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Park SC, Conti L, Franceschi V, Oh B, Yang MS, Ham G, Di Lorenzo A, Bolli E, Cavallo F, Kim B, Donofrio G. Assessment of BoHV-4-based vector vaccine intranasally administered in a hamster challenge model of lung disease. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1197649. [PMID: 37483612 PMCID: PMC10358724 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1197649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Bovine herpesvirus 4 (BoHV-4) is a bovine Rhadinovirus not associated with a specific pathological lesion or disease and experimentally employed as a viral vector vaccine. BoHV-4-based vector (BoHV-4-BV) has been shown to be effective in immunizing and protecting several animal species when systemically administrated through intramuscular, subcutaneous, intravenous, or intraperitoneal routes. However, whether BoHV-4-BV affords respiratory disease protection when administered intranasally has never been tested. Methods In the present study, recombinant BoHV-4, BoHV-4-A-S-ΔRS-HA-ΔTK, was constructed to deliver an expression cassette for the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein, and its immunogenicity, as well as its capability to transduce cells of the respiratory tract, were tested in mice. The well-established COVID-19/Syrian hamster model was adopted to test the efficacy of intranasally administered BoHV-4-A-S-ΔRS-HA-ΔTK in protecting against a SARS-CoV-2 challenge. Results The intranasal administration of BoHV-4-A-S-ΔRS-HA-ΔTK elicited protection against SARS-CoV-2, with improved clinical signs, including significant reductions in body weight loss, significant reductions in viral load in the trachea and lungs, and significant reductions in histopathologic lung lesions compared to BoHV-4-A-S-ΔRS-HA-ΔTK administered intramuscularly. Discussion These results suggested that intranasal immunization with BoHV-4-BV induced protective immunity and that BoHV-4-BV could be a potential vaccine platform for the protection of other animal species against respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seok-Chan Park
- Biosafety Research Institute and Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeonbuk National University, Iksan, Republic of Korea
| | - Laura Conti
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | | | - Byungkwan Oh
- Biosafety Research Institute and Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeonbuk National University, Iksan, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeon-Sik Yang
- Biosafety Research Institute and Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeonbuk National University, Iksan, Republic of Korea
| | - Gaeul Ham
- Biosafety Research Institute and Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeonbuk National University, Iksan, Republic of Korea
| | - Antonino Di Lorenzo
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Bolli
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Federica Cavallo
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Bumseok Kim
- Biosafety Research Institute and Laboratory of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jeonbuk National University, Iksan, Republic of Korea
| | - Gaetano Donofrio
- Department of Medical Veterinary Sciences, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
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Zhou J, Guan MY, Li RT, Qi YN, Yang G, Deng YQ, Li XF, Li L, Yang X, Liu JF, Qin CF. Zika virus leads to olfactory disorders in mice by targeting olfactory ensheathing cells. EBioMedicine 2023; 89:104457. [PMID: 36739631 PMCID: PMC9931927 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging arbovirus of the genus flavivirus that is associated with congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) in newborns. A wide range of clinical symptoms including intellectual disability, speech delay, coordination or movement problems, and hearing and vision loss, have been well documented in children with CZS. However, whether ZIKV can invade the olfactory system and lead to post-viral olfactory dysfunction (PVOD) remains unknown. METHODS We investigated the susceptibility and biological responses of the olfactory system to ZIKV infection using mouse models and human olfactory organoids derived from patient olfactory mucosa. FINDINGS We demonstrate that neonatal mice infected with ZIKV suffer from transient olfactory dysfunction when they reach to puberty. Moreover, ZIKV mainly targets olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) and exhibits broad cellular tropism colocalizing with small populations of mature/immature olfactory sensory neurons (mOSNs/iOSNs), sustentacular cells and horizontal basal cells in the olfactory mucosa (OM) of immunodeficient AG6 mice. ZIKV infection induces strong antiviral immune responses in both the olfactory mucosa and olfactory bulb tissues, resulting in the upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines/chemokines and genes related to the antiviral response. Histopathology and transcriptomic analysis showed typical tissue damage in the olfactory system. Finally, by using an air-liquid culture system, we showed that ZIKV mainly targets sustentacular cells and OECs and support robust ZIKV replication. INTERPRETATION Our results demonstrate that olfactory system represents as significant target for ZIKV infection, and that PVOD may be neglected in CZS patients. FUNDING Stated in the acknowledgment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Meng-Yue Guan
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Beijing Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 10010, China
| | - Rui-Ting Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Yi-Ni Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center for Protein Science (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Guan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center for Protein Science (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Yong-Qiang Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Xiao-Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Liang Li
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xiao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center for Protein Science (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Jian-Feng Liu
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Cheng-Feng Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing 100071, China; Research Unit of Discovery and Tracing of Natural Focus Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.
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3
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Bari S, Vike NL, Stetsiv K, Woodward S, Lalvani S, Stefanopoulos L, Kim BW, Maglaveras N, Breiter HC, Katsaggelos AK. The Prevalence of Psychotic Symptoms, Violent Ideation, and Disruptive Behavior in a Population With SARS-CoV-2 Infection: Preliminary Study. JMIR Form Res 2022; 6:e36444. [PMID: 35763758 PMCID: PMC9384857 DOI: 10.2196/36444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The COVID-19 disease results from infection by the SARS-CoV-2 virus to produce a range of mild to severe physical, neurological, and mental health symptoms. The COVID-19 pandemic has indirectly caused significant emotional distress, triggering the emergence of mental health symptoms in individuals who were not previously affected or exacerbating symptoms in those with existing mental health conditions. Emotional distress and certain mental health conditions can lead to violent ideation and disruptive behavior, including aggression, threatening acts, deliberate harm toward other people or animals, and inattention to or noncompliance with education or workplace rules. Of the many mental health conditions that can be associated with violent ideation and disruptive behavior, psychosis can evidence greater vulnerability to unpredictable changes and being at a greater risk for them. Individuals with psychosis can also be more susceptible to contracting COVID-19 disease. Objective This study aimed to investigate whether violent ideation, disruptive behavior, or psychotic symptoms were more prevalent in a population with COVID-19 and did not precede the pandemic. Methods In this preliminary study, we analyzed questionnaire responses from a population sample (N=366), received between the end of February 2021 and the start of March 2021 (1 year into the COVID-19 pandemic), regarding COVID-19 illness, violent ideation, disruptive behavior, and psychotic symptoms. Using the Wilcoxon rank sum test followed by multiple comparisons correction, we compared the self-reported frequency of these variables for 3 time windows related to the past 1 month, past 1 month to 1 year, and >1 year ago among the distributions of people who answered whether they tested positive or were diagnosed with COVID-19 by a clinician. We also used multivariable logistic regression with iterative resampling to investigate the relationship between these variables occurring >1 year ago (ie, before the pandemic) and the likelihood of contracting COVID-19. Results We observed a significantly higher frequency of self-reported violent ideation, disruptive behavior, and psychotic symptoms, for all 3 time windows of people who tested positive or were diagnosed with COVID-19 by a clinician. Using multivariable logistic regression, we observed 72% to 94% model accuracy for an increased incidence of COVID-19 in participants who reported violent ideation, disruptive behavior, or psychotic symptoms >1 year ago. Conclusions This preliminary study found that people who reported a test or clinician diagnosis of COVID-19 also reported higher frequencies of violent ideation, disruptive behavior, or psychotic symptoms across multiple time windows, indicating that they were not likely to be the result of COVID-19. In parallel, participants who reported these behaviors >1 year ago (ie, before the pandemic) were more likely to be diagnosed with COVID-19, suggesting that violent ideation, disruptive behavior, in addition to psychotic symptoms, were associated with COVID-19 with an approximately 70% to 90% likelihood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumra Bari
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Nicole L Vike
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Khrystyna Stetsiv
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Sean Woodward
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Shamal Lalvani
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Leandros Stefanopoulos
- Laboratory of Medical Informatics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Byoung Woo Kim
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Nicos Maglaveras
- Laboratory of Medical Informatics, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Hans C Breiter
- Laboratory of Neuroimaging and Genetics, Division of Psychiatric Neuroscience, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Aggelos K Katsaggelos
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
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4
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Xu H, Cai L, Hufnagel S, Cui Z. Intranasal vaccine: Factors to consider in research and development. Int J Pharm 2021; 609:121180. [PMID: 34637935 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.121180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Most existing vaccines for human use are administered by needle-based injection. Administering vaccines needle-free intranasally has numerous advantages over by needle-based injection, but there are only a few intranasal vaccines that are currently approved for human use, and all of them are live attenuated influenza virus vaccines. Clearly, there are immunological as well as non-immunological challenges that prevent vaccine developers from choosing the intranasal route of administration. We reviewed current approved intranasal vaccines and pipelines and described the target of intranasal vaccines, i.e. nose and lymphoid tissues in the nasal cavity. We then analyzed factors unique to intranasal vaccines that need to be considered when researching and developing new intranasal vaccines. We concluded that while the choice of vaccine formulations, mucoadhesives, mucosal and epithelial permeation enhancers, and ligands that target M-cells are important, safe and effective intranasal mucosal vaccine adjuvants are needed to successfully develop an intranasal vaccine that is not based on live-attenuated viruses or bacteria. Moreover, more effective intranasal vaccine application devices that can efficiently target a vaccine to lymphoid tissues in the nasal cavity as well as preclinical animal models that can better predict intranasal vaccine performance in clinical trials are needed to increase the success rate of intranasal vaccines in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyue Xu
- The University of Texas at Austin, College of Pharmacy, Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Lucy Cai
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Stephanie Hufnagel
- The University of Texas at Austin, College of Pharmacy, Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Zhengrong Cui
- The University of Texas at Austin, College of Pharmacy, Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, Austin, TX, United States.
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5
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Lathe R, St Clair D. From conifers to cognition: Microbes, brain and behavior. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2020; 19:e12680. [PMID: 32515128 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A diversity of bacteria, protozoans and viruses ("endozoites") were recently uncovered within healthy tissues including the human brain. By contrast, it was already recognized a century ago that healthy plants tissues contain abundant endogenous microbes ("endophytes"). Taking endophytes as an informative precedent, we overview the nature, prevalence, and role of endozoites in mammalian tissues, centrally focusing on the brain, concluding that endozoites are ubiquitous in diverse tissues. These passengers often remain subclinical, but they are not silent. We address their routes of entry, mechanisms of persistence, tissue specificity, and potential to cause long-term behavioral changes and/or immunosuppression in mammals, where rabies virus is the exemplar. We extend the discussion to Herpesviridae, Coronaviridae, and Toxoplasma, as well as to diverse bacteria and yeasts, and debate the advantages and disadvantages that endozoite infection might afford to the host and to the ecosystem. We provide a clinical perspective in which endozoites are implicated in neurodegenerative disease, anxiety/depression, and schizophrenia. We conclude that endozoites are instrumental in the delicate balance between health and disease, including age-related brain disease, and that endozoites have played an important role in the evolution of brain function and human behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Lathe
- Division of Infection Medicine, University of Edinburgh Medical School, Edinburgh, UK
| | - David St Clair
- Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
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Fu TL, Ong KC, Tan SH, Wong KT. Japanese Encephalitis Virus Infects the Thalamus Early Followed by Sensory-Associated Cortex and Other Parts of the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2020; 78:1160-1170. [PMID: 31675093 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlz103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a known CNS viral infection that often involves the thalamus early. To investigate the possible role of sensory peripheral nervous system (PNS) in early neuroinvasion, we developed a left hindlimb footpad-inoculation mouse model to recapitulate human infection by a mosquito bite. A 1-5 days postinfection (dpi) study, demonstrated focal viral antigens/RNA in contralateral thalamic neurons at 3 dpi in 50% of the animals. From 4 to 5 dpi, gradual increase in viral antigens/RNA was observed in bilateral thalami, somatosensory, and piriform cortices, and then the entire CNS. Infection of neuronal bodies and adjacent nerves in dorsal root ganglia (DRGs), trigeminal ganglia, and autonomic ganglia (intestine, etc.) was also observed from 5 dpi. Infection of explant organotypic whole brain slice cultures demonstrated no viral predilection for the thalamus, while DRG and intestinal ganglia organotypic cultures confirmed sensory and autonomic ganglia susceptibility to infection, respectively. Early thalamus and sensory-associated cortex involvement suggest an important role for sensory pathways in neuroinvasion. Our results suggest that JE virus neuronotropism is much more extensive than previously known, and that the sensory PNS and autonomic system are susceptible to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzeh Long Fu
- Department of Pathology; and Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kien Chai Ong
- Department of Pathology; and Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Soon Hao Tan
- Department of Pathology; and Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kum Thong Wong
- Department of Pathology; and Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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7
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Sehl J, Hölper JE, Klupp BG, Baumbach C, Teifke JP, Mettenleiter TC. An improved animal model for herpesvirus encephalitis in humans. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008445. [PMID: 32226043 PMCID: PMC7145201 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpesviral encephalitis caused by Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) is one of the most devastating diseases in humans. Patients present with fever, mental status changes or seizures and when untreated, sequelae can be fatal. Herpes Simplex Encephalitis (HSE) is characterized by mainly unilateral necrotizing inflammation effacing the frontal and mesiotemporal lobes with rare involvement of the brainstem. HSV-1 is hypothesized to invade the CNS via the trigeminal or olfactory nerve, but viral tropism and the exact route of infection remain unclear. Several mouse models for HSE have been developed, but they mimic natural infection only inadequately. The porcine alphaherpesvirus Pseudorabies virus (PrV) is closely related to HSV-1 and Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV). While pigs can control productive infection, it is lethal in other susceptible animals associated with severe pruritus leading to automutilation. Here, we describe the first mutant PrV establishing productive infection in mice that the animals are able to control. After intranasal inoculation with a PrV mutant lacking tegument protein pUL21 and pUS3 kinase activity (PrV-ΔUL21/US3Δkin), nearly all mice survived despite extensive infection of the central nervous system. Neuroinvasion mainly occurred along the trigeminal pathway. Whereas trigeminal first and second order neurons and autonomic ganglia were positive early after intranasal infection, PrV-specific antigen was mainly detectable in the frontal, mesiotemporal and parietal lobes at later times, accompanied by a long lasting lymphohistiocytic meningoencephalitis. Despite this extensive infection, mice showed only mild to moderate clinical signs, developed alopecic skin lesions, or remained asymptomatic. Interestingly, most mice exhibited abnormalities in behavior and activity levels including slow movements, akinesia and stargazing. In summary, clinical signs, distribution of viral antigen and inflammatory pattern show striking analogies to human encephalitis caused by HSV-1 or VZV not observed in other animal models of disease. In developed countries, more than 50% of humans are seropositive for the neurotropic Herpes Simplex Virus 1 (HSV-1) and two to four million cases of Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) are reported per year worldwide. Primary infection with HSV-1 takes place via the skin or the oral mucosa followed by intraaxonal retrograde spread to sensory ganglia of the peripheral nervous system where HSV-1 usually establishes latency. Further spread to the central nervous system results in HSE, a necrotizing encephalitis effacing predominantly the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain. Mice infected with HSV-1 develop encephalitis, but do not show the typical lesions and exhibit high mortality rates. Here we demonstrate that mice infected with a mutant pseudorabies virus lacking the tegument protein pUL21 and an active viral kinase pUS3 were able to survive the productive infection but developed lymphohistiocytic encephalitis with viral antigen distribution, inflammation and associated behavioral changes comparable to HSE in humans. These striking analogies offer new perspectives to study herpesviral encephalitis in a suitable animal model.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Disease Models, Animal
- Encephalitis, Varicella Zoster/genetics
- Encephalitis, Varicella Zoster/metabolism
- Female
- Ganglia, Autonomic/metabolism
- Ganglia, Autonomic/pathology
- Ganglia, Autonomic/virology
- Herpes Simplex/genetics
- Herpes Simplex/metabolism
- Herpesvirus 1, Human/genetics
- Herpesvirus 1, Human/metabolism
- Herpesvirus 1, Suid/genetics
- Herpesvirus 1, Suid/metabolism
- Herpesvirus 3, Human/genetics
- Herpesvirus 3, Human/metabolism
- Humans
- Mice
- Neurons/metabolism
- Neurons/pathology
- Neurons/virology
- Pseudorabies/genetics
- Pseudorabies/metabolism
- Pseudorabies/pathology
- Swine
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Sehl
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Julia E. Hölper
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Barbara G. Klupp
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Christina Baumbach
- Department of Animal Health Diagnostics, Food Safety and Fishery in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Rostock, Germany
| | - Jens P. Teifke
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas C. Mettenleiter
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- * E-mail:
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8
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Nissen J, Trabjerg B, Pedersen MG, Banasik K, Pedersen OB, Sørensen E, Nielsen KR, Erikstrup C, Petersen MS, Paarup HM, Bruun-Rasmussen P, Westergaard D, Hansen TF, Pedersen CB, Werge T, Torrey F, Hjalgrim H, Mortensen PB, Yolken R, Brunak S, Ullum H, Burgdorf KS. Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 infection is associated with suicidal behavior and first registered psychiatric diagnosis in a healthy population. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2019; 108:150-154. [PMID: 31284079 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence shows that latent infections and inflammation is associated with cognitive and behavioral changes in humans. This case-control study investigates the association between Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1) infection and C-reactive Protein (CRP) levels, and psychiatric disorders and suicidal behavior. Public health register data from 81,912 participants in the Danish Blood Donor Study, were reviewed to identify individuals registered with an ICD-10 code of any psychiatric diagnosis, or who had attempted or committed suicide. We found 1,504 psychiatric cases and 353 suicidal cases; for all cases, controls were frequency-matched by age and sex, resulting in 5,336 participants. Plasma samples were analyzed for IgG-class antibodies against HSV-1 and CRP. HSV-1 infection was associated with suicidal behavior (odds-ratio, 1.40; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.11-1.77). Accounting for temporality, HSV-1 infection was associated with having first psychiatric disorder after the date of blood collection (incidence rate ration, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.05-1.95). No association between CRP and psychiatric disorders or suicidal behavior was found. The finding that HSV-1 was associated with suicidal behavior and first psychiatric disorder indicates that infection may play a role in the etiology and pathogenesis of suicidal behavior and development of psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janna Nissen
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Clinical Immunology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Betina Trabjerg
- National Centre for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Denmark
| | - M G Pedersen
- National Centre for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Denmark; Centre for Integrated Register-based Research, CIRRAU, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Karina Banasik
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Erik Sørensen
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kaspar René Nielsen
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Christian Erikstrup
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | | | - Peter Bruun-Rasmussen
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - David Westergaard
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - T F Hansen
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Danish Headache Center, Department of Neurology, Rigshospitalet-Glostrup, Denmark; Institute of Biological Psychiatry, Mental Health Centre Sct. Hans, Copenhagen University Hospital, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Carsten B Pedersen
- National Centre for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Denmark; Centre for Integrated Register-based Research, CIRRAU, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Thomas Werge
- The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Denmark; Institute of Biological Psychiatry, Mental Health Centre Sct. Hans, Copenhagen University Hospital, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Fuller Torrey
- Stanley Medical Research Institute, Kensington, MD School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA
| | - Henrik Hjalgrim
- Department of Epidemiology Research, Statens Serum Institut, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Hematology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Preben Bo Mortensen
- National Centre for Register-Based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Denmark; Centre for Integrated Register-based Research, CIRRAU, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Robert Yolken
- Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Stanley Neurovirology Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, USA
| | - Søren Brunak
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Protein Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Henrik Ullum
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - K S Burgdorf
- Department of Clinical Immunology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
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9
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Emotion discrimination in humans: Its association with HSV-1 infection and its improvement with antiviral treatment. Schizophr Res 2018; 193:161-167. [PMID: 28830742 PMCID: PMC5818324 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex virus, type 1 (HSV-1) infects over 3.4 billion people, world-wide. Though it can cause encephalitis, in the vast majority it is asymptomatic, with lifelong latent infection in neurons. HSV-1 infected individuals have greater cognitive dysfunction than uninfected individuals, particularly persons with schizophrenia - even without encephalitis. We investigated whether HSV-1 related cognitive dysfunction is progressive or remediable. METHODS In a prospective naturalistic follow up sample (PNFU), temporal changes in cognitive functions were analyzed in relation to baseline HSV-1 infection in persons with/without schizophrenia (N=226). Independently, in a randomized controlled trial (RCT), HSV-1 infected, clinically stabilized SZ outpatients received Valacyclovir (VAL, an HSV-1 specific antiviral, 1.5G twice daily for 16weeks) or placebo (PLA) added to standard antipsychotic treatment, using a stratified randomization design, following placebo run-in (N=67). In both samples, HSV-1 infection (seropositivity) was estimated using serum IgG antibodies. Clinical evaluations were blinded to HSV-1 or treatment status. Standardized Z scores for accuracy on eight cognitive domains were analyzed for temporal trajectories using generalized linear models (PNFU) and VAL/PLA differences compared with intent to treat analyses (RCT). RESULTS PNFU: At baseline, HSV-1 infected participants had significantly lower accuracy scores for Emotion Identification and Discrimination (EMOD), Spatial memory and Spatial ability, regardless of SZ diagnosis (p=0.025, 0.029, 0.046, respectively). They also had significantly steeper temporal worsening for EMOD (p=0.03). RCT: EMOD improved in VAL-treated patients (p=0.048, Cohen's d=0.43). CONCLUSIONS A proportion of age related decline in EMOD is attributable to HSV-1 infection.
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Carter CJ. Genetic, Transcriptome, Proteomic, and Epidemiological Evidence for Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption and Polymicrobial Brain Invasion as Determinant Factors in Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis Rep 2017; 1:125-157. [PMID: 30480234 PMCID: PMC6159731 DOI: 10.3233/adr-170017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Diverse pathogens are detected in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains. A bioinformatics survey showed that AD genome-wide association study (GWAS) genes (localized in bone marrow, immune locations and microglia) relate to multiple host/pathogen interactomes (Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Bornavirus, Borrelia burgdorferri, cytomegalovirus, Ebola virus, HSV-1, HERV-W, HIV-1, Epstein-Barr, hepatitis C, influenza, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Porphyrymonas gingivalis, Helicobacter pylori, Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma cruzi). These interactomes also relate to the AD hippocampal transcriptome and to plaque or tangle proteins. Upregulated AD hippocampal genes match those upregulated by multiple bacteria, viruses, fungi, or protozoa in immunocompetent cells. AD genes are enriched in GWAS datasets reflecting pathogen diversity, suggesting selection for pathogen resistance, as supported by the old age of AD patients, implying resistance to earlier infections. APOE4 is concentrated in regions of high parasitic burden and protects against childhood tropical infections and hepatitis C. Immune/inflammatory gain of function applies to APOE4, CR1, and TREM2 variants. AD genes are also expressed in the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which is disrupted by AD risk factors (age, alcohol, aluminum, concussion, cerebral hypoperfusion, diabetes, homocysteine, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, obesity, pesticides, pollution, physical inactivity, sleep disruption, smoking) and by pathogens, directly or via olfactory routes to basal-forebrain BBB control centers. The BBB benefits from statins, NSAIDs, estrogen, melatonin, memantine, and the Mediterranean diet. Polymicrobial involvement is supported by upregulation of bacterial, viral, and fungal sensors/defenders in the AD brain, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid. AD serum amyloid-β autoantibodies may attenuate its antimicrobial effects favoring microbial survival and cerebral invasion leading to activation of neurodestructive immune/inflammatory processes, which may also be augmented by age-related immunosenescence. AD may thus respond to antibiotic, antifungal, or antiviral therapy.
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Menendez CM, Carr DJJ. Herpes simplex virus-1 infects the olfactory bulb shortly following ocular infection and exhibits a long-term inflammatory profile in the form of effector and HSV-1-specific T cells. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:124. [PMID: 28645309 PMCID: PMC5481928 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0903-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/15/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection can result in a life-threatening condition known as herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE). Trafficking patterns by which the virus reaches the central nervous system (CNS) following ocular infection are unresolved. We evaluated early viral dissemination pathways following ocular infection that involve trafficking to the olfactory bulb (OB). Additionally, we have characterized the capacity of HSV-1 to establish latency within OB tissue and profiled the local T lymphocyte response over the course of the acute infection into latency. METHODS Scarified corneas of C57BL/6 or reporter-inducible Rosa mice (RosaTd/Tm) were inoculated with HSV-1 and assessed for viral dissemination into the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and CNS by RT-PCR and confocal microscopy. T cells and the resident microglia activation signatures were analyzed by flow cytometry. T cell effector function in the form of IFN-γ secretion was measured by T cells isolated from OB in comparison to T cells from other nervous system sites known to harbor HSV-1-specific memory T cells. RESULTS Following ocular infection, HSV-1 viral titers from nasal secretions were detected as early as 48 h through 8 days post infection (8 DPI). HSV-1 gene expression was expressed as early as 2 days following ocular infection in the OB and was consistent with an enhanced expression in the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve ganglia (TG). Rosa fluorescence protein expression (RFP+) representing HSV-1-infected cells from RosaTd/Tm mice was detected in the OB before other areas of the CNS (2 DPI). Additionally, during acute infection, most infected cells appeared to be anatomically distributed within the OB rather than other regions of the CNS. During latency (i.e., 30 DPI and beyond) despite no detectable infectious virus or lytic gene expression and low levels of latency associated transcripts, total effector (CD44+ CD62-) CD4+ T, CD8+ T, HSV-1-specific CD8+ T cells, and MHC class II positive resident microglia numbers continued to increase. CD4+ and CD8+ T cell populations isolated from the OB during latency were capable of responding to PMA/ionomycin in the production of IFN-γ similar to T cells from other tissue that possess latent virus including the TG and brain stem. CONCLUSIONS It is currently understood that HSV-1 traffics to the TG following ocular infection. We have identified a second conduit by which HSV-1 can directly access the CNS bypassing the brain stem. We have also recognized that the OB is unique in that during HSV-1 latency, latency-associated transcripts levels were marginally above uninfected controls. Despite these findings, the local immune response mimicked the phenotype of an active infection during latency.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel J. J. Carr
- Departments of Microbiology, Immunology, Oklahoma City, OK USA
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, DMEI #415A, 608 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104 USA
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Chauhan PS, Misra UK, Kalita J. A study of glutamate levels, NR1, NR2A, NR2B receptors and oxidative stress in rat model of Japanese encephalitis. Physiol Behav 2017; 171:256-267. [PMID: 28108334 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
There is paucity of studies on the role of glutamate excitotoxicity in cell damage in Japanese encephalitis. In this study the glutamate levels and its NMDA receptors, and oxidative stress markers in different brain regions have been evaluated and correlated with neurobehavioral changes at different time points. Twelve day old Wistar rats were inoculated with 3×106pfu/ml intracerebrally. The neurobehavioral effects were evaluated by spontaneous locomotor activity (SLA), grip strength and rota rod test on 10, 33 and 48days post inoculation (dpi). Glutamate level was evaluated by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, mRNA gene expression of ionotropic glutamate receptors N-methyl d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor 1, 2A and 2B (NR1, NR2A and NR2B) were evaluated by real time PCR. Malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) levels were measured by spectrophotometer in different brain regions of JEV infected rats on 10, 33 and 48dpi. There was significant increase in motor deficit, grip strength and decreased locomotor activity on 10 and 33dpi. Glutamate levels were increased in thalamus, midbrain, frontal cortex, striatum and cerebellum on 10 and 33dpi and were followed by a recovery on 48dpi. Glutamate NMDR receptors NR1, NR2A and NR2B were reduced in thalamus, midbrain, frontal cortex, striatum and cerebellum on 10dpi which was followed by recovery after 33dpi. A significant increase in MDA level in thalamus, midbrain, frontal cortex, striatum and cerebellum was noted on 10 and 33dpi. The antioxidant GSH and GPx were significantly reduced in these brain regions on 10 and 33dpi. Glutamate, MDA, GSH and GPx correlated in different brain regions as the disease progress. Increased Glutamate level may be related to oxidative stress and may be responsible for behavioral alterations in rat model of Japanese encephalitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prashant Singh Chauhan
- Department of Neurology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Science, Raebareily Road, Lucknow, India
| | - Usha Kant Misra
- Department of Neurology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Science, Raebareily Road, Lucknow, India.
| | - Jayantee Kalita
- Department of Neurology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Science, Raebareily Road, Lucknow, India
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Warnken ZN, Smyth HD, Watts AB, Weitman S, Kuhn JG, Williams RO. Formulation and device design to increase nose to brain drug delivery. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Neuroinvasion and Inflammation in Viral Central Nervous System Infections. Mediators Inflamm 2016; 2016:8562805. [PMID: 27313404 PMCID: PMC4897715 DOI: 10.1155/2016/8562805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotropic viruses can cause devastating central nervous system (CNS) infections, especially in young children and the elderly. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) have been described as relevant sites of entry for specific viruses as well as for leukocytes, which are recruited during the proinflammatory response in the course of CNS infection. In this review, we illustrate examples of established brain barrier models, in which the specific reaction patterns of different viral families can be analyzed. Furthermore, we highlight the pathogen specific array of cytokines and chemokines involved in immunological responses in viral CNS infections. We discuss in detail the link between specific cytokines and chemokines and leukocyte migration profiles. The thorough understanding of the complex and interrelated inflammatory mechanisms as well as identifying universal mediators promoting CNS inflammation is essential for the development of new diagnostic and treatment strategies.
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Chauhan PS, Misra UK, Kalita J, Chandravanshi LP, Khanna VK. Memory and learning seems to be related to cholinergic dysfunction in the JE rat model. Physiol Behav 2016; 156:148-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2015] [Revised: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 01/09/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Synaptic Plasticity and Neurological Disorders in Neurotropic Viral Infections. Neural Plast 2015; 2015:138979. [PMID: 26649202 PMCID: PMC4663354 DOI: 10.1155/2015/138979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on the type of cells or tissues they tend to harbor or attack, many of the viruses are characterized. But, in case of neurotropic viruses, it is not possible to classify them based on their tropism because many of them are not primarily neurotropic. While rabies and poliovirus are considered as strictly neurotropic, other neurotropic viruses involve nervous tissue only secondarily. Since the AIDS pandemic, the interest in neurotropic viral infections has become essential for all clinical neurologists. Although these neurotropic viruses are able to be harbored in or infect the nervous system, not all the neurotropic viruses have been reported to cause disrupted synaptic plasticity and impaired cognitive functions. In this review, we have discussed the neurotropic viruses, which play a major role in altered synaptic plasticity and neurological disorders.
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Fruchter E, Goldberg S, Fenchel D, Grotto I, Ginat K, Weiser M. The impact of Herpes simplex virus type 1 on cognitive impairments in young, healthy individuals - A historical prospective study. Schizophr Res 2015; 168:292-6. [PMID: 26362735 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2015.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Revised: 08/23/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a highly prevalent neurotropic virus. Although on the whole, chronic, latent or persistent infection is considered to be relatively benign, HSV infections can cause cognitive impairment during and after acute encephalitis. Some studies have documented cognitive impairment in exposed persons that is untraceable to encephalitis. Most studies have focused on these impairments in the mentally ill, mostly among individuals with schizophrenia, and only recently have studies begun to examine the impact of HSV infection on the cognition of healthy individuals. Subjects were a representative, random sample of 612 soldiers before active duty in the Israeli military (Israeli defense force - IDF), 62.2% HSV positive (n=381) and 38.8% HSV negative (n=231). Cognitive functioning and language abilities were compared between these groups, controlling for years of education, immigration status, and gender. Compared to soldiers who were sero-negative, soldiers who were sero-positive for HSV had significantly lower IQ scores (IQ=97.96, SD=15.19 vs IQ=103.23, SD=14.23; p≤0.001, effect size (ES)=0.2), and significantly lower Hebrew language scores (ES=0.1, p≤0.01). The results remained significant after removing subjects with mild depression, anxiety or personality disorders. Although we could not control for socio-economic status directly, our findings indicate that infection with HSV-1 is associated with reduced cognitive functioning in healthy individuals. This finding adds to the growing number of studies in the schizophrenia literature and indicates that many research findings seemingly characteristic of schizophrenia are related to the association between HSV exposure and cognitive functioning in general, and are not illness specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyal Fruchter
- IDF Medical Corps, Mental Health Center, Israel; USC - School of Social Work, C.I.R. Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Shira Goldberg
- Department of Psychiatry, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Daphna Fenchel
- Department of Psychiatry, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Itamar Grotto
- Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
| | - Keren Ginat
- IDF Medical Corps, Mental Health Center, Israel
| | - Mark Weiser
- IDF Medical Corps, Mental Health Center, Israel; Department of Psychiatry, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Ramat Gan, Israel; Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel.
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Braak H, Del Tredici K. The preclinical phase of the pathological process underlying sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. Brain 2015; 138:2814-33. [DOI: 10.1093/brain/awv236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 293] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 07/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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Figliozzi RW, Chen F, Balish M, Ajavon A, Hsia SV. Thyroid hormone-dependent epigenetic suppression of herpes simplex virus-1 gene expression and viral replication in differentiated neuroendocrine cells. J Neurol Sci 2014; 346:164-73. [PMID: 25175854 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2014.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Revised: 08/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
A global HSV-1 gene repression occurs during latency in sensory neurons where most viral gene transcriptions are suppressed. The molecular mechanisms of gene silencing and how stress factors trigger the reactivation are not well understood. Thyroid hormones are known to be altered due to stress, and with its nuclear receptor impart transcriptional repression or activation depending upon the hormone level. Therefore we hypothesized that triiodothyronine (T3) treatment of infected differentiated neuron like cells would reduce the ability of HSV-1 to produce viral progeny compared to untreated infected cells. Previously we identified putative thyroid hormone receptor elements (TREs) within the promoter regions of HSV-1 thymidine kinase (TK) and other key genes. Searching for a human cell line that can model neuronal HSV-1 infection, we performed HSV-1 infection experiments on differentiated human neuroendocrine cells, LNCaP. Upon androgen deprivation these cells undergo complete differentiation and exhibit neuronal-like morphology and physiology. These cells were readily infected by our HSV-1 recombinant virus, expressing GFP and maintaining many processes iconic of dendritic morphology. Our results demonstrated that differentiated LNCaP cells produced suppressive effects on HSV-1 gene expression and replication compared to its undifferentiated counterpart and T3 treatment has further decreased the viral plaque counts compared to untreated cells. Upon washout of the T3 viral plaque counts were restored, indicating an increase of viral replication. The qRT-PCR experiments using primers for TK showed reduced expression under T3 treatment. ChIP assays using a panel of antibodies for H3 lysine 9 epigenetic marks showed increased repressive marks on the promoter regions of TK. In conclusion we have demonstrated a T3 mediated quiescent infection in differentiated LNCaP cells that has potential to mimic latent infection. In this HSV-1 infection model thyroid hormone treatment caused decreased viral replication, repressed TK expression and increased repressive histone tail marks on the TK promoter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Figliozzi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, College of Pharmacy, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA
| | - Feng Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, College of Pharmacy, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA
| | - Matthew Balish
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, College of Pharmacy, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA
| | - Amakoe Ajavon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, College of Pharmacy, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA
| | - S Victor Hsia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, College of Pharmacy, Princess Anne, MD 21853, USA.
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Thomas P, Bhatia T, Gauba D, Wood J, Long C, Prasad K, Dickerson FB, Gur RE, Gur RC, Yolken RH, Nimgaonkar VL, Deshpande SN. Exposure to herpes simplex virus, type 1 and reduced cognitive function. J Psychiatr Res 2013; 47:1680-5. [PMID: 23920011 PMCID: PMC3809147 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2013] [Revised: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus, type 1 (HSV-1) causes cold sores, keratitis and rarely, fatal encephalitis. The infection is lifelong, with sensory ganglia serving as reservoirs of latent infection. Recently, exposure to HSV-1 has also been repeatedly associated with reduced cognitive function among healthy individuals without prior encephalitis. Though HSV-1 does not elevate risk for schizophrenia (SZ) per se, exposure is likewise associated with impaired cognitive functions among SZ patients. The range of cognitive changes observed in HSV-1 exposed persons has not been investigated systematically, nor is it known whether interaction between HSV-1 exposure and SZ related factors contributes to the impairment among SZ patients. Persons with or without schizophrenia/schizophreniform disorder (N = 298 total, DSM IV criteria) were assessed for HSV-1 exposure using serum HSV-1 antibody titers. The Penn Computerized Neurocognitive battery was used to assess eight cognitive domains with respect to accuracy and speed. There were no significant case-control differences in HSV-1 exposure. The SZ/schizophreniform disorder cases were significantly impaired in all cognitive domains compared with the controls. HSV-1 exposure was also associated with reduced cognitive function in the entire sample, but the magnitude of the effects and their patterns differed from the SZ related changes. Further, statistically significant interactions between HSV-1 exposure and SZ case status were not detected. HSV-1 exposure does not elevate risk for SZ, but it is associated with reduced function in specific cognitive domains regardless of SZ diagnostic status. An 'epidiagnostic' model for the association is proposed to explain the results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pramod Thomas
- Department of Bio-Statistics, Dr S.M.C.S.I. Medical College, Karakonam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Triptish Bhatia
- GRIP-NIH Project USA, Department of Psychiatry, Dr. RML Hospital, New Delhi India
| | | | - Joel Wood
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
| | - Colleen Long
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
| | - Konasale Prasad
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
| | - Faith B Dickerson
- Stanley Research Center, Sheppard Pratt Health System, 6501 North Charles St., Baltimore, MD 21204, USA
| | - Raquel E Gur
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-4283, USA
| | - Ruben C Gur
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-4283, USA
| | - Robert H Yolken
- Stanley Laboratory of Developmental Neurovirology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Vishwajit L Nimgaonkar
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA,Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Smita N Deshpande
- Department of Psychiatry, PGIMER-Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, India
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Prasad KM, Watson AMM, Dickerson FB, Yolken RH, Nimgaonkar VL. Exposure to herpes simplex virus type 1 and cognitive impairments in individuals with schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2012; 38:1137-48. [PMID: 22490995 PMCID: PMC3494052 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbs046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Latent infection with neurotropic herpes viruses, such as herpes simplex virus, type 1 (HSV1), has been generally considered benign in most immunocompetent individuals except for rare cases of encephalitis. However, several recent studies have shown impaired cognitive functions among individuals with schizophrenia exposed to HSV1 compared with schizophrenia patients not exposed to HSV1. Such impairments are robust and are prominently observed in working memory, verbal memory, and executive functions. Brain regions that play a key role in the regulation of these domains have shown smaller volumes, along with correlation between these morphometric changes and cognitive impairments in schizophrenia. One study noted temporal decline in executive function and gray matter loss among HSV1-exposed first-episode antipsychotic-naïve schizophrenia patients. Furthermore, a proof-of-concept double-blind placebo-controlled trial indicated improvement in cognitive performance following supplemental anti-herpes-specific medication among HSV1 seropositive schizophrenia patients. Cross-sectional studies have also identified an association between HSV1 exposure and lesser degrees of cognitive impairment among healthy control individuals and patients with bipolar disorder. These studies fulfill several Bradford-Hill criteria, suggesting etiological links between HSV1 exposure and cognitive impairment. Exposure to other human herpes viruses such as cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV2) may also be associated with cognitive impairment, but the data are less consistent. These studies are reviewed critically and further lines of enquiry recommended. The results are important from a public health perspective, as HSV1 exposure is highly prevalent in many populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konasale M. Prasad
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Annie M. M. Watson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA,Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Faith B. Dickerson
- Stanley Research Program at Sheppard Pratt, Sheppard Pratt Health System, Baltimore, MD
| | - Robert H. Yolken
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanley Division of Developmental Neurovirology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Vishwajit L. Nimgaonkar
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA,Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA,To whom correspondence should be addressed; Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, TDH 441, 3811 O’Hara Street, Pittsburgh PA 15213; tel: 412-246-6353, fax: 412-246-6350, e-mail:
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Carter C. Alzheimer's disease plaques and tangles: Cemeteries of a Pyrrhic victory of the immune defence network against herpes simplex infection at the expense of complement and inflammation-mediated neuronal destruction. Neurochem Int 2011; 58:301-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2010.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2010] [Revised: 11/30/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Honjo K, van Reekum R, Verhoeff NPLG. Alzheimer's disease and infection: do infectious agents contribute to progression of Alzheimer's disease? Alzheimers Dement 2009; 5:348-60. [PMID: 19560105 DOI: 10.1016/j.jalz.2008.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2008] [Revised: 11/08/2008] [Accepted: 12/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Infection with several important pathogens could constitute risk factors for cognitive impairment, dementia, and Alzheimer's disease (AD) in particular. This review summarizes the data related to infectious agents that appear to have a relationship with AD. Infections with herpes simplex virus type 1, picornavirus, Borna disease virus, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, and spirochete were reported to contribute to the pathophysiology of AD or to cognitive changes. Based on these reports, it may be hypothesized that central nervous system or systemic infections may contribute to the pathogenesis or pathophysiology of AD, and chronic infection with several pathogens should be considered a risk factor for sporadic AD. If this hypothesis holds true, early intervention against infection may delay or even prevent the future development of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kie Honjo
- L.C. Campbell Cognitive Neurology Research Unit, Heart and Stroke Foundation Centre for Stroke Recovery, Section of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Sunnybrook Health Science Centre and University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Ando Y, Kitayama H, Kawaguchi Y, Koyanagi Y. Primary target cells of herpes simplex virus type 1 in the hippocampus. Microbes Infect 2008; 10:1514-23. [PMID: 18852062 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2008.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2008] [Revised: 09/02/2008] [Accepted: 09/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) causes fatal and sporadic encephalitis in human. The encephalitis-survivors frequently suffer from symptoms of memory deficits. It remains unclear how HSV-1 induces tissue damages in memory formation-associated brain tissues such as the hippocampus. In this study, we examined HSV-1 infection in the hippocampus using a rat HSV-1 infection model. We found profound pathological changes in the hippocampus and large numbers of HSV-1 antigen-positive cells in the dentate gyrus (DG) subfield of HSV-1-infected rats. To understand the precise mechanism of HSV-1-induced tissue damages in the hippocampus, we employed rat organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHC) as an in vitro HSV-1 infection model. In OHC, HSV-1 infection predominated in neuronal cells and the infected neuronal cells were severely damaged. Longitudinal analysis indicated that granule cells in DG subfield were extremely vulnerable to HSV-1 infection among neuronal cells in the hippocampus. Since DG granule cells play a crucial role in memory formation, disruption of these cells may be a primary step leading to memory deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinori Ando
- Laboratory of Viral Pathogenesis, Institute for Virus Research, Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin-kawara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
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Dénes A, Boldogkoi Z, Hornyák A, Palkovits M, Kovács KJ. Attenuated pseudorabies virus-evoked rapid innate immune response in the rat brain. J Neuroimmunol 2006; 180:88-103. [PMID: 16930726 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2006.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2006] [Revised: 07/06/2006] [Accepted: 07/07/2006] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Ba-DupGreen (BDG) is a highly attenuated, Bartha-derived pseudorabies virus (PRV) expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) with immediate-early kinetics. Innate immune mechanisms underlying the low infectivity of the virus and the disappearance of infected neurons from the brain were studied at cellular level following injection of BDG into the spleen. The temporal shift in the expression between GFP and viral structural proteins allowed us to discriminate three stages of viral infection in the compromised neurons in correlation with the ongoing local inflammatory response. Iba1/lectin/OX42-positive microglia were recruited to infected neurons within 4-6 h following the initiation of virus replication, incorporated BrdU, isolated the infected cells before the disintegration of their membranes and phagocytosed collapsed neurons. Ex vivo-labeled blood and bone marrow-derived leukocytes, including ED-1-positive macrophages were involved in the immune cell assembly around compromised neurons, which resulted in the complete clearance of infected neurons from the early-infected brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adám Dénes
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroendocrinology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Szigony u. 43. Budapest, H-1083, Hungary.
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Mori I, Nishiyama Y, Yokochi T, Kimura Y. Olfactory transmission of neurotropic viruses. J Neurovirol 2005; 11:129-37. [PMID: 16036791 DOI: 10.1080/13550280590922793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Olfactory receptor neurons are unique in their anatomical structure and function. Each neuron is directly exposed to the external environment at the site of its dendritic nerve terminals where it is exposed to macromolecules. These molecules can be incorporated into by olfactory receptor neurons and transported transsynaptically to the central nervous system. Certain neurotropic pathogens such as herpes simplex virus and Borna disease virus make use of this physiological mechanism to invade the brain. Here the authors review the olfactory transmission of infectious agents and the resulting hazards to human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isamu Mori
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Research Center for Infectious Disease, Aichi Medical University School of Medecine, Aichi, Japan.
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Kaufman HE, Azcuy AM, Varnell ED, Sloop GD, Thompson HW, Hill JM. HSV-1 DNA in tears and saliva of normal adults. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2005; 46:241-7. [PMID: 15623779 PMCID: PMC1200985 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.04-0614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess the frequency of shedding of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) DNA in tears and saliva of asymptomatic individuals. METHODS Fifty subjects without signs of ocular herpetic disease participated. Serum samples from all subjects were tested for HSV IgG antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and for HSV-1 by neutralization assay. HSV-1 DNA copy number and frequency of shedding were determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis of tear and saliva samples collected twice daily for 30 consecutive days. RESULTS Thirty-seven (74%) of the 50 subjects were positive for HSV IgG by ELISA. The percentages of positive eye and mouth swabs were approximately equivalent: 33.5% (941/2806) and 37.5% (1020/2723), respectively. However, the percentage of samples with high HSV-1 genome copy numbers was greater in saliva than in tears, which may have been a result of the sample volume collected. Shedding frequency in tears was nearly the same in men (347/1003; 34.6%) and women (594/1705; 34.8%); in saliva, men had a higher frequency of shedding (457/1009; 45.3% vs. 563/1703; 33.1%, men versus women). Overall, 49 (98%) of 50 subjects shed HSV-1 DNA at least once during the course of the 30-day study. CONCLUSIONS The percentage of asymptomatic subjects who intermittently shed HSV-1 DNA in tears or saliva was higher than the percentage of subjects with positive ELISA or neutralization antibodies to HSV. Because most HSV transmission occurs during asymptomatic shedding, further knowledge of the prevalence of HSV-1 DNA in tears and saliva is warranted to control its spread. Shedding is simple to study, and its suppression may be an efficient way to evaluate new antivirals in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert E Kaufman
- Department of Ophthalmology, LSU Eye Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA.
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Becker Y. Immunological and regulatory functions of uninfected and virus infected immature and mature subtypes of dendritic cells--a review. Virus Genes 2003; 26:119-30. [PMID: 12803463 DOI: 10.1023/a:1023427228024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
In 1868, dendritic cells (DCs) were discovered in human skin by Paul Langerhans using gold staining. These cells were named Langerhans cells (LCs) after their discoverer who, due to their dendrites, regarded them as neurons. One hundred and eleven years were to pass until it was discovered that in vertebrates these cells originate in the bone marrow as monocytes. In the 1980s, DC research was mostly carried out on DCs that are present in different tissues of mice and humans. These studies revealed that after interaction with foreign antigens, skin LCs/DCs migrate through the lymph vessels to the draining lymph nodes and induce the two arms of the immune response. The isolation of DCs from tissue cell suspensions opened the way to studies on the cells' surface proteins and their ability to stimulate immune responses. During the 1990s, studies revealed the role of DCs in the activation of naive T cells in the lymph nodes and the regulatory properties of DCs in lymph nodes, thymus, gut, and spleen. Part A of the review deals with the DC system of human and mice and immunological and regulatory functions of subsets of DCs in the skin with reference to migrating and stationary DCs, as well as the connection between DCs and the nervous system. Furthermore, the origin of both follicular DCs that are present in lymphoid tissues and thymic DCs are discussed. Part B is devoted to virus infections of DCs with an emphasis on infections caused by human herpes viruses. Part C presents the modulation of DC gene expression in response to the influenza virus. Contemporary research focuses on the role of DCs in the immune systems of vertebrates. Moreover, studies are being conducted on the regulatory functions of DCs by tissue cells in different organs of vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yechiel Becker
- Department of Molecular Virology, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, POB 12272, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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Borchers K, Field HJ. Neuronal latency in human and animal herpesvirus infections. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2001; 253:61-94. [PMID: 11417140 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-10356-2_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K Borchers
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Strasse 49, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
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Sauder C, Wolfer DP, Lipp HP, Staeheli P, Hausmann J. Learning deficits in mice with persistent Borna disease virus infection of the CNS associated with elevated chemokine expression. Behav Brain Res 2001; 120:189-201. [PMID: 11182167 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(00)00370-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Borna disease virus (BDV) is a highly neurotropic RNA virus that causes a CD8(+) T cell-mediated neurological disease in certain mouse strains. We established asymptomatic persistent central nervous system (CNS) infections in mutant C57BL/10J mice that lack functional CD8(+) T cells. When analyzed at adult age for spatial learning abilities in a water maze, BDV-infected mice showed slightly impaired escape performance while their exploratory behavior in an openfield test was indistinguishable from uninfected control mice. Histological and molecular biological analysis revealed extensive viral spread throughout the CNS of infected animals. Most neurons of the hippocampus contained viral antigen, but there was no overt loss of neurons from this structure. We found almost unchanged levels of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta and TNF-alpha, but clearly increased levels of the chemokines IP-10 and RANTES in brains of infected mice. Re-examination of water maze data revealed that only infected mice with IP-10 transcript levels above a certain threshold showed impaired performance, whereas the performance of infected mice with lower IP-10 levels was indistinguishable from uninfected controls. This suggests that BDV infection can disturb the function of the mammalian CNS without causing overt neuronal loss, and that the magnitude of virus-induced chemokine production in the CNS correlates with the degree of impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Sauder
- Department of Virology, Institute for Medical Microbiology, University of Freiburg, D-79008 Freiburg, Germany
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31
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Potential Health Effects of Odor from Animal Operations, Wastewater Treatment, and Recycling of Byproducts. J Agromedicine 2000. [DOI: 10.1300/j096v07n01_02] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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32
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Baker M, Noisakran S, Gebhardt BM, Kriesel JD, Carr DJ. The relationship between interleukin-6 and herpes simplex virus type 1: implications for behavior and immunopathology. Brain Behav Immun 1999; 13:201-11. [PMID: 10469522 DOI: 10.1006/brbi.1999.0572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokines are hormones once thought to be restricted to the immune system produced solely by hematopoietic-derived cells and acting on receptors expressed by cells of the immune system. However, it is now clear that many cytokines are produced not only by lymphocytes, monocytes, granulocytes, and dendritic cells but are also synthesized by cells outside the realm of the immune system in response to stimuli that may not be associated with immune homeostasis. In fact, there is evidence supporting a role of selected cytokines modifying behavior and neuroendocrine function. Recently, a potential relationship between the cytokine interleukin (IL)-6 and herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) reactivation has been found. This article discusses the relevance of these findings and considers the potential impact that HSV-1 infection has on behavior and chronic inflammatory processes that can occur in the nervous system during "latent" virus infection as a result of chronic IL-6 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Baker
- Department of Microbiology, LSU Medical Center, New Orleans, Louisiana 70112, USA
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