Steroid and pituitary hormone responses to rowing: relative significance of exercise intensity and duration and performance level

The Importance of 'Durability' in the Physiological Profiling of Endurance Athletes

Profiling physiological attributes is an important role for applied exercise physiologists working with endurance athletes. These attributes are typically assessed in well-rested athletes. However, as has been demonstrated in the literature and supported by field data presented here, the attributes measured during routine physiological-profiling assessments are not static, but change over time during prolonged exercise. If not accounted for, shifts in these physiological attributes during prolonged exercise have implications for the accuracy of their use in intensity regulation during prolonged training sessions or competitions, quantifying training adaptations, training-load programming and monitoring, and the prediction of exercise performance. In this review, we argue that current models used in the routine physiological profiling of endurance athletes do not account for these shifts. Therefore, applied exercise physiologists working with endurance athletes would benefit from development of physiological-profiling models that account for shifts in physiological-profiling variables during prolonged exercise and quantify the 'durability' of individual athletes, here defined as the time of onset and magnitude of deterioration in physiological-profiling characteristics over time during prolonged exercise. We propose directions for future research and applied practice that may enable better understanding of athlete durability.

Sport and male sexuality

The relationships between sport and sexuality in males are of great social and clinical interest, because of sports and motor activities that highly promote social and sexual relationships. Even if few literature exist, two main questions should be taken into account: whether and how physical exercise and sport positively or negatively influence sexual health and behavior and/or whether and how sexual behavior may affect a sub-sequent sport performance. Physical exercise and sport per se can influence, positively or negatively, the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis function and, consequently, the individual's reproductive and/or sexual health. This depends on individual factors such as genetic and epigenetic ones and on different variables involved in the practice of sport activities (type of sport, intensity and duration of training, doping and drug use and abuse, nutrition, supplements, psychological stress, allostatic load, etc.). If well conducted, motor and sport activities could have beneficial effects on sexual health in males. Among different lifestyle changes, influencing sexual health, regular physical activity is fundamental to antagonize the onset of erectile dysfunction (ED). However, competitive sport can lead both reproductive and/or sexual tract damages and dysfunctions, transient (genital pain, hypoesthesia of the genitalia, hypogonadism, DE, altered sexual drive, etc.) or permanent (hypogonadism, DE, etc.), by acting directly (traumas of the external genitalia, saddle-related disorders in cyclists, etc.) or indirectly (exercise-related hypogonadism, drug abuse, doping, stress, etc.). Sexual activities shortly performed before a sport competition could differently influence sport performance. Due to the few existing data, it is advisable to avoid an absolute pre-competition sexual abstinence.

The exercise-glucocorticoid paradox: How exercise is beneficial to cognition, mood, and the brain while increasing glucocorticoid levels

Exercise is known to have beneficial effects on cognition, mood, and the brain. However, exercise also activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and increases levels of the glucocorticoid cortisol (CORT). CORT, also known as the "stress hormone," is considered a mediator between chronic stress and depression and to link various cognitive deficits. Here, we review the evidence that shows that while both chronic stress and exercise elevate basal CORT levels leading to increased secretion of CORT, the former is detrimental to cognition/memory, mood/stress coping, and brain plasticity, while the latter is beneficial. We propose three preliminary answers to the exercise-CORT paradox. Importantly, the elevated CORT, through glucocorticoid receptors, functions to elevate dopamine in the medial prefrontal cortex under chronic exercise but not chronic stress, and the medial prefrontal dopamine is essential for active coping. Future inquiries may provide further insights to promote our understanding of this paradox.

Stress Biomarkers, Mood States, and Sleep during a Major Competition: "Success" and "Failure" Athlete's Profile of High-Level Swimmers

The aim of this study was to evaluate stress markers, mood states, and sleep indicators in high-level swimmers during a major 7-days competition according to the outcomes. Nine swimmers [six men and three women (age: 22 ± 2 and 22 ± 4 years, respectively)] were examined. Before (PRE) and after (POST) each race (series, semi-finals, and finals), salivary concentrations of cortisol, α-amylase (sAA), and chromogranin-A (CgA) were determined. Mood states were assessed by the profile of mood state (POMS) questionnaire completed before and after the 7-days, and self-reported sleep diaries were completed daily. In the “failure” group, cortisol and sAA significantly increased between PRE-POST measurements (p < 0.05), while sCgA was not changed. Significant overall decrease of cortisol (-52.6%) and increase of sAA (+68.7%) was shown in the “failure group.” In this group, fatigue, confusion and depression scores, and sleep duration before the finals increased. The results in the “success” group show tendencies for increased cortisol and sCgA concentrations in response to competition, while sAA was not changed. Cortisol levels before the semi-finals and finals and sCgA levels before the finals were positively correlated to the fatigue score in the “failure” group only (r = 0.89). sAA levels before and after the semi-finals were negatively correlated to sleep duration measured in the subsequent night (r = −0.90). In conclusion, the stress of the competition could trigger a negative mood profile and sleep disturbance which correspond to different responses of biomarkers related to the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity, cortisol, sAA, and CgA.

Testosterone responses to standardized short-term sub-maximal and maximal endurance exercises: issues on the dynamic adaptive role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis

BACKGROUND

Few and conflicting data on the acute adaptive role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular (HPT) axis to sub-maximal endurance exercise exist.

AIMS

To investigate the acute HPT axis responses to standardized endurance exercises in a laboratory setting and the correlations between testosterone and classic adaptive hormones variations.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

12 healthy male volunteers were recruited for this experimental study. Serum PRL, GH, ACTH, LH, cortisol, DHEAS, testosterone [total (TT), calculated free (cFT) and bioavailable (cBioT)], SHBG, and respective ratios, were evaluated before and after a 30-min sub-maximal exercise on cycle ergometer at individual anaerobic threshold (IAT) and a maximal exercise until exhaustion. Blood samples were collected before exercise (30, 15 min and immediately before), immediately after and at different time points during recovery (+15, +30 and +60 min) for hormones assays. Oxygen consumption and lactate concentration were evaluated.

RESULTS

Testosterone (TT, cFT and cBioT) acutely increased in all volunteers after both exercises. Testosterone increased in parallel to GH after both exercises and to cortisol only after maximal exercise. Differently from other increased hormones, testosterone increases were not correlated to exercise-intensity-related variables. The anabolic/catabolic steroids ratios were higher after sub-maximal exercise, compared to maximal.

CONCLUSIONS

A 30-min sub-maximal endurance exercise acutely increased serum testosterone similarly to maximal exercise, but without cortisol increases. Exercise-related testosterone peaks should be considered adaptive phenomena, but few data on their short- and long-term effects exist. Investigations on the mechanisms of adaptation to exercise in active individuals with physiological or pathological hypo-testosteronemia are warranted.

Changes in steroid hormones during an international powerlifting competition

The purpose of this study was to assess changes in the steroid hormone levels of elite athletes during an international powerlifting competition. Baseline cortisol, DHEA and testosterone were determined in saliva samples in 19 (8 men, 11 women) junior and sub-junior athletes on the day before competition, and then on the competition day during the official weighing and in the hour after competition. Performance was determined by total output and the Wilks formula. No change in saliva steroid concentrations was observed between samples collected on the day before competition and the weighing samples. There was no gender effect on cortisol concentrations but saliva testosterone levels were always significantly higher in men than in women (p<0.01), as was end-competition DHEA (p<0.05). Cortisol and DHEA were significantly increased in male and female athletes after the competition (respectively, p<0.01 and p<0.05), whereas end-competition testosterone concentrations were only significantly increased in men (p<0.01). Significant relationships were demonstrated between performance and end-competition cortisol levels in women and end-competition testosterone levels in men. These data indicate that workouts during an international powerlifting competition produce a significant increase in adrenal steroid hormones in both genders, with an increase in male gonadal steroid hormone. Further studies are necessary to examine the changes in oestradiol and progesterone in women and their potential impact on performance during international powerlifting competition.

Salivary concentrations of cortisol and testosterone and prediction of performance in a professional triathlon competition

The aim of this study was to examine salivary cortisol and testosterone concentrations in professional male athletes during a short triathlon competition using non-invasive methods, and to determine whether these hormone concentrations could be accurate predictors of performance. Eight adult male athletes (age, mean ± SEM: 27.8 ± 3.2 years; body mass index: 21.66 ± 0.42) in a professional triathlon team volunteered to participate in this study. Saliva samples were taken on the competition day and 7 days after competition on a rest day. The performance of the athletes was assessed by their rank order in the competition. Salivary cortisol concentrations were greater on the competition day than on the rest day in the early morning, immediately after waking up, 30 min later, immediately before the start of the competition, and later in the evening. Testosterone concentrations were greater on the competition day in the morning and in the evening. The diurnal rhythm of both cortisol and testosterone concentrations was maintained on both days and the testosterone/cortisol ratio (T/C ratio) was similar between days. The performance of the athletes was positively correlated with salivary cortisol concentration in the early morning of the competition day, but was not correlated with testosterone concentrations at any of the time points. In conclusion, early morning salivary cortisol concentration, but not T/C ratio, could be used to predict performance in athletes during a professional triathlon competition.

A review of weight control strategies and their effects on the regulation of hormonal balance

The estimated prevalence of obesity in the USA is 72.5 million adults with costs attributed to obesity more than 147 billion dollars per year. Though caloric restriction has been used extensively in weight control studies, short-term success has been difficult to achieve, with long-term success of weight control being even more elusive. Therefore, novel approaches are needed to control the rates of obesity that are occurring globally. The purpose of this paper is to provide a synopsis of how exercise, sleep, psychological stress, and meal frequency and composition affect levels of ghrelin, cortisol, insulin GLP-1, and leptin and weight control. We will provide information regarding how hormones respond to various lifestyle factors which may affect appetite control, hunger, satiety, and weight control.

Cortisol, DHEA, and testosterone concentrations in saliva in response to an international powerlifting competition

The purpose of this study was to examine salivary cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and testosterone responses to the bench press in an international powerlifting competition and to determine whether these salivary hormone concentrations could be used to predict performance. Twenty-six elite athletes (13 females and 13 males) provided saliva samples during the official weighing-in and after the last attempt at the bench press, as well as at baseline on a non-competition day. Performance index was determined with the Wilks formula, which adjusts powerlifting scores according to body mass. Salivary cortisol concentrations were significantly increased in all subjects after the bench press (p < 0.01), whereas DHEA concentrations were significantly increased in women (p < 0.01) but not in men after the bench press. No significant change in testosterone concentrations was observed during the experiment in either men or women, which resulted in a marked decrease in the testosterone/cortisol ratio. The performance index showed no significant correlation with any of the hormone responses to competition. In conclusion, despite the increase in stress adrenocortical hormone responses to an international powerlifting competition, these hormone concentrations alone are not predictors of bench press performance in elite powerlifting athletes.

Effects of Ramadan fasting on physical performance and metabolic, hormonal, and inflammatory parameters in middle-distance runners

The Ramadan fasting (RF) period is associated with changes in sleep habits and increased sleepiness, which may affect physical performance in athletes, and may induce metabolic, hormonal, and inflammatory disturbances. In 8 middle-distance athletes (25.0 ± 1.3 years), a maximal aerobic velocity (MAV) test was performed 5 days before RF (day –5), and on days 7 and 21 of RF. The same days, saliva samples were collected to determine cortisol and testosterone concentrations before and after the MAV test. Blood samples were collected before RF (P1), at the end of RF (P2), and 1 week post RF (P3). Plasma levels of interleukin (IL)-6, a mediator of sleepiness and energy availability, were determined. We also evaluated changes in metabolic and hormonal parameters, mood state, and nutritional and sleep profiles. During RF, mean body mass and body fat did not statistically change. Compared with day –5, MAV values decreased at days 7 and 21 (p < 0.05, respectively), while testosterone/cortisol ratio values did not change significantly. Nocturnal sleep time and energy intake were lower at day 21 than before RF (day 0/P1) (p < 0.05). At the end of RF (day 31), the fatigue score on the Profile of Mood States questionnaire was increased (p < 0.001). For P2 vs. P1, IL-6 was increased (1.19 ± 0.25 vs. 0.51 ± 0.13 pg·mL–1; p < 0.05), melatonin levels were decreased (p < 0.05), and adrenalin and noradrenalin were increased (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively). At 7 days post RF, all parameters recovered to pre-RF values. In conclusion, RF is accompanied by significant metabolic, hormonal, and inflammatory changes. Sleep disturbances, energy deficiency, and fatigue during RF may decrease physical performance in Muslim athletes who maintain training. Reduction of work load and (or) daytime napping may represent adequate strategies to counteract RF effects for Muslim athletes.

Abuse of growth hormone among young athletes

The underground abuse of growth hormone (GH) among young athletes presents a challenge to medical professionals. Health care professionals providing knowledgeable guidance regarding healthy ways to improve performance and appearance, as well as accurate information regarding substances' perceived benefits, risks, and unknown qualities, is invaluable to the young athlete. Further research focused on the profile and motivation of young people who use GH is essential to understanding and intervening better with those who use these substances.

Influence of exercise duration on post-exercise steroid hormone responses in trained males

The purpose of this study was to systematically evaluate the effect of endurance exercise duration on hormone concentrations in male subjects while controlling for exercise intensity and training status. Eight endurance-trained males (19-49 years) completed a resting control session and three treadmill runs of 40, 80, and 120 min at 55% of VO2max . Blood samples were drawn before the session and then 1, 2, 3 and 4 h after the start of the run. Plasma was analyzed for luteinizing hormone (LH), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS), cortisol, and free and total testosterone. LH was significantly greater at rest compared to the running sessions. Both free and total testosterone generally increased in the first hour of the 80 and 120 min runs and then showed a trend for a steady decline for the next 3 h of recovery. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate increased in a dose-response manner with the greatest increases observed during the 120-min run, followed by the 80-min run. Cortisol only increased in response to the 120-min run and showed a decline across time in all other sessions. The ratios of anabolic hormones (testosterone and DHEAS) to cortisol were greater during the resting session and the 40-min run compared to the longer runs. The results indicate that exercise duration has independent effects on the hormonal response to endurance exercise. At a low intensity, longer duration runs are necessary to stimulate increased levels of testosterone, DHEAS and cortisol and beyond 80 min of running there is a shift to a more catabolic hormonal environment.

Hormonal responses to three training protocols in rowing

The aim of this study was to examine the acute responses of serum growth hormone, testosterone, and cortisol to three training protocols in rowing. Six young rowers, members of the national team, carried out three frequently used protocols in rowing, i.e., an endurance, a moderate interval, and a resistance protocol, on separate days in a counterbalanced design. Blood samples were collected before, immediately after, and 4 h after exercise for the determination of growth hormone, testosterone, cortisol, and creatine kinase. All three protocols caused marked increases in growth hormone, the most spectacular being that immediately after the endurance protocol. The change in testosterone concentration immediately after the endurance protocol was significantly higher than the changes after the other two protocols. Cortisol concentration was significantly higher immediately after the endurance protocol than after the other two protocols, but remained relatively low in all cases, suggesting that these protocols did not considerably promote catabolism in muscle tissue. Based on these data, endurance training caused greater responses of the three hormones studied compared to interval or resistance training. In fact, resistance training (at intensities above 85% of 1RM) did not cause any significant changes in the three hormones. We therefore propose that evaluation of training programmes designed for elite athletes should include measurements of hormonal changes in order to ascertain that the programmes do cause the expected adaptations.

Effects of continuous and interval running training on serum growth and cortisol hormones in junior male basketball players

Effects of two different eight-week aerobic training programs consisting of continuous (CR) or extensive interval running (IR) on serum growth (GH) and cortisol hormones in 33 male basketball players aged 15-16 were assessed. The CR group ran 4.8 km and the IR group ran 4 x 1.2 km, using equal work-to-rest ratio, three times per week. Aerobic power scores of all subjects and anaerobic power marks of the training subjects increased (p<0.01). Upon exertion, though serum GH levels increased in both exercise groups (p<0.01) prior to and following training; cortisol levels increased only in the IR group prior to training, and in both exercise groups following training (p<0.05). Following the eight week period, resting cortisol levels rose in the training (p<0.05) and control (p<0.01) groups. To conclude, an 8-week training program consisting of continuous or extensive interval running has been effective on acute GH and cortisol secretion in 15-16 year-old male athletes.

Plasma corticosterone response to acute and chronic voluntary exercise in female house mice

Plasma levels of corticosterone (B) respond acutely to exercise in all mammals that have been studied, but the literature contains conflicting reports regarding how chronic activity alters this response. We measured acute and chronic effects of voluntary activity on B in a novel animal model, mice selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running. Female mice were housed with or without wheels for 8 wk beginning at 26 days of age. Wheel-access selection mice had significantly higher B at night 8, day 15, and night 29, compared with wheel-access controls. Elevation of B was an acute effect of voluntary exercise. When adjusted for running in the previous 20 min, no difference between wheel-access selection and control animals remained. No training effect on B response was observed. These results are among the strongest evidence that, in some animals, the acute B response is unaffected by chronic voluntary exercise. In mice without wheels, selection mice had significantly higher B than controls at day 15, night 29, and night 50, suggesting that selection resulted in a modulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Growth over the first 4 wk of treatment was significantly and inversely related to average night B levels within each of the four treatment groups.

Salivary Testosterone and Cortisol Responses to Cycle Ergometry in Basketball Players with Different Training Volume

Abstract This study analyzes the degree to which different amounts of training during a 4-month period affects salivary testosterone (Tsal), salivary cortisol (Csal) responses, and changes in the salivary testosterone/cortisol ratio (Tsal/Csal ratio) following acute physical effort. Two professional basketball teams with similar fitness levels carried out a maximal cycle ergometry at the beginning and in the middle of the sports season. In both sessions, saliva samples were collected to determine Tsal and Csal, and mood was assessed. Training was registered daily, total training volume being almost two-fold higher in Team 1 than in Team 2. No significant differences between the teams in anthropometric characteristics, mood, or cycle ergometer performance were found. The Tsal/Csal ratio response to ergometry decreased after training in Team 1 and increased in Team 2, whereas Tsal response did not change significantly and the Csal response to ergometry increased in Team 1 and decreased in Team 2. Results obtained are modulated by initial differences in the Csal values at baseline, with Team 1 showing higher levels than Team 2. In addition, the training volume applied was associated with the changes in the Csal and Tsal/Csal ratio responses to a maximal physical exercise in professional basketball players.

Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism

This article outlines the changing pattern of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-induced gonadotropin secretion across sexual development, a knowledge of which is critical to understanding GnRH secretion in pathologic states such as hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. The clinical presentation, differential diagnosis, and treatment of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism in humans are discussed. Particular emphasis is placed on the contribution of frequent sampling studies of gonadotropin secretion and genetic studies to understanding the pathophysiology and clinical heterogeneity of isolated GnRH deficiency in humans.

Exercise and growth hormone: does one affect the other?

The release of growth hormone (GH) is sensitive to many pharmacologic and physiologic stimuli, including exercise. Although the role of the increased amount of GH released during exercise is not fully understood, it most likely contributes to metabolic fuel adaptations during exercise, and tissue repair after the exercise session. The GH response to exercise is altered by many factors, including sex steroid concentrations, fitness level, and the intensity of previous exercise sessions. For both endurance and resistance exercise, greater activation of anaerobic glycolysis and lactate formation increases the amount of GH released. Whether an endurance exercise session or an endurance exercise training regimen influences the total amount of GH released during a 24-hour period is not clear; this may depend on the gender of the person, the intensity of the exercise, and the duration of exercise training. The influence of a single session of resistance exercise or resistance training on 24-hour GH secretion has not been studied. Preexercise diet modulation (especially modulation of fat intake) may also influence the release of GH during endurance exercise. Studies that measure the 12- to 24-hour GH response to resistance exercise after the ingestion of various macronutrient diets have not been completed.

[Is a 11-year-old tennis player indifferent to competition stress?]

BACKGROUND

In adults, competition generates a relatively important level of stress. This could be revealed by psychological questionnaires and adrenocortical responses. This study was aimed to evaluate the load of stress in young tennis players in situations of competition compared to that observed during a training session.

POPULATION AND METHODS

The 16 best young tennis players of the Auvergne area (mean age: 10.9 +/- 1.7 years) entered the study. The degree of anxiety was measured with the aid of the Martens' SCAT questionnaire and the result of salivary cortisol testing during a training session, and after each of the three competition rounds of the Auvergne championship (three samples were collected at each time: at rest, before and after exercise.

RESULTS

Regarding the degree of anxiety, no significant difference was found between the competition and the training session. Cortisol levels did not change during the training session: during the competition, same moderate increase (less than 50%, P < 0.05) was noted for the first two rounds between rest and post-competition values. No difference was found at the third round.

CONCLUSION

The high levels of stress described in adults are not found in young tennis players.

Pre-exercise serum cortisol concentration and responses to laboratory exercise

Relationships between the postexercise values of blood lactate concentration, pH, oxygen uptake, heart rate, power output on the one hand, and the pre- and postexercise blood cortisol concentrations on the other, were studied in 74 male and 40 female athletes (wrestlers and senior and junior rowers), performing graded exercise of increasing intensity. The senior rowers, junior rowers and wrestlers had different exercise protocols. The senior rowers of both sexes had significantly higher rest concentrations of serum cortisol than the junior athletes. A significant correlation between postexercise lactate concentrations and pre-exercise cortisol concentrations was found in all the male groups ("common" r = 0.515, P < 0.001), but not in the female ones (r = 0.162). It was concluded that the pre-exercise cortisol concentrations might condition anaerobic-glycolytic metabolism in physical exercise.