RNA Interference-Mediated Intrinsic Antiviral Immunity in Invertebrates

An Automated Strategy to Handle Antigenic Variability in Immunisation Protocols, Part I: Nanopore Sequencing of Infectious Agent Variants

Infectious agents often challenge therapeutics, from antibiotics resistance to antigenic variability affecting inoculation measures. Over the last decades, genome sequencing arose as an important ally to address such challenges. In bacterial infection, whole-genome-sequencing (WGS) supports tracking pathogenic alterations affecting the human microbiome. In viral infection, the analysis of the relevant sequence of nucleotides helps with determining historical variants of a virus and elucidates details about infection clusters and their distribution. Additionally, genome sequencing is now an important step in inoculation protocols, isolating target genes to design more robust immunisation assays. Ultimately, genetic engineering has empowered repurposing at scale, allowing long-lasting repeating clinical trials to be automated within a much shorter time-frame, by adjusting existing protocols. This is particularly important during sanitary emergencies as the ones caused by the 2014 West African Ebola outbreak, the Zika virus rapid spread in both South and North America in 2015, followed by Asia in 2016, and the pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2, which has infected more than 187 million people and caused more than 4 million deaths, worldwide, as per July 2021 statistics. In this scenery, this chapter presents a novel fully automated strategy to handle antigenic variability in immunisation protocols. The methodology comprises of two major steps (1) nanopore sequencing of infectious agent variants - the focus is on the SARS-CoV-2 and its variants; followed by (2) mRNA vector design for immunotherapy. This chapter presents the nanopore sequencing step and Chapter 17 introduces a protocol for mRNA vector design.

RNAi-Based Antiviral Innate Immunity in Plants

Multiple antiviral immunities were developed to defend against viral infection in hosts. RNA interference (RNAi)-based antiviral innate immunity is evolutionarily conserved in eukaryotes and plays a vital role against all types of viruses. During the arms race between the host and virus, many viruses evolve viral suppressors of RNA silencing (VSRs) to inhibit antiviral innate immunity. Here, we reviewed the mechanism at different stages in RNAi-based antiviral innate immunity in plants and the counteractions of various VSRs, mainly upon infection of RNA viruses in model plant Arabidopsis. Some critical challenges in the field were also proposed, and we think that further elucidating conserved antiviral innate immunity may convey a broad spectrum of antiviral strategies to prevent viral diseases in the future.

Innate Immune Antagonism of Mosquito-Borne Flaviviruses in Humans and Mosquitoes

Mosquito-borne viruses of the Flavivirus genus (Flaviviridae family) pose an ongoing threat to global public health. For example, dengue, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile, yellow fever, and Zika viruses are transmitted by infected mosquitoes and cause severe and fatal diseases in humans. The means by which mosquito-borne flaviviruses establish persistent infection in mosquitoes and cause disease in humans are complex and depend upon a myriad of virus-host interactions, such as those of the innate immune system, which are the main focus of our review. This review also covers the different strategies utilized by mosquito-borne flaviviruses to antagonize the innate immune response in humans and mosquitoes. Given the lack of antiviral therapeutics for mosquito-borne flaviviruses, improving our understanding of these virus-immune interactions could lead to new antiviral therapies and strategies for developing refractory vectors incapable of transmitting these viruses, and can also provide insights into determinants of viral tropism that influence virus emergence into new species.

Involvement of noncoding RNA in blood-brain barrier integrity in central nervous system disease

Given the important role of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in the central nervous system (CNS), increasing studies have been carried out to determine how the structural and functional integrity of the BBB impacts the pathogenesis of CNS diseases such as stroke, traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), and gliomas. Emerging studies have revealed that noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) help to maintain the integrity and permeability of the BBB, thereby mediating CNS homeostasis. This review summarizes recent studies that focus on the effects of ncRNAs on the BBB in CNS diseases, including regulating the biological processes of inflammation, necrosis, and apoptosis of cells, affecting the translational dysfunction of proteins and regulating tight junctions (TJs). A comprehensive and detailed understanding of the interaction between ncRNAs and the BBB will lay a solid foundation for the development of early diagnostic methods and effective treatments for CNS diseases.

Structure and dsRNA-binding activity of the Birnavirus Drosophila X Virus VP3 protein

The Birnavirus multifunctional protein VP3 plays an essential role coordinating the virus life cycle, interacting with the capsid protein VP2, with the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase VP1 and with the dsRNA genome. Furthermore, the role of this protein in controlling host cell responses triggered by dsRNA and preventing gene silencing has been recently demonstrated. Here we report the X-ray structure and dsRNA-binding activity of the N-terminal domain of Drosophila X virus (DXV) VP3. The domain folds in a bundle of three α-helices and arranges as a dimer, exposing to the surface a well-defined cluster of basic residues. Site directed mutagenesis combined with Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assays (EMSA) and Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) revealed that this cluster, as well as a flexible and positively charged region linking the first and second globular domains of DXV VP3, are essential for dsRNA-binding. Also, RNA silencing studies performed in insect cell cultures confirmed the crucial role of this VP3 domain for the silencing suppression activity of the protein.IMPORTANCE The Birnavirus moonlighting protein VP3 plays crucial roles interacting with the dsRNA genome segments to form stable ribonucleoprotein complexes and controlling host cell immune responses, presumably by binding to and shielding the dsRNA from recognition by the host silencing machinery. The structural, biophysical and functional data presented in this work has identified the N-terminal domain of VP3 as responsible for the dsRNA-binding and silencing suppression activities of the protein in Drosophila X virus.

Full-length genome sequence of segmented RNA virus from ticks was obtained using small RNA sequencing data

BACKGROUND

In 2014, a novel tick-borne virus of the Flaviviridae family was first reported in the Mogiana region of Brazil and named the Mogiana tick virus (MGTV). Thereafter, the Jingmen tick virus (JMTV), Kindia tick virus (KITV), and Guangxi tick virus (GXTV)-evolutionarily related to MGTV-were reported.

RESULTS

In the present study, we used small RNA sequencing (sRNA-seq) to detect viruses in ticks and discovered a new MGTV strain in Amblyomma testudinarium ticks collected in China's Yunnan Province in 2016. We obtained the full-length genome sequence of this MGTV strain Yunnan2016 (GenBank: MT080097, MT080098, MT080099 and MT080100) and recommended it for its inclusion in the NCBI RefSeq database for future studies on MGTV, JMTV, KITV and GXTV. Phylogenetic analysis showed that MGTV, JMTV, KITV and GXTV are monophyletic and belong to a MGTV group. Furthermore, this MGTV group of viruses may be phylogenetically related to geographical regions that were formerly part of the supercontinents Gondwana and Laurasia.

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in which 5' and 3' sRNAs were used to generate full-length genome sequences of, but not limited to, RNA viruses. We also demonstrated the feasibility of using the sRNA-seq based method for the detection of viruses in pooled two and even possible one small ticks. MGTV may preserve the characteristic of ancient RNA viruses, which can be used to study the origin and evolution of RNA viruses. In addition, MGTV can be used as novel species for studies in phylogeography.

mTOR inhibition and p53 activation, microRNAs: The possible therapy against pandemic COVID-19

mTOR is a serine-threonine kinase and participates in cell proliferation, cellular metabolism was found to be activated during Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral infection and replication. During viral replication mTOR, downstream target genes such as ribosomal protein S6 kinase beta 1 (S6K1) and Eukaryotic translational initiation factor 4E-binding protein1 (4-E-BP1) are activated result in ribosome biosynthesis and efficient protein synthesis. In plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), mTOR plays a key role in the association of adapter protein myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88), Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) and interferon regulatory factor (IRF-7) leading to the transcriptional activation of type-I interferon (IFN) genes. Viruses also inactivate the interferon α (IFN-α) pathway by impairing the IRF-7 mediated activation of IFN-α gene transcription. Thus, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors can help in suppressing the early stages of viral infection and replication. Interestingly, the key tumor-suppressor p53 protein will undergo degradation by virus-encoded E3 ubiquitin ligase Ring-finger and CHY zinc-finger domain-containing 1 (RCHY1) leading to an increased viral survival in host cells. Thus, the mTOR inhibitors and p53 activators or microRNAs that functions as p53 and can target 3'-UTR of mTOR and RPS6KB1 might effectively inhibit viral replication in the human respiratory tract and lung cells.

Mode of Transmission Determines the Virulence of Black Queen Cell Virus in Adult Honey Bees, Posing a Future Threat to Bees and Apiculture

Honey bees (Apis mellifera) can be infected by many viruses, some of which pose a major threat to their health and well-being. A critical step in the dynamics of a viral infection is its mode of transmission. Here, we compared for the first time the effect of mode of horizontal transmission of Black queen cell virus (BQCV), a ubiquitous and highly prevalent virus of A. mellifera, on viral virulence in individual adult honey bees. Hosts were exposed to BQCV either by feeding (representing direct transmission) or by injection into hemolymph (analogous to indirect or vector-mediated transmission) through a controlled laboratory experimental design. Mortality, viral titer and expression of three key innate immune-related genes were then quantified. Injecting BQCV directly into hemolymph in the hemocoel resulted in far higher mortality as well as increased viral titer and significant change in the expression of key components of the RNAi pathway compared to feeding honey bees BQCV. Our results support the hypothesis that mode of horizontal transmission determines BQCV virulence in honey bees. BQCV is currently considered a benign viral pathogen of adult honey bees, possibly because its mode of horizontal transmission is primarily direct, per os. We anticipate adverse health effects on honey bees if BQCV transmission becomes vector-mediated.

Antiviral RNAi in Insects and Mammals: Parallels and Differences

The RNA interference (RNAi) pathway is a potent antiviral defense mechanism in plants and invertebrates, in response to which viruses evolved suppressors of RNAi. In mammals, the first line of defense is mediated by the type I interferon system (IFN); however, the degree to which RNAi contributes to antiviral defense is still not completely understood. Recent work suggests that antiviral RNAi is active in undifferentiated stem cells and that antiviral RNAi can be uncovered in differentiated cells in which the IFN system is inactive or in infections with viruses lacking putative viral suppressors of RNAi. In this review, we describe the mechanism of RNAi and its antiviral functions in insects and mammals. We draw parallels and highlight differences between (antiviral) RNAi in these classes of animals and discuss open questions for future research.

Small RNA-Omics for Plant Virus Identification, Virome Reconstruction, and Antiviral Defense Characterization

RNA interference (RNAi)-based antiviral defense generates small interfering RNAs that represent the entire genome sequences of both RNA and DNA viruses as well as viroids and viral satellites. Therefore, deep sequencing and bioinformatics analysis of small RNA population (small RNA-ome) allows not only for universal virus detection and genome reconstruction but also for complete virome reconstruction in mixed infections. Viral infections (like other stress factors) can also perturb the RNAi and gene silencing pathways regulating endogenous gene expression and repressing transposons and host genome-integrated endogenous viral elements which can potentially be released from the genome and contribute to disease. This review describes the application of small RNA-omics for virus detection, virome reconstruction and antiviral defense characterization in cultivated and non-cultivated plants. Reviewing available evidence from a large and ever growing number of studies of naturally or experimentally infected hosts revealed that all families of land plant viruses, their satellites and viroids spawn characteristic small RNAs which can be assembled into contigs of sufficient length for virus, satellite or viroid identification and for exhaustive reconstruction of complex viromes. Moreover, the small RNA size, polarity and hotspot profiles reflect virome interactions with the plant RNAi machinery and allow to distinguish between silent endogenous viral elements and their replicating episomal counterparts. Models for the biogenesis and functions of small interfering RNAs derived from all types of RNA and DNA viruses, satellites and viroids as well as endogenous viral elements are presented and discussed.

A Viral Protein Restricts Drosophila RNAi Immunity by Regulating Argonaute Activity and Stability

The dicistrovirus, Cricket paralysis virus (CrPV) encodes an RNA interference (RNAi) suppressor, 1A, which modulates viral virulence. Using the Drosophila model, we combined structural, biochemical, and virological approaches to elucidate the strategies by which CrPV-1A restricts RNAi immunity. The atomic resolution structure of CrPV-1A uncovered a flexible loop that interacts with Argonaute 2 (Ago-2), thereby inhibiting Ago-2 endonuclease-dependent immunity. Mutations disrupting Ago-2 binding attenuates viral pathogenesis in wild-type but not Ago-2-deficient flies. CrPV-1A also contains a BC-box motif that enables the virus to hijack a host Cul2-Rbx1-EloBC ubiquitin ligase complex, which promotes Ago-2 degradation and virus replication. Our study uncovers a viral-based dual regulatory program that restricts antiviral immunity by direct interaction with and modulation of host proteins. While the direct inhibition of Ago-2 activity provides an efficient mechanism to establish infection, the recruitment of a ubiquitin ligase complex enables CrPV-1A to amplify Ago-2 inactivation to restrict further antiviral RNAi immunity.

MicroRNA-Attenuated Virus Vaccines

Live-attenuated vaccines are the most effective way to establish robust, long-lasting immunity against viruses. However, the possibility of reversion to wild type replication and pathogenicity raises concerns over the safety of these vaccines. The use of host-derived microRNAs (miRNAs) to attenuate viruses has been accomplished in an array of biological contexts. The broad assortment of effective tissue- and species-specific miRNAs, and the ability to target a virus with multiple miRNAs, allow for targeting to be tailored to the virus of interest. While escape is always a concern, effective strategies have been developed to improve the safety and stability of miRNA-attenuated viruses. In this review, we discuss the various approaches that have been used to engineer miRNA-attenuated viruses, the steps that have been taken to improve their safety, and the potential use of these viruses as vaccines.

Complemented Palindromic Small RNAs First Discovered from SARS Coronavirus

In this study, we report for the first time the existence of complemented palindromic small RNAs (cpsRNAs) and propose that cpsRNAs and palindromic small RNAs (psRNAs) constitute a novel class of small RNAs. The first discovered 19-nt cpsRNA UUAACAAGCUUGUUAAAGA, named SARS-CoV-cpsR-19, was detected from a 22-bp DNA complemented palindrome TCTTTAACAAGCTTGTTAAAGA in the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) genome. The phylogenetic analysis supported that this DNA complemented palindrome originated from bat betacoronavirus. The results of RNA interference (RNAi) experiments showed that one 19-nt segment corresponding to SARS-CoV-cpsR-19 significantly induced cell apoptosis. Using this joint analysis of the molecular function and phylogeny, our results suggested that SARS-CoV-cpsR-19 could play a role in SARS-CoV infection or pathogenesis. The discovery of cpsRNAs has paved a way to find novel markers for pathogen detection and to reveal the mechanisms underlying infection or pathogenesis from a different point of view. Researchers can use cpsRNAs to study the infection or pathogenesis of pathogenic viruses when these viruses are not available. The discovery of psRNAs and cpsRNAs, as a novel class of small RNAs, also inspire researchers to investigate DNA palindromes and DNA complemented palindromes with lengths of psRNAs and cpsRNAs in viral genomes.

Leishmania, microbiota and sand fly immunity

In this review, we explore the state-of-the-art of sand fly relationships with microbiota, viruses and Leishmania, with particular emphasis on the vector immune responses. Insect-borne diseases are a major public health problem in the world. Phlebotomine sand flies are proven vectors of several aetiological agents including viruses, bacteria and the trypanosomatid Leishmania, which are responsible for diseases such as viral encephalitis, bartonellosis and leishmaniasis, respectively. All metazoans in nature coexist intimately with a community of commensal microorganisms known as microbiota. The microbiota has a fundamental role in the induction, maturation and function of the host immune system, which can modulate host protection from pathogens and infectious diseases. We briefly review viruses of public health importance present in sand flies and revisit studies done on bacterial and fungal gut contents of these vectors. We bring this information into the context of sand fly development and immune responses. We highlight the immunity mechanisms that the insect utilizes to survive the potential threats involved in these interactions and discuss the recently discovered complex interactions among microbiota, sand fly, Leishmania and virus. Additionally, some of the alternative control strategies that could benefit from the current knowledge are considered.

The small non-coding RNA response to virus infection in the Leishmania vector Lutzomyia longipalpis

Sandflies are well known vectors for Leishmania but also transmit a number of arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses). Few studies have addressed the interaction between sandflies and arboviruses. RNA interference (RNAi) mechanisms utilize small non-coding RNAs to regulate different aspects of host-pathogen interactions. The small interfering RNA (siRNA) pathway is a broad antiviral mechanism in insects. In addition, at least in mosquitoes, another RNAi mechanism mediated by PIWI interacting RNAs (piRNAs) is activated by viral infection. Finally, endogenous microRNAs (miRNA) may also regulate host immune responses. Here, we analyzed the small non-coding RNA response to Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) infection in the sandfly Lutzoymia longipalpis. We detected abundant production of virus-derived siRNAs after VSV infection in adult sandflies. However, there was no production of virus-derived piRNAs and only mild changes in the expression of vector miRNAs in response to infection. We also observed abundant production of virus-derived siRNAs against two other viruses in Lutzomyia Lulo cells. Together, our results suggest that the siRNA but not the piRNA pathway mediates an antiviral response in sandflies. In agreement with this hypothesis, pre-treatment of cells with dsRNA against VSV was able to inhibit viral replication while knock-down of the central siRNA component, Argonaute-2, led to increased virus levels. Our work begins to elucidate the role of RNAi mechanisms in the interaction between L. longipalpis and viruses and should also open the way for studies with other sandfly-borne pathogens.

Sandflies are important insect vectors that transmit many species of Leishmania, bacteria and viruses. We know very little about how this insect vector responds to viral infection. RNA interference (RNAi) utilizes small non-coding RNAs to regulate different aspects of animal physiology, including immune responses. Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) mediate a major antiviral response in insects. Virus-derived PIWI-interacting RNAs (piRNAs) can also be generated during infection, at least in some insects. Finally, endogenous microRNAs (miRNA) can regulate the host response to infection. Here we show that virus infection triggers activation of the siRNA pathway but not production of piRNAs in the sandfly Lutzomyia longipalpis. Furthermore, activation or inhibition of the siRNA pathway had a direct effect on viral replication. We also show that virus infection caused mild changes to the expression of endogenous miRNAs. Our work describes for the first time a model to study virus infection in sandflies and highlights the importance of the siRNA pathway for the control of virus infection in L. longipalpis. The framework described here can be used to explore other aspects of the vector-pathogen interactions.

Circulating Immune Cells Mediate a Systemic RNAi-Based Adaptive Antiviral Response in Drosophila

Effective antiviral protection in multicellular organisms relies on both cell-autonomous and systemic immunity. Systemic immunity mediates the spread of antiviral signals from infection sites to distant uninfected tissues. In arthropods, RNA interference (RNAi) is responsible for antiviral defense. Here, we show that flies have a sophisticated systemic RNAi-based immunity mediated by macrophage-like haemocytes. Haemocytes take up dsRNA from infected cells and, through endogenous transposon reverse transcriptases, produce virus-derived complementary DNAs (vDNA). These vDNAs template de novo synthesis of secondary viral siRNAs (vsRNA), which are secreted in exosome-like vesicles. Strikingly, exosomes containing vsRNAs, purified from haemolymph of infected flies, confer passive protection against virus challenge in naive animals. Thus, similar to vertebrates, insects use immune cells to generate immunological memory in the form of stable vDNAs that generate systemic immunity, which is mediated by the vsRNA-containing exosomes.

Using Small RNA-seq Data to Detect siRNA Duplexes Induced by Plant Viruses

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) duplexes are short (usually 21 to 24 bp) double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs) with several overhanging nucleotides at both 5'- and 3'-ends. It has been found that siRNA duplexes bind the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) and cleave the sense strands with endonucleases. In this study, for the first time, we detected siRNA duplexes induced by plant viruses on a large scale using next-generation sequencing (NGS) data. In addition, we used the detected 21 nucleotide (nt) siRNA duplexes with 2 nt overhangs to construct a dataset for future data mining. The analytical results of the features in the detected siRNA duplexes were consistent with those from previous studies. The investigation of siRNA duplexes is useful for a better understanding of the RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism. It can also help to improve the virus detection based on the small RNA sequencing (sRNA-seq) technologies and to rationally design siRNAs for RNAi experiments.

Costs and benefits of sublethal Drosophila C virus infection

Viruses are major evolutionary drivers of insect immune systems. Much of our knowledge of insect immune responses derives from experimental infections using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Most experiments, however, employ lethal pathogen doses through septic injury, frequently overwhelming host physiology. While this approach has revealed several immune mechanisms, it is less informative about the fitness costs hosts may experience during infection in the wild. Using both systemic and oral infection routes, we find that even apparently benign, sublethal infections with the horizontally transmitted Drosophila C virus (DCV) can cause significant physiological and behavioural morbidity that is relevant for host fitness. We describe DCV-induced effects on fly reproductive output, digestive health and locomotor activity, and we find that viral morbidity varies according to the concentration of pathogen inoculum, host genetic background and sex. Notably, sublethal DCV infection resulted in a significant increase in fly reproduction, but this effect depended on host genotype. We discuss the relevance of sublethal morbidity for Drosophila ecology and evolution, and more broadly, we remark on the implications of deleterious and beneficial infections for the evolution of insect immunity.

Exaptive origins of regulated mRNA decay in eukaryotes

Eukaryotic gene expression is extensively controlled at the level of mRNA stability and the mechanisms underlying this regulation are markedly different from their archaeal and bacterial counterparts. We propose that two such mechanisms, nonsense‐mediated decay (NMD) and motif‐specific transcript destabilization by CCCH‐type zinc finger RNA‐binding proteins, originated as a part of cellular defense against RNA pathogens. These branches of the mRNA turnover pathway might have been used by primeval eukaryotes alongside RNA interference to distinguish their own messages from those of RNA viruses and retrotransposable elements. We further hypothesize that the subsequent advent of “professional” innate and adaptive immunity systems allowed NMD and the motif‐triggered mechanisms to be efficiently repurposed for regulation of endogenous cellular transcripts. This scenario explains the rapid emergence of archetypical mRNA destabilization pathways in eukaryotes and argues that other aspects of post‐transcriptional gene regulation in this lineage might have been derived through a similar exaptation route.

The evolving world of small RNAs from RNA viruses

RNA virus infection in plants and invertebrates can produce virus-derived small RNAs. These RNAs share features with host endogenous small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). They can potentially mediate RNA interference (RNAi) and related RNA silencing pathways, resulting in specific antiviral defense. Although most RNA silencing components such as Dicer, Ago2, and RISC are conserved among eukaryotic hosts, whether RNA virus infection in mammals can generate functional small RNAs that act in antiviral defense remains under discussion. Here, we review recent studies on the molecular and biochemical features of viral siRNAs and other virus-derived small RNAs from infected plants, arthropods, nematodes, and vertebrates and discuss the genetic pathways for their biogenesis and their roles in antiviral activity. WIREs RNA 2016, 7:575-588. doi: 10.1002/wrna.1351 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Using Small RNA Deep Sequencing Data to Detect Human Viruses

Small RNA sequencing (sRNA-seq) can be used to detect viruses in infected hosts without the necessity to have any prior knowledge or specialized sample preparation. The sRNA-seq method was initially used for viral detection and identification in plants and then in invertebrates and fungi. However, it is still controversial to use sRNA-seq in the detection of mammalian or human viruses. In this study, we used 931 sRNA-seq runs of data from the NCBI SRA database to detect and identify viruses in human cells or tissues, particularly from some clinical samples. Six viruses including HPV-18, HBV, HCV, HIV-1, SMRV, and EBV were detected from 36 runs of data. Four viruses were consistent with the annotations from the previous studies. HIV-1 was found in clinical samples without the HIV-positive reports, and SMRV was found in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma cells for the first time. In conclusion, these results suggest the sRNA-seq can be used to detect viruses in mammals and humans.

Recurrent Gene Duplication Diversifies Genome Defense Repertoire in Drosophila

Transposable elements (TEs) comprise large fractions of many eukaryotic genomes and imperil host genome integrity. The host genome combats these challenges by encoding proteins that silence TE activity. Both the introduction of new TEs via horizontal transfer and TE sequence evolution requires constant innovation of host-encoded TE silencing machinery to keep pace with TEs. One form of host innovation is the adaptation of existing, single-copy host genes. Indeed, host suppressors of TE replication often harbor signatures of positive selection. Such signatures are especially evident in genes encoding the piwi-interacting-RNA pathway of gene silencing, for example, the female germline-restricted TE silencer, HP1D/Rhino Host genomes can also innovate via gene duplication and divergence. However, the importance of gene family expansions, contractions, and gene turnover to host genome defense has been largely unexplored. Here, we functionally characterize Oxpecker, a young, tandem duplicate gene of HP1D/rhino We demonstrate that Oxpecker supports female fertility in Drosophila melanogaster and silences several TE families that are incompletely silenced by HP1D/Rhino in the female germline. We further show that, like Oxpecker, at least ten additional, structurally diverse, HP1D/rhino-derived daughter and "granddaughter" genes emerged during a short 15-million year period of Drosophila evolution. These young paralogs are transcribed primarily in germline tissues, where the genetic conflict between host genomes and TEs plays out. Our findings suggest that gene family expansion is an underappreciated yet potent evolutionary mechanism of genome defense diversification.

Functional Evolution in Orthologous Cell-encoded RNA-dependent RNA Polymerases

Many eukaryotic organisms encode more than one RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) that probably emerged as a result of gene duplication. Such RdRP paralogs often participate in distinct RNA silencing pathways and show characteristic repertoires of enzymatic activities in vitro However, to what extent members of individual paralogous groups can undergo functional changes during speciation remains an open question. We show that orthologs of QDE-1, an RdRP component of the quelling pathway in Neurospora crassa, have rapidly diverged in evolution at the amino acid sequence level. Analyses of purified QDE-1 polymerases from N. crassa (QDE-1(Ncr)) and related fungi, Thielavia terrestris (QDE-1(Tte)) and Myceliophthora thermophila (QDE-1(Mth)), show that all three enzymes can synthesize RNA, but the precise modes of their action differ considerably. Unlike their QDE-1(Ncr) counterpart favoring processive RNA synthesis, QDE-1(Tte) and QDE-1(Mth) produce predominantly short RNA copies via primer-independent initiation. Surprisingly, a 3.19 Å resolution crystal structure of QDE-1(Tte) reveals a quasisymmetric dimer similar to QDE-1(Ncr) Further electron microscopy analyses confirm that QDE-1(Tte) occurs as a dimer in solution and retains this status upon interaction with a template. We conclude that divergence of orthologous RdRPs can result in functional innovation while retaining overall protein fold and quaternary structure.

Non-coding RNAs: Classification, Biology and Functioning

One of the long-standing principles of molecular biology is that DNA acts as a template for transcription of messenger RNAs, which serve as blueprints for protein translation. A rapidly growing number of exceptions to this rule have been reported over the past decades: they include long known classes of RNAs involved in translation such as transfer RNAs and ribosomal RNAs, small nuclear RNAs involved in splicing events, and small nucleolar RNAs mainly involved in the modification of other small RNAs, such as ribosomal RNAs and transfer RNAs. More recently, several classes of short regulatory non-coding RNAs, including piwi-associated RNAs, endogenous short-interfering RNAs and microRNAs have been discovered in mammals, which act as key regulators of gene expression in many different cellular pathways and systems. Additionally, the human genome encodes several thousand long non-protein coding RNAs >200 nucleotides in length, some of which play crucial roles in a variety of biological processes such as epigenetic control of chromatin, promoter-specific gene regulation, mRNA stability, X-chromosome inactivation and imprinting. In this chapter, we will introduce several classes of short and long non-coding RNAs, describe their diverse roles in mammalian gene regulation and give examples for known modes of action.

RNAi and Antiviral Defense in the Honey Bee

Honey bees play an important agricultural and ecological role as pollinators of numerous agricultural crops and other plant species. Therefore, investigating the factors associated with high annual losses of honey bee colonies in the US is an important and active area of research. Pathogen incidence and abundance correlate with Colony Collapse Disorder- (CCD-) affected colonies in the US and colony losses in the US and in some European countries. Honey bees are readily infected by single-stranded positive sense RNA viruses. Largely dependent on the host immune response, virus infections can either remain asymptomatic or result in deformities, paralysis, or death of adults or larvae. RNA interference (RNAi) is an important antiviral defense mechanism in insects, including honey bees. Herein, we review the role of RNAi in honey bee antiviral defense and highlight some parallels between insect and mammalian immune systems. A more thorough understanding of the role of pathogens on honey bee health and the immune mechanisms bees utilize to combat infectious agents may lead to the development of strategies that enhance honey bee health and result in the discovery of additional mechanisms of immunity in metazoans.

Immune and stress responses in oysters with insights on adaptation

Oysters are representative bivalve molluscs that are widely distributed in world oceans. As successful colonizers of estuaries and intertidal zones, oysters are remarkably resilient against harsh environmental conditions including wide fluctuations in temperature and salinity as well as prolonged air exposure. Oysters have no adaptive immunity but can thrive in microbe-rich estuaries as filter-feeders. These unique adaptations make oysters interesting models to study the evolution of host-defense systems. Recent advances in genomic studies including sequencing of the oyster genome have provided insights into oyster's immune and stress responses underlying their amazing resilience. Studies show that the oyster genomes are highly polymorphic and complex, which may be key to their resilience. The oyster genome has a large gene repertoire that is enriched for immune and stress response genes. Thousands of genes are involved in oyster's immune and stress responses, through complex interactions, with many gene families expanded showing high sequence, structural and functional diversity. The high diversity of immune receptors and effectors may provide oysters with enhanced specificity in immune recognition and response to cope with diverse pathogens in the absence of adaptive immunity. Some members of expanded immune gene families have diverged to function at different temperatures and salinities or assumed new roles in abiotic stress response. Most canonical innate immunity pathways are conserved in oysters and supported by a large number of diverse and often novel genes. The great diversity in immune and stress response genes exhibited by expanded gene families as well as high sequence and structural polymorphisms may be central to oyster's adaptation to highly stressful and widely changing environments.

Transcriptome analysis of Bombyx mori larval midgut during persistent and pathogenic cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus infection

Many insects can be persistently infected with viruses but do not show any obvious adverse effects with respect to physiology, development or reproduction. Here, Bombyx mori strain Daizo, persistently infected with cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (BmCPV), was used to study the host's transcriptional response after pathogenic infection with the same virus in midgut tissue of larvae persistently and pathogenically infected as 2nd and 4th instars. Next generation sequencing revealed that from 13,769 expressed genes, 167 were upregulated and 141 downregulated in both larval instars following pathogenic infection. Several genes that could possibly be involved in B. mori immune response against BmCPV or that may be induced by the virus in order to increase infectivity were identified, whereas classification of differentially expressed transcripts (confirmed by qRT-PCR) resulted in gene categories related to physical barriers, immune responses, proteolytic/metabolic enzymes, heat-shock proteins, hormonal signaling and uncharacterized proteins. Comparison of our data with the available literature (pathogenic infection of persistently vs. non-persistently infected larvae) unveiled various similarities of response in both cases, which suggests that pre-existing persistent infection does not affect in a major way the transcriptome response against pathogenic infection. To investigate the possible host's RNAi response against BmCPV challenge, the differential expression of RNAi-related genes and the accumulation of viral small RNAs (vsRNAs) were studied. During pathogenic infection, siRNA-like traces like the 2-fold up-regulation of the core RNAi genes Ago-2 and Dcr-2 as well as a peak of 20 nt small RNAs were observed. Interestingly, vsRNAs of the same size were detected at lower rates in persistently infected larvae. Collectively, our data provide an initial assessment of the relative significance of persistent infection of silkworm larvae on the host response following pathogenic infection with CPV, while they also highlight the relative importance of RNAi as an antiviral mechanism.

RNA degradation in antiviral immunity and autoimmunity

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The nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathway defends cells against RNA virus invasion.

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NMD targets viral RNAs for degradation, including by the RNA exosome.

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Genetic deficiencies in NMD and RNA exosome components cause autoimmunity.

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NMD and the RNA exosome prevent aberrant activation of innate immune responses.

Post-transcriptional control determines the fate of cellular RNA molecules. Nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) provides quality control of mRNA, targeting faulty cellular transcripts for degradation by multiple nucleases including the RNA exosome. Recent findings have revealed a role for NMD in targeting viral RNA molecules, thereby restricting virus infection. Interestingly, NMD is also linked to immune responses at another level: mutations affecting the NMD or RNA exosome machineries cause chronic activation of defence programmes, resulting in autoimmune phenotypes. Here we place these observations in the context of other links between innate antiviral immunity and type I interferon mediated disease and examine two models: one in which expression or function of pathogen sensors is perturbed and one wherein host-derived RNA molecules with a propensity to activate such sensors accumulate.

Drosophila C virus systemic infection leads to intestinal obstruction

Drosophila C virus (DCV) is a positive-sense RNA virus belonging to the Dicistroviridae family. This natural pathogen of the model organism Drosophila melanogaster is commonly used to investigate antiviral host defense in flies, which involves both RNA interference and inducible responses. Although lethality is used routinely as a readout for the efficiency of the antiviral immune response in these studies, virus-induced pathologies in flies still are poorly understood. Here, we characterize the pathogenesis associated with systemic DCV infection. Comparison of the transcriptome of flies infected with DCV or two other positive-sense RNA viruses, Flock House virus and Sindbis virus, reveals that DCV infection, unlike those of the other two viruses, represses the expression of a large number of genes. Several of these genes are expressed specifically in the midgut and also are repressed by starvation. We show that systemic DCV infection triggers a nutritional stress in Drosophila which results from intestinal obstruction with the accumulation of peritrophic matrix at the entry of the midgut and the accumulation of the food ingested in the crop, a blind muscular food storage organ. The related virus cricket paralysis virus (CrPV), which efficiently grows in Drosophila, does not trigger this pathology. We show that DCV, but not CrPV, infects the smooth muscles surrounding the crop, causing extensive cytopathology and strongly reducing the rate of contractions. We conclude that the pathogenesis associated with systemic DCV infection results from the tropism of the virus for an important organ within the foregut of dipteran insects, the crop.

IMPORTANCE

DCV is one of the few identified natural viral pathogens affecting the model organism Drosophila melanogaster. As such, it is an important virus for the deciphering of host-virus interactions in insects. We characterize here the pathogenesis associated with DCV infection in flies and show that it results from the tropism of the virus for an essential but poorly characterized organ in the digestive tract, the crop. Our results may have relevance for other members of the Dicistroviridae, some of which are pathogenic to beneficial or pest insect species.

The genetics of host-virus coevolution in invertebrates

Although viral infection and antiviral defence are ubiquitous, genetic data are currently unavailable from the vast majority of animal phyla-potentially biasing our overall perspective of the coevolutionary process. Rapid adaptive evolution is seen in some insect antiviral genes, consistent with invertebrate-virus 'arms-race' coevolution, but equivalent signatures of selection are hard to detect in viruses. We find that, despite the large differences in vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant immune responses, comparison of viral evolution fails to identify any difference among these hosts in the impact of positive selection. The best evidence for invertebrate-virus coevolution is currently provided by large-effect polymorphisms for host resistance and/or viral evasion, as these often appear to have arisen and spread recently, and can be favoured by virus-mediated selection.

The Mammalian response to virus infection is independent of small RNA silencing

A successful cellular response to virus infection is essential for evolutionary survival. In plants, arthropods, and nematodes, cellular antiviral defenses rely on RNAi. Interestingly, the mammalian response to virus is predominantly orchestrated through interferon (IFN)-mediated induction of antiviral proteins. Despite the potency of the IFN system, it remains unclear whether mammals also have the capacity to employ antiviral RNAi. Here, we investigated this by disabling IFN function, small RNA function, or both activities in the context of virus infection. We find that loss of small RNAs in the context of an in vivo RNA virus infection lowers titers due to reduced transcriptional repression of the host antiviral response. In contrast, enabling a virus with the capacity to inhibit the IFN system results in increased titers. Taken together, these results indicate that small RNA silencing is not a physiological contributor to the IFN-mediated cellular response to virus infection.

Mosquito and Drosophila entomobirnaviruses suppress dsRNA- and siRNA-induced RNAi

RNA interference (RNAi) is a crucial antiviral defense mechanism in insects, including the major mosquito species that transmit important human viruses. To counteract the potent antiviral RNAi pathway, insect viruses encode RNAi suppressors. However, whether mosquito-specific viruses suppress RNAi remains unclear. We therefore set out to study RNAi suppression by Culex Y virus (CYV), a mosquito-specific virus of the Birnaviridae family that was recently isolated from Culex pipiens mosquitoes. We found that the Culex RNAi machinery processes CYV double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) into viral small interfering RNAs (vsiRNAs). Furthermore, we show that RNAi is suppressed in CYV-infected cells and that the viral VP3 protein is responsible for RNAi antagonism. We demonstrate that VP3 can functionally replace B2, the well-characterized RNAi suppressor of Flock House virus. VP3 was found to bind long dsRNA as well as siRNAs and interfered with Dicer-2-mediated cleavage of long dsRNA into siRNAs. Slicing of target RNAs by pre-assembled RNA-induced silencing complexes was not affected by VP3. Finally, we show that the RNAi-suppressive activity of VP3 is conserved in Drosophila X virus, a birnavirus that persistently infects Drosophila cell cultures. Together, our data indicate that mosquito-specific viruses may encode RNAi antagonists to suppress antiviral RNAi.

Induced antiviral innate immunity in Drosophila

Immunity to viral infections in the model organism Drosophila melanogaster involves both RNA interference and additional induced responses. The latter include not only cellular mechanisms such as programmed cell death and autophagy, but also the induction of a large set of genes, some of which contribute to the control of viral replication and resistance to infection. This induced response to infection is complex and involves both virus-specific and cell-type specific mechanisms. We review here recent developments, from the sensing of viral infection to the induction of signaling pathways and production of antiviral effector molecules. Our current understanding, although still partial, validates the Drosophila model of antiviral induced immunity for insect pests and disease vectors, as well as for mammals.

Mouse knockout models for HIV-1 restriction factors

Infection of cells with human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) is controlled by restriction factors, host proteins that counteract a variety of steps in the life cycle of this lentivirus. These include SAMHD1, APOBEC3G and tetherin, which block reverse transcription, hypermutate viral DNA and prevent progeny virus release, respectively. These and other HIV-1 restriction factors are conserved and have clear orthologues in the mouse. This review summarises studies in knockout mice lacking HIV-1 restriction factors. In vivo experiments in such animals have not only validated in vitro data obtained from cultured cells, but have also revealed new findings about the biology of these proteins. Indeed, genetic ablation of HIV-1 restriction factors in the mouse has provided evidence that restriction factors control retroviruses and other viruses in vivo and has led to new insights into the mechanisms by which these proteins counteract infection. For example, in vivo experiments in knockout mice demonstrate that virus control exerted by restriction factors can shape adaptive immune responses. Moreover, the availability of animals lacking restriction factors opens the possibility to study the function of these proteins in other contexts such as autoimmunity and cancer. Further in vivo studies of more recently identified HIV-1 restriction factors in gene targeted mice are, therefore, justified.

Guest list or black list: heritable small RNAs as immunogenic memories

Small RNA-mediated gene silencing plays a pivotal role in genome immunity by recognizing and eliminating viruses and transposons that may otherwise colonize the genome. However, individual genomic parasites are highly diverse and employ multiple immune-evasion techniques, making this silencing challenging. Here I review a new theory proposing that the integrity of the germline is maintained by transgenerationally transmitted RNA 'memories' that record ancestral gene expression patterns and delineate 'self' from 'foreign' sequences. To maintain such recollection, two tactics are employed in parallel: 'black listing' of invading nucleic acids and 'guest listing' of endogenous genes. Studies in several organisms have shown that this memorization is used by the next generation of small RNAs to act as 'inherited vaccines' that attack invading elements or as 'inherited licenses' that permit the transcription of autogenous sequences.