revised: 12/12/2005] [Accepted: 12/14/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
LeX/SSEA1/CD15 is an extracellular matrix-associated carbohydrate expressed by ES cells and by adult neural and bone marrow stem cells. It is important for cell adhesion, compaction and FGF2 responses of early embryonic stem cells; however, its function at later stages is not clear. We now show that LeX is expressed by primary mouse neural progenitor cells, including neural stem cells, neuroblasts and glioblasts, but not by their more differentiated products. LeX distinguishes highly proliferative cells even in the primitive neuroepithelium, demonstrating heterogeneity in cell potential before radial glia arise. At later stages, LeX expressing progenitors are frequently radial in morphology. Surface LeX expression can be used to enrich neural stem and progenitor cells from different CNS regions throughout development by FACS. We found that LeX expression is particularly strong in neural regions with prolonged neurogenesis, e.g., the olfactory epithelium, hippocampus, basal forebrain and cerebellum. These regions also express high levels of the growth factors FGF8 and/or Wnt-1. We show here that LeX-containing molecules in the developing nervous system bind Wnt-1. Our findings suggest that LeX, which is present on the surface of principle neural progenitors and secreted into their extracellular niche, may bind and present growth factors important for their proliferation and self-renewal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Capela
- Center for Neuropharmacology and Neuroscience, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208, USA
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25
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Valente T, Junyent F, Auladell C. Zac1 is expressed in progenitor/stem cells of the neuroectoderm and mesoderm during embryogenesis: differential phenotype of the Zac1-expressing cells during development. Dev Dyn 2005; 233:667-79. [PMID: 15844099 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.20373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Zac1, a new zinc-finger protein that regulates both apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, is abundantly expressed in many neuroepithelia during early brain development. In the present work, we study the expression of Zac1 during early embryogenesis and we determine the cellular phenotype of the Zac1-expressing cells throughout development. Our results show that Zac1 is expressed in the progenitor/stem cells of several tissues (nervous system, skeleton, and skeletal muscle), because they colocalize with several progenitor/stem markers (Nestin, glial fibrillary acidic protein, FORSE-1, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, and bromodeoxyuridine). In postnatal development, Zac1 is expressed in all phases of the life cycle of the chondrocytes (from proliferation to apoptosis), in some limbic gamma-aminobutyric acid-ergic neuronal subpopulations, and during developmental myofibers. Therefore, the intense expression of Zac1 in the progenitor/stem cells of different cellular lineages during the proliferative cycle, before differentiation into postmitotic cells, suggests that Zac1 plays an important role in the control of cell fate during neurogenesis, chondrogenesis, and myogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony Valente
- Departament de Biologia Cellular, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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26
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Leung KM, Margolis RU, Chan SO. Expression of phosphacan and neurocan during early development of mouse retinofugal pathway. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 2004; 152:1-10. [PMID: 15283989 DOI: 10.1016/j.devbrainres.2004.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/25/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We have investigated whether the two major brain chondroitin sulfate (CS) proteoglycans (PGs), phosphacan and neurocan, are expressed in patterns that correlate to the axon order changes in the mouse retinofugal pathway. Expression of these proteoglycans was examined by polyclonal antibodies against phosphacan and N- and C-terminal fragments of neurocan. In E13-E15 mouse embryos, when most optic axons grow in the chiasm and the optic tract, phosphacan and neurocan were observed in the inner regions of the retina. In the chiasm and the tract, phosphacan but not neurocan was expressed prominently at the midline and in the deep parts of the tract. Both proteoglycans were observed on the chiasmatic neurons, which have been shown to regulate axon divergence at the chiasmatic midline and the chronotopic fiber ordering in the tract, but phosphacan appeared to be the predominant form that persists to later developmental stages. Intense staining of both proteoglycans was also observed in a strip of glial-like elements in lateral regions of the chiasm, partitioning axons in the stalk from those in the tract. We conclude that phosphacan but not neurocan is likely the major carrier of the CS glycosaminoglycans that play crucial functions in axon divergence and age-related axon ordering in the mouse optic pathway. Furthermore, localization of these carrier proteins in the optic pathway raises a possibility that these two proteoglycans regulate axon growth and patterning not only through the sulfated sugars but also by interactions of the protein parts with guidance molecules on the optic axons.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Leung
- Department of Anatomy, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR, PR China
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27
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Seppo A, Matani P, Sharrow M, Tiemeyer M. Induction of neuron-specific glycosylation by Tollo/Toll-8, a Drosophila Toll-like receptor expressed in non-neural cells. Development 2003; 130:1439-48. [PMID: 12588858 DOI: 10.1242/dev.00347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Specific glycan expression is an essential characteristic of developing tissues. Our molecular characterization of a mutation that abolishes neural-specific glycosylation in the Drosophila embryo demonstrates that cellular interactions influence glycan expression. The HRP epitope is an N-linked oligosaccharide expressed on a subset of neuronal glycoproteins. Embryos homozygous for the TM3 balancer chromosome lack neural HRP-epitope expression. Genetic and molecular mapping of the relevant locus reveals that Tollo/Toll-8, a member of the Toll-like receptor family, is altered on the TM3 chromosome. In wild-type embryos, Tollo/Toll-8 is expressed by ectodermal cells that surround differentiating neurons and precedes HRP-epitope appearance. Re-introduction of Tollo/Toll-8 into null embryos rescues neural-specific glycan expression. Thus, loss of an ectodermal cell surface protein alters glycosylation in juxtaposed differentiating neurons. The portfolio of expressed oligosaccharides in a cell reflects its identity and also influences its interactions with other cells and with pathogens. Therefore, the ability to induce specific glycan expression complements the previously identified developmental and innate immune functions of Toll-like receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antti Seppo
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
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28
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Pan J, Yeger H, Cutz E. Neuronal developmental marker FORSE-1 identifies a putative progenitor of the pulmonary neuroendocrine cell lineage during lung development. J Histochem Cytochem 2002; 50:1567-78. [PMID: 12486079 DOI: 10.1177/002215540205001201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The FORSE-1 (forebrain-surface-embryonic) monoclonal antibody (MAb) recognizes a carbohydrate cell surface epitope related to the Lewis-X (LeX) and stage-specific embryonic antigens (SSEAs). In the developing CNS, the FORSE-1 epitope is believed to serve as a marker of progenitor cells. We studied the expression of the FORSE-1 epitope in pulmonary neuroendocrine cells (PNECs) and related neuroepithelial bodies (NEBs), cell types implicated in paracrine regulation of lung development. We used dual immunolabeling to identify PNECs/NEBs in tissue sections from developing rabbit fetal lungs and corresponding primary lung cell cultures. During the early stage (E16), the FORSE-1 MAb labeled primitive airway epithelium, whereas serotonin (5HT) immunoreactivity, a marker of PNEC/NEB differentiation, was negative. After E18, FORSE-1 labeling became restricted to PNECs and NEBs, identified by co-expression with 5HT, then decreased coincident with an increase in 5HT. Expression of the FORSE-1 epitope correlated inversely with 5HT expression in PNEC/NEB cells. FORSE-1 immunoreactivity correlated with cell proliferation assessed by BrdU labeling. Downregulation of the FORSE-1 epitope correlated with maturation of PNECs/NEBs. The presence of few FORSE-1/5HT-positive cells in postnatal lung suggests retention of progenitors. The FORSE-1 epitope was associated with a high molecular weight (286 kD) glycoprotein that decreased with increasing gestational age, as demonstrated by immunoblotting. Overall expression of SSEA-1, -3, and -4 antigens was similar to FORSE-1/5HT, although the former was preferentially localized to neurite-like processes. Because the role of the FORSE-1 epitope in the CNS probably involves cell adhesion and differentiation, we propose a similar function in developing lung. The demonstration of LeX/SSEA antigen expression in the PNEC/NEB cell lineage underscores the importance of these cells in developing lung. Furthermore, the FORSE-1 antigen may identify committed progenitors of the PNEC/NEB cell system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Pan
- Department of Paediatric Laboratory Medicine, Hospital for Sick Children and University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Abstract
The perineuronal net forms the extracellular matrix of many neurons in the CNS, surrounding neuron cell bodies and proximal dendrites in a mesh-like structure with open "holes" at the sites of synaptic contacts. The perineuronal net is first detected late in development, approximately coincident with the transformation of the CNS from an environment conducive to neuronal growth and motility to one that is restrictive, suggesting a role for the perineuronal net in this developmental transition. Perineuronal nets show a great degree of molecular heterogeneity. Using monoclonal antibodies Cat-301, Cat-315, and Cat-316, we have shown previously that although all antibodies recognize chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans of similar sizes, each antibody recognizes perineuronal nets on distinct but overlapping sets of neurons in the adult cat CNS. An understanding of the heterogeneity demonstrated by these antibodies is critical to understanding the organization and function of perineuronal nets. Using aggrecan knock-out mice (cmd), we have now determined that all three antibodies recognize aggrecan. Chemical and enzymatic deglycosylation show that the differences revealed by the three antibodies arise from differential glycosylation of aggrecan. We further demonstrate that aggrecan mRNA is expressed relatively late in development and that neurons themselves are likely the predominant cellular sites of aggrecan expression. This work indicates that neurons can directly regulate the composition of their extracellular matrix by regulated synthesis and differential glycosylation of aggrecan in a cell type-specific manner. These results have important implications for the role of regulated microheterogeneity of glycosylation in the CNS.
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Abstract
Adult neural stem cells are rare, and little is known about their unique characteristics, leaving their in vivo identity enigmatic. We show that Lewis X (LeX), a carbohydrate expressed by embryonic pluripotent stem cells, is made by adult mouse subventricular zone (SVZ) stem cells and shed into their environment. Only 4% of acutely isolated SVZ cells are LeX(+); this subpopulation, purified by FACS, contains the SVZ stem cells. Ependymal cells are LeX(-), and purified ependymal cells do not make neurospheres, resolving the controversial claim that these are stem cells. Thus, LeX expression by adult CNS stem cells aids their in vivo identification, allows their enrichment, and raises new questions about the role of this unusual carbohydrate in stem cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Capela
- Center for Neuropharmacology and Neuroscience, Albany Medical College, Albany, NY 12208, USA.
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Shen A, Wang H, Zhang Y, Yan J, Zhu D, Gu J. Expression of beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase II and V in rat injured sciatic nerves. Neurosci Lett 2002; 327:45-8. [PMID: 12098497 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(02)00381-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Beta-1,4-Galactosyltransferases II and V (beta-1,4-GalT II and V) are involved in the biosynthesis of N-linked oligosaccharides as beta-1,4-GalT I which plays important roles in promoting neuron outgrowth. In the present paper, it was illustrated that beta-1,4-GalT II and V were localized mainly in Schwann cells of lesion sciatic nerves by in situ hybridization. Northern blot showed that the expression of beta-1,4-GalT II increased gradually at both stumps of injured nerves, while that of beta-1,4-GalT V decreased at proximal stumps but increased and reached its peak on the third day post-operation at distal stumps, before it declined. The different expression of beta-1,4-GalT II and V in Schwann cells suggested that they would affect the different galactosylation of glycoproteins in injured nerves regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiguo Shen
- Box 103, Gene Research Center, Medical Center of Fudan University (Former Shanghai Medical University), 200032, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Shimoda Y, Tajima Y, Osanai T, Katsume A, Kohara M, Kudo T, Narimatsu H, Takashima N, Ishii Y, Nakamura S, Osumi N, Sanai Y. Pax6 controls the expression of Lewis x epitope in the embryonic forebrain by regulating alpha 1,3-fucosyltransferase IX expression. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:2033-9. [PMID: 11675393 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m108495200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Pax6 is a transcription factor involved in brain patterning and neurogenesis. Expression of Pax6 is specifically observed in the developing cerebral cortex, where Lewis x epitope that is thought to play important roles in cell interactions is colocalized. Here we examined whether Pax6 regulates localization of Lewis x using Pax6 mutant rat embryos. The Lewis x epitope disappeared in the Pax6 mutant cortex, and activity of alpha1,3-fucosyltransferase, which catalyzed the last step of Lewis x biosynthesis, drastically decreased in the mutant cortex as compared with the wild type. Furthermore, expression of a fucosyltransferase gene, FucT-IX, specifically decreased in the mutant, while no change was seen for expression of another fucosyltransferase gene, FucT-IV. These results strongly suggest that Pax6 controls Lewis x expression in the embryonic brain by regulating FucT-IX gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasushi Shimoda
- Department of Biochemical Cell Research, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 3-18-22 Honkomagome, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8613, Japan
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Togayachi A, Akashima T, Ookubo R, Kudo T, Nishihara S, Iwasaki H, Natsume A, Mio H, Inokuchi J, Irimura T, Sasaki K, Narimatsu H. Molecular cloning and characterization of UDP-GlcNAc:lactosylceramide beta 1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (beta 3Gn-T5), an essential enzyme for the expression of HNK-1 and Lewis X epitopes on glycolipids. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:22032-40. [PMID: 11283017 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m011369200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
A new member of the UDP-N-acetylglucosamine:beta-galactose beta1,3-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase (beta3Gn-T) family having the beta3Gn-T motifs was cloned from rat and human cDNA libraries and named beta3Gn-T5 based on its position in a phylogenetic tree. We concluded that beta3Gn-T5 is the most feasible candidate for lactotriaosylceramide (Lc(3)Cer) synthase, an important enzyme which plays a key role in the synthesis of lacto- or neolacto-series carbohydrate chains on glycolipids. beta3Gn-T5 exhibited strong activity to transfer GlcNAc to glycolipid substrates, such as lactosylceramide (LacCer) and neolactotetraosylceramide (nLc(4)Cer; paragloboside), resulting in the synthesis of Lc(3)Cer and neolactopentaosylceramide (nLc(5)Cer), respectively. A marked decrease in LacCer and increase in nLc(4)Cer was detected in Namalwa cells stably expressing beta3Gn-T5. This indicated that beta3Gn-T5 exerted activity to synthesize Lc(3)Cer and decrease LacCer, followed by conversion to nLc(4)Cer via endogenous galactosylation. The following four findings further supported that beta3Gn-T5 is Lc(3)Cer synthase. 1) The beta3Gn-T5 transcript levels in various cells were consistent with the activity levels of Lc(3)Cer synthase in those cells. 2) The beta3Gn-T5 transcript was presented in various tissues and cultured cells. 3) The beta3Gn-T5 expression was up-regulated by stimulation with retinoic acid and down-regulated with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in HL-60 cells. 4) The changes in beta3Gn-T5 transcript levels during the rat brain development were determined. Points 2, 3, and 4 were consistent with the Lc(3)Cer synthase activity reported previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Togayachi
- Division of Cell Biology, Institute of Life Science, Soka University, 1-236 Tangi-cho, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-8577, Japan
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Takahashi H, Howes RI, Sato T, Sukekawa K. Expression of N-acetylgalactosamine Residues on Ectoderm Cell Surfaces during Neurulation in the Bantam Chick Embryo. Acta Histochem Cytochem 2001. [DOI: 10.1267/ahc.34.91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert I. Howes
- Department of Cell Biology, Health Sciences Center, University of Oklahoma
| | - Tatsusuke Sato
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Medical Sciences, Hirosaki University
| | - Koichi Sukekawa
- Department of Anatomy, Hirosaki University School of Medicine
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Bandtlow CE, Zimmermann DR. Proteoglycans in the developing brain: new conceptual insights for old proteins. Physiol Rev 2000; 80:1267-90. [PMID: 11015614 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.2000.80.4.1267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 487] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteoglycans are a heterogeneous class of proteins bearing sulfated glycosaminoglycans. Some of the proteoglycans have distinct core protein structures, and others display similarities and thus may be grouped into families such as the syndecans, the glypicans, or the hyalectans (or lecticans). Proteoglycans can be found in almost all tissues being present in the extracellular matrix, on cellular surfaces, or in intracellular granules. In recent years, brain proteoglycans have attracted growing interest due to their highly regulated spatiotemporal expression during nervous system development and maturation. There is increasing evidence that different proteoglycans act as regulators of cell migration, axonal pathfinding, synaptogenesis, and structural plasticity. This review summarizes the most recent data on structures and functions of brain proteoglycans and focuses on new physiological concepts for their potential roles in the developing central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Bandtlow
- Brain Research Institute, University of Zurich and Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland.
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Chung KY, Taylor JS, Shum DK, Chan SO. Axon routing at the optic chiasm after enzymatic removal of chondroitin sulfate in mouse embryos. Development 2000; 127:2673-83. [PMID: 10821765 DOI: 10.1242/dev.127.12.2673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The effects of removing chondroitin sulfate from chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan molecules on guidance of retinal ganglion cell axons at the optic chiasm were investigated in a brain slice preparation of mouse embryos of embryonic day 13 to 15. Slices were grown for 5 hours and growth of dye-labeled axons was traced through the chiasm. After continuous enzymatic digestion of the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans with chondroitinase ABC, which removes the glycosaminoglycan chains, navigation of retinal axons was disrupted. At embryonic day 13, before the uncrossed projection forms in normal development, many axons deviated from their normal course, crossing the midline at aberrant positions and invading the ventral diencephalon. In slices from embryonic day 14 embryos, axons that would normally form the uncrossed projection at this stage failed to turn into the ipsilateral optic tract. In embryonic day 15 slices, enzyme treatment caused a reduction of the uncrossed projection that develops at this stage. Growth cones in enzyme-treated slices showed a significant increase in the size both before and after they crossed the midline. This indicates that responses of retinal axons to guidance signals at the chiasm have changed after removal of the chondroitin sulfate epitope. We concluded that the chondroitin sulfate moieties of the proteoglycans are involved in patterning the early phase of axonal growth across the midline and at a later stage controlling the axon divergence at the chiasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Y Chung
- Department of Anatomy, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
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