Girls in detention: what are their characteristics? A project to explore and document the character of this target group and the significant ways in which it differs from one consisting of boys

A Qualitative Study on Young Women's Lives Prior to and Four Years after Youth Detention: Examining the Good Lives Model's Aetiological Assumptions

Detained female adolescents constitute a vulnerable, challenging, and understudied minority. Interventions for DFA are still dominated by risk management approaches with less focus on strength-based approaches such as the Good Lives Model (GLM). This study explored the functionality of DFA’s behaviour prior to and four years after release from detention, using the GLM as the guiding theoretical framework. A theory-driven thematic analysis was conducted of 30 in-depth interviews with former DFA (M_age = 20.80), exploring the fulfilment of their basic human needs (e.g., relatedness, independence) before and after detention. Before detention, the young women experienced multiple problems trying to fulfil multiple human needs, often contributing to poor balance in their lives and their antisocial behaviour. Although external and internal obstacles to fulfilling human needs were still present at follow-up, important improvements were noted, e.g., in the scope of their human needs and the resources available to fulfil their needs. The findings provide additional insights into the issues experienced by young women in detention and indicate there are opportunities to assist these young women, through the development of appropriate resources and capacities which provide them with appropriate means for fulfilling their needs and moving towards a personally meaningful and prosocial life.

Access to Reproductive Health Care in Juvenile Justice Facilities

STUDY OBJECTIVE

The juvenile justice system houses adolescents with unique and unmet reproductive needs, including family planning. The purpose of this study was to identify access to contraceptive counseling and methods for young women in the juvenile justice system.

DESIGN

We administered a cross-sectional survey that was used to examine services related to reproductive health care, including contraceptive counseling, and ability to initiate or continue contraceptive methods in custody.

SETTING

Juvenile justice systems in the United States.

PARTICIPANTS

State-level health care administrators in juvenile justice systems.

INTERVENTIONS AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

We analyzed responses to determine the ability of young women in custody to continue or initiate specific contraceptive methods, in addition to other measures of reproductive health access.

RESULTS

Twenty-one respondents representing systems in 20 US states were included in analysis. All participating sites provided contraceptive counseling and all allowed at least 1 form of preincarceration contraception to be continued. Eighty-one percent (17/21) of systems enabled young women to initiate contraception while in custody, with the most common method available on-site being birth control pills. Twenty percent (4/20) of sites provided long-acting reversible contraceptive methods.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that it is feasible to provide contraception in this setting. However, there exists considerable variability in availability of methods across the United States. Continued work is needed in increasing access to contraception and standardization of care in the juvenile justice system.

Characteristics of Female Youth Offenders in New Zealand

Female youth offending is poorly understood, despite increased rates of such offending. Research indicates there are a range of factors that have a causal impact on the development of offending in young people. This study investigated risk factors using a retrospective file audit of 184 female youth offenders in New Zealand. The findings were classified using Bronfenbrenner's ecological model, which highlights the different contextual levels that influence behavior, including individual, family, peer, school, community, and cultural factors. The results indicate that there are significant risk factors for female youth offenders. There were high rates of mental health difficulties, drug use, histories of maltreatment, family stressors, peer issues, and school behavior problems in the cohort. There was very little difference between violent and nonviolent offenders. All the young women had risk factors affecting them at many levels. Targeted, multisystemic intervention and prevention programs are therefore needed to address female youth offending.

Gender differences in the trends and correlates of major depressive episodes among juvenile offenders in the United States

PURPOSE

Although it is well-established that juvenile offenders are at an elevated risk for depression and that, within this group, females have the highest risk, little is known regarding the trends in the prevalence of depression among juvenile offenders in the United States. In the present study, we systematically examine secular trends in major depressive episodes (MDE) and their correlates among male and female juvenile offenders and non-offenders in the United States.

METHODS

Data were collected between 2005 and 2014 as part of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). The NSDUH uses multistage area probability sampling methods to select a representative sample of the civilian, non-institutionalized population in the United States. Participants included 171,118 youth aged 12-17 (159,449 non-offenders and 11,669 offenders). The primary variable of interest was self-reported past year MDE. Logistic regression assessed whether sociodemographic factors and psychosocial and behavioral correlates affected the risk of MDE.

RESULTS

Between 2005 and 2014, the prevalence of MDE among female youth increased for both offender and non-offender groups: from 24.4% to 33.0% for the offenders and from 12.4% to 16.7% for the non-offenders. No significant trend changes were observed among male youth. In both male and female juvenile offenders, MDEs were associated with increased risk of illicit drug use (males OR=1.61, 95% CI=1.18-2.18; females OR=1.83, 95% CI=1.45-2.31). Additional correlates include alcohol use among male offenders (OR=1.36, 95% CI=1.01-1.83), and binge drinking in female offenders (OR=1.24, 95% CI=1.02-1.49).

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of past year major depressive episodes is increasing for female juvenile offenders, highlighting a need for improved efforts to target these populations for prevention and treatment.

What the MAYSI-2 Can Tell Us About Anger-Irritability and Trauma

The rate of experiencing trauma can be quite high for juvenile offenders and those experiences can lead to feelings of anger and irritability. This study uses Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument-Version 2 (MAYSI-2) data to examine the relationship between the Traumatic Experiences (TE) and Angry-Irritable (AI) scales for juvenile offenders (N = 1,348) from a Midwest detention center. Chi-square analyses revealed statistically significant relationships between the AI scale and gender, race, and the TE scale. In addition, ordinal logistic regression results showed that as the number of traumatic experiences increased, so did the odds of scoring Caution or Warning on the AI scale. Recommendations are that juvenile justice systems utilize a trauma-informed process throughout the adjudicatory process and there be improved efforts to coordinate services across multiple systems, such as child welfare and special education, where juvenile offenders are often engaged.

[Psychosocial disadvantages in incarcerated girls and boys]

OBJECTIVE

Longitudinal studies found that criminal behavior in juveniles often concurs with neighborhood disadvantage and family dysfunction, especially in girls. In this study we assessed the psychosocial background in incarcerated juveniles and analyzed the data for each gender separately.

METHOD

The Multidimensional Clinical Screening Inventory for delinquent juveniles (MCSI) was used to assess school history, psychiatric history, family background, abuse and neglect and motive for crime. The sample consisted of 294 juveniles (46 females and 248 males).

RESULTS

Innerfamilial abuse/neglect was reported by 91% (girls) and 79% (boys). 76% (girls) and 88% (boys) reported school-problems. 57% (girls) and 29% (boys) reported to have recieved psychiatric pretreatment. In girls we found significantly higher prevalence rates for parental divorce, incarceration of mother, abuse/neglect and psychiatric pretreatment. Significantly more girls reported a co-occurrence of school-problems and experiences of separation and loss and abuse (65.2% vs. 46.4%, χ²=5.51, df=1, p<.05).

CONCLUSION

Incarcerated juveniles, especially females, are and have been exposed to multiple psychosocial burdens. Therefore it is necessary to implement prevention programs for psychosocially stressed families. Forensic intervention in and after detention has to include a family centered approach.

An investigation of gender differences in a representative sample of juveniles detained in Connecticut

As the number of females served by the juvenile justice system in the United States continues to grow, both in absolute terms and relative to the number of males, it is important to understand both the general and specific characteristics of delinquent girls and boys regarding their patterns of offending and risk variables. Using systematic random sampling, 20% of all admittees to the state-run juvenile detention centers in the state of Connecticut, USA, were included in a chart review study, forming a sample (n = 371, 30.2% girls, age range 11-19 years; mean age = 14.45, sd = 1.05) that was analyzed for gender differences with regard to characteristics of offenses. These characteristics were examined for their potential associations with indicators of risk that are routinely collected at admission to detention. Findings indicate a complex set of associations between indicators of offense and risk, highlighting the importance not only of gender, but also of racial/ethnic differences, whose modulating effects appear to be important in understanding these associations. Specifically, girls in detention are characterized by a number of dimensions, some of which align with those for boys and some that are more gender-specific. For example, girls, as a group, demonstrated higher levels of substance abuse, suicide ideation, victimization, and mental-health variability, but these higher scores are more characteristic of girls from minority backgrounds. More research is needed to understand the profiles of juveniles in detention as the variables considered in this work that map onto the literature at large have resulted in effects of small magnitude.

Gender differences in psychiatric disorders and clusters of self-esteem among detained adolescents

Detained minors display substantial mental health needs. This study focused on two features (psychopathology and self-esteem) that have received considerable attention in the literature and clinical work, but have rarely been studied simultaneously in detained youths. The aims of this study were to examine gender differences in psychiatric disorders and clusters of self-esteem, and to test the hypothesis that the cluster of adolescents with lower (versus higher) levels of self-esteem have higher rates of psychiatric disorders. The prevalence of psychiatric disorders was assessed in 440 Belgian, detained adolescents using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-IV. Self-esteem was assessed using the Self-perception Profile for Adolescents. Model-based cluster analyses were performed to identify youths with lower and/or higher levels of self-esteem across several domains. Girls have higher rates for most psychiatric disorders and lower levels of self-esteem than boys. A higher number of clusters was identified in boys (four) than girls (three). Generally, the cluster of adolescents with lower (versus higher) levels of self-esteem had a higher prevalence of psychiatric disorders. These results suggest that the detection of low levels of self-esteem in adolescents, especially girls, might help clinicians to identify a subgroup of detained adolescents with the highest prevalence of psychopathology.

Girls' quality of life prior to detention in relation to psychiatric disorders, trauma exposure and socioeconomic status

PURPOSE

Practice and research on detained girls has mainly been problem oriented, overlooking these minors' own perspective on and satisfaction with life. The aim of this study was to examine how girls evaluate multiple domains of quality of life (QoL) and how each domain is affected by psychiatric (co)morbidity, trauma, and socioeconomic status (SES).

METHODS

An abbreviated version of the World Health Organization (WHO) QoL Instrument was used to assess the girls' (N = 121; M(age) = 16.28) QoL prior to detention. This self-report questionnaire consists of two benchmark items referring to their overall QoL and health, and 24 remaining items measuring their QoL regarding four domains (physical health, psychological health, social relationships, and environment). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-IV was used to assess the past-year prevalence of psychiatric disorders and life-time trauma exposure.

RESULTS

Detained girls perceived their QoL almost as good as the 12- to 20-year-olds from the WHO's international field trial on all but one domain (i.e., psychological health). They were most satisfied with their social relationships and least satisfied with their psychological health. Psychiatric disorders, trauma, and low SES were distinctively and negatively related to various domains of QoL. The girls' psychological health was most adversely affected by psychosocial and socioeconomic problems, while these variables had an almost negligible impact on their satisfaction with their social relationships.

CONCLUSIONS

The particularity of each domain of QoL supports a multidimensional conceptualization of QoL. Regarding treatment, psychological health appears as a domain of major concern, while social relationships might serve as a source of resilience.

The blurred vision of Lady Justice for minors with mental disorders: records of the juvenile court in Belgium

PURPOSE

This study examined (1) the information present in juvenile court records in Belgium (Flanders) and (2) whether there are differences in information between records that mention a mental disorder and those that do not.

METHOD

The file study sample included 107 court records, and we used a Pearson's chi-square test and a t-test to analyze the information within those records.

RESULTS

Information in juvenile court records varied considerably. This variability was evident when we compared juvenile court records with and without mention of a mental disorder. Significantly more information about school-related problems, the functioning of the minor, and the occurrence of domestic violence was included in records that mentioned a mental disorder compared with records that did not.

CONCLUSION

The content of the juvenile court records varied, particularly with regard to the mental health status of the minor in question. We suggest guidelines to standardize the information contained in juvenile court records.

(Social) Cognitive skills and social information processing in children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities

The purpose of this study was to examine the unique contributions of (social) cognitive skills such as inhibition, working memory, perspective taking, facial emotion recognition, and interpretation of situations to the variance in social information processing in children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities. Respondents were 79 children with mild to borderline intellectual disabilities in the age of 8-12 who were given tasks on social cognitive skills and social information processing. The results from the present study show that emotion recognition, interpretation, working memory and inhibition skills predict social information processing skills. It is concluded that especially emotion recognition and interpretation skills are important cognitive skills that predict social information processing, and therefore should be the focus of treatment.

Psychopathologische und komorbide Störungen inhaftierter Jugendlicher in Österreich

Fragestellung: Inhaftierte Jugendliche zeigen hohe Prävalenzraten an psychiatrischen Störungen und gehäuft psychiatrische Komorbidität. Im Strafvollzug tätige Kinder- und JugendpsychiaterInnen stehen vor der Versorgungsaufgabe und der Notwendigkeit, störungsspezifische Behandlungsansätze auszuarbeiten. Die in dieser Studie erhobenen psychiatrischen Störungen bei inhaftierten Jugendlichen wurden im Hinblick auf störungsspezifische Behandlungsaspekte geschlechtsspezifisch ausgewertet. Methodik: Das Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview für Kinder und Jugendliche wurde angewandt, um die Psychopathologie bei in Österreich inhaftierten Jugendlichen zu erheben. Die endgültige Stichprobe umfasste 333 Jugendliche (58 Mädchen und 275 Jungen). Ergebnisse: 90 % der inhaftierten Jugendlichen litten an mindestens einer psychiatrischen Störung, über 60 % zeigten zwei oder mehr koexistierende Störungsbilder. Mittels Faktorenanalyse wurden für männliche Jugendliche drei klinisch relevante Störungsmuster anhand von psychopathologischen Merkmalen ausgearbeitet: ADHS/Störung des Sozialverhaltens und Drogenmissbrauch; Angst und Depression; Trennungsangst/PTBS und Alkoholmissbrauch. Für weibliche Jugendliche ergaben sich vier Störungsmuster: Trennungsangst/Sozialphobie/Dysthymie; PTBS und Drogenmissbrauch in Kombination mit entweder ADHS oder Störung des Sozialverhaltens; Depression und Alkoholmissbrauch. Schlussfolgerungen: Aufgrund der hohen Raten an Psychopathologien bei inhaftierten Jugendlichen ist eine umfassende und strukturierte Diagnostik unerlässlich für die weitere Behandlungsentscheidung, da bei inhaftierten Jugendlichen verschiedene Störungsmuster berücksichtigt werden müssen. Die gefundenen Störungsmuster könnten im Zusammenhang mit der Entstehung delinquenten Verhaltens, mit unterschiedlichen Behandlungsbedürfnissen und mit dem Risiko für erneute Delikte wichtig sein.

Multidimensional treatment foster care as a preventive intervention to promote resiliency among youth in the child welfare system

Demographic trends indicate that a growing segment of families is exposed to adversity such as poverty, drug use problems, caregiver transitions, and domestic violence. Although these risk processes and the accompanying poor outcomes for children have been well studied, little is known about why some children develop resilience in the face of such adversity, particularly when it is severe enough to invoke child welfare involvement. This paper describes a program of research involving families in the child welfare system. Using a resiliency framework, evidence from 4 randomized clinical trials that included components of the Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care program is presented. Future directions and next steps are proposed.

Exploring the mediating mechanism between gender-based violence and biologically confirmed Chlamydia among detained adolescent girls

The study examined several behavioral mechanisms that link gender-based violence (GBV) to STD among detained, sexually active adolescent girls. Girls (N = 198) were recruited from eight youth detention facilities. Measures were assessed using audiocomputer-assisted self-interviewing. DNA amplification was conducted to assess for chlamydia. Thirty-one percent had experienced GBV and 15% tested positive for chlamydia. GBV was related to chlamydia directly and indirectly through condom failures and through having sexual intercourse while high on drugs and/or alcohol. The study found that sexual risk reduction programs may benefit this population by addressing the role of GBV and its association with STD-associated behaviors.

The impact of family violence, family functioning, and parental partner dynamics on Korean juvenile delinquency

The present study was aimed at determining the family factors related to juvenile delinquency and identifying the effect of family violence, family functioning, parental partner dynamics, and adolescents' personality on delinquent behavior among Korean adolescents. A cross-sectional study was performed using an anonymous, self-reporting questionnaire. The subjects for this study consisted of 1,943 Korean adolescents, including 1,236 students and 707 juvenile delinquents, using a proportional stratified random sampling method. Compared to student adolescents, delinquent adolescents perceived their parents as having a higher level of dysfunctional parental partner dynamics, poorer family functioning, and a higher level of family violence. Furthermore, delinquent adolescents were more likely to report a greater incidence of antisocial personality tendencies, a higher level of psychosomatic symptoms and frustration, and higher frequencies of delinquent behavior compared to student adolescents. Antisocial personality tendency and gender had the largest significant total effects on delinquent behavior, followed by family violence, psychosomatic symptoms, family functioning, parental partner dynamics and need frustration. On the other hand, family functioning and parental partner dynamics had the largest indirect effect on delinquent behavior. Gender, antisocial personality tendency, and family violence, in that order, had the largest direct effects on delinquent behavior. In conclusion, it is apparent from the results of the present study that delinquent Korean adolescents perceived and experienced significantly more family dysfunction, family violence, and poor parental partner dynamics than did non-delinquents.

Psychiatric and medical health care policies in juvenile detention facilities

OBJECTIVES

Many adolescents admitted to detention facilities have serious mental and physical health problems. Little is known about policies for the delivery of mental and physical health care in these settings. Our objective was to describe current health care policies in U.S. detention facilities.

METHOD

Telephone interviews were requested from 83 juvenile detention facility administrators across the United States.

RESULTS

The response rate was 97.6%. Data were collected over 12 months, from 2003-2004. Policies for admission health screening existed in 99% of facilities; 90% included mental health screening. Most sites had policies about psychopharmacotherapy and 92% had crisis services. Continuation of existing psychotropic medication treatment was provided at 96% of facilities. Seventy-three percent of facilities used physicians to manage medications in-house; in 61% of the centers, these physicians were psychiatrists. Medication administration policies most often specified nurses, but 16% of facilities used guards. Provisions for discharge psychotropic medication existed at 84% of sites, but there was wide variation in dispensing policies.

CONCLUSIONS

Detention health care policies for adolescents have significant gaps, particularly for mental health care. Future research should include an epidemiological study of detained youths, evaluating their health needs and the actual care received.

A Randomized Evaluation of Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care: Effects on School Attendance and Homework Completion in Juvenile Justice Girls

Despite growing evidence that child welfare youth are at increased risk for juvenile delinquency, little is known about gender-specific processes and effective treatment programs for girls. Multidimensional Treatment Foster Care (MTFC), an empirically validated intervention for child welfare and juvenile justice populations, has demonstrated efficacy in reducing arrest rates in delinquent boys and girls. In this study, the efficacy of MTFC on school attendance and homework completion was examined in juvenile justice girls who were referred to out-of-home care (N = 81). Results from this randomized intervention trial suggest that MTFC was more effective than group care in increasing girls' school attendance and homework completion while in treatment and at 12 months postbaseline. In addition, the previously reported effect of MTFC on reducing girls' days in locked settings was mediated by homework completion while girls were enrolled in the intervention setting. Implications for policy and practice are described.

AGGRESSION AMONG KOREAN ADOLESCENTS: A COMPARISON BETWEEN DELINQUENTS AND NONDELINQUENTS

In this study family dynamics, personality, alcohol and drug abuse, coping strategies and sexual abuse in nondelinquent and delinquent adolescents were compared and a path model of aggression among Korean adolescents was constructed. Using a proportional stratified random sampling method, a sample of 2,100 Korean adolescents was assessed. Data were collected using a cross-sectional design, via anonymous, self-reporting questionnaires. Delinquent adolescents were found to have a higher incidence of dysfunctional family dynamics, greater incidence of antisocial personality, higher tendency to depression, and higher levels of aggressive impulsiveness than nondelinquent adolescents. Delinquent adolescents reported higher incidences of being sexually abused, and alcohol and drug abuse, and showed a greater tendency toward cognitive and behavioral avoidance coping strategies compared to nondelinquent adolescents. Person-related aggressive impulsiveness, antisocial personality tendency, and self-injurious aggressive impulsiveness had the largest significant total effects on aggressive behavior among Korean adolescents.

Gender differences in delinquent behavior among Korean adolescents

The present study examined gender differences in the rate, type, and relevant variables underlying delinquent behavior among South Korean adolescents. Although female delinquency is increasing and becoming more violent in South Korea, the rate of delinquent behavior was found to be much lower among female than among male adolescents and female adolescents were much less involved in antisocial, aggressive, and psychopathic delinquent behavior compared to male adolescents. Moreover, compared to female delinquent adolescents, male delinquent adolescents were found to have greater tendencies towards antisocial personality, sociability, being sexually abused, and alcohol and drug use. In contrast, female delinquent adolescents had a greater tendency toward depression than male delinquent adolescents. No gender differences were found in the association between family dynamics and delinquent behaviors. Age and antisocial personality had the most significant total effects on male delinquent behavior. In contrast, alcohol and drug abuse was the strongest contributing factors in female delinquent behavior, although the level of alcohol and drug abuse was much higher among male adolescents than among female adolescents.

Mental health outcomes of adjudicated males and females: the aftermath of juvenile delinquency and problem behaviour

BACKGROUND

Empirical evidence indicates that the rates of mental health problems and disorders are relatively high among adjudicated youths, especially females, yet few longitudinal studies have focused on gender differences regarding their mental health outcomes as adults.

AIMS

The present study was designed to assess the prevalence rates of self-reported suicide attempts and psychological help-seeking in young adults adjudicated for antisocial behaviours in adolescence. This study also assessed gender differences in the prevalence rates of mental health problems and disorders reported by participants.

METHODS

Structured interviews assessing personal and social adaptation were conducted on three occasions with 292 adjudicated male and 113 female youths (mean age 15 years on the first occasion). Data from the third testing wave (mean age 23.51 at T3) provide information on their mental health outcomes in adulthood.

RESULTS

Results indicate that in individuals with a history of juvenile delinquency and/or problem behaviour over 10% of the males and 20% of the females reported suicide attempts, and one-fifth and one-third respectively reported psychological consultation. Similar and lower proportions reported psychiatric hospitalization and/or drug addiction programme/therapy at the beginning of adulthood.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

The present study suggests that these youths may need more mental health directed interventions in their assessment rehabilitation programmes.