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Masih PJ, Kesharwani T, Rodriguez E, Vertudez MA, Motakhaveri ML, Le TK, Tran MKT, Cloyd MR, Kornman CT, Phillips AM. Synthesis and Evaluation of 3-Halobenzo[ b]thiophenes as Potential Antibacterial and Antifungal Agents. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 15:39. [PMID: 35056096 PMCID: PMC8780876 DOI: 10.3390/ph15010039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The global health concern of antimicrobial resistance has harnessed research interest to find new classes of antibiotics to combat disease-causing pathogens. In our studies, 3-halobenzo[b]thiophene derivatives were synthesized and tested for their antimicrobial activities using the broth microdilution susceptibility method. The 3-halo substituted benzo[b]thiophenes were synthesized starting from 2-alkynyl thioanisoles using a convenient electrophilic cyclization methodology that utilizes sodium halides as the source of electrophilic halogens when reacted along with copper(II) sulfate. This environmentally benign methodology is facile, uses ethanol as the solvent, and results in 3-halo substituted benzo[b]thiophene structures in very high yields. The cyclohexanol-substituted 3-chloro and 3-bromobenzo[b]thiophenes resulted in a low MIC of 16 µg/mL against Gram-positive bacteria and yeast. Additionally, in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties of the compounds were determined. The compounds with the lowest MIC values showed excellent drug-like properties with no violations to Lipinski, Veber, and Muegge filters. The time-kill curve was obtained for cyclohexanol-substituted 3-chlorobenzo[b]thiophenes against Staphylococcus aureus, which showed fast bactericidal activity at MIC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prerna J Masih
- Department of Biology, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Tanay Kesharwani
- Department of Chemistry, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Elivet Rodriguez
- Department of Biology, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Mia A Vertudez
- Department of Biology, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Mina L Motakhaveri
- Department of Biology, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Terelan K Le
- Department of Biology, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Minh Kieu T Tran
- Department of Biology, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Matthew R Cloyd
- Department of Chemistry, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Cory T Kornman
- Department of Chemistry, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
| | - Aimee M Phillips
- Department of Biology, University of West Florida, 11000 University Pkwy, Pensacola, FL 32514, USA
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2
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Gao W, Zhang T, Wu H. Emerging Pathological Engagement of Ferroptosis in Gut Diseases. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:4246255. [PMID: 34733403 PMCID: PMC8560274 DOI: 10.1155/2021/4246255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, is mainly characterized by chronic and progressive inflammation that damages the gastrointestinal mucosa. Increasing studies have enlightened that dysregulated cell death occurs in the inflamed sites, leading to the disruption of the intestinal barrier and aggravating inflammatory response. Ferroptosis, a newly characterized form of regulated cell death, is driven by the lethal accumulation of lipid peroxides catalyzed by cellular free iron. It has been widely documented that the fundamental features of ferroptosis, including iron deposition, GSH exhaustion, GPX4 inactivation, and lipid peroxidation, are manifested in the injured gastrointestinal tract in IBD patients. Furthermore, manipulation of the critical ferroptotic genes could alter the progression, severity, or even morbidity of the experimental colitis. Herein, we critically summarize the recent advances in the field of ferroptosis, focusing on interpreting the potential engagement of ferroptosis in the pathogenesis of IBD. Moreover, we are attempting to shed light on a perspective insight into the possibility of targeting ferroptosis as novel therapeutic designs for the clinical intervention of these gastrointestinal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weihua Gao
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- Interdisciplinary Sciences Institute, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
| | - Ting Zhang
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
- Interdisciplinary Sciences Institute, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Hao Wu
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
- Interdisciplinary Sciences Institute, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
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3
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Ayola-Serrano NC, Roy N, Fathah Z, Anwar MM, Singh B, Ammar N, Sah R, Elba A, Utt RS, Pecho-Silva S, Rodriguez-Morales AJ, Dhama K, Quraishi S. The role of 5-lipoxygenase in the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and its therapeutic implications. Inflamm Res 2021; 70:877-889. [PMID: 34086061 PMCID: PMC8176665 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-021-01473-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) causes cytokine release syndrome (CRS), leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), acute kidney and cardiac injury, liver dysfunction, and multiorgan failure. Although several studies have discussed the role of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) in viral infections, such as influenzae and SARS, it remains unexplored in the pathophysiology of COVID-19. 5-LOX acts on free arachidonic acid (AA) to form proinflammatory leukotrienes (LTs). Of note, numerous cells involved with COVID-19 (e.g., inflammatory and smooth muscle cells, platelets, and vascular endothelium) widely express leukotriene receptors. Moreover, 5-LOX metabolites induce the release of cytokines (e.g., tumour necrosis factor-α [TNF-α], interleukin-1α [IL-1α], and interleukin-1β [IL-1β]) and express tissue factor on cell membranes and activate plasmin. Since macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, and eosinophils can express lipoxygenases, activation of 5-LOX and the subsequent release of LTs may contribute to the severity of COVID-19. This review sheds light on the potential implications of 5-LOX in SARS-CoV-2-mediated infection and the anticipated therapeutic role of 5-LOX inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Namrata Roy
- SRM University, SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu, Tamil Nadu, 603203, India.
| | | | - Mohammed Moustapha Anwar
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research (IGSR), Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | | | - Nour Ammar
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Dental Public Health, Faculty of Dentistry, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Ranjit Sah
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Areej Elba
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Dental Public Health, Faculty of Dentistry, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Rawan Sobhi Utt
- Faculty of Medicine, Al Quds University, Jerusalem, Palestine
| | - Samuel Pecho-Silva
- Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru
- Pneumology Service, Hospital Nacional Edgardo Rebagliati Martins, Lima, Peru
- Latin American Network of COVID-19 Research, Pereira, Colombia
| | - Alfonso J Rodriguez-Morales
- Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru.
- Latin American Network of COVID-19 Research, Pereira, Colombia.
- Grupo de Investigacion Biomedicina, Faculty of Medicine, Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de Las Americas, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia.
- School of Medicine, Universidad Privada Franz Tamayo (UNIFRANZ), Cochabamba, Bolivia.
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, 243122, India
| | - Sadeq Quraishi
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine - Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, 800 Washington St, Ziskind 6038, Boston, MA, 02111, USA
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4
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Röhn TA, Numao S, Otto H, Loesche C, Thoma G. Drug discovery strategies for novel leukotriene A4 hydrolase inhibitors. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2021; 16:1483-1495. [PMID: 34191664 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2021.1948998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
IntroductionLeukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H) is the final and rate limiting enzyme regulating the biosynthesis of leukotriene B4 (LTB4), a pro-inflammatory lipid mediator implicated in a large number of inflammatory pathologies. Inhibition of LTA4H not only prevents LTB4 biosynthesis but also induces a lipid mediator class-switch within the 5-lipoxygenase pathway, elevating biosynthesis of the anti-inflammatory lipid mediator Lipoxin A4. Ample preclinical evidence advocates LTA4H as attractive drug target for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.Areas coveredThis review covers details about the biochemistry of LTA4H and describes its role in regulating pro- and anti-inflammatory mediator generation. It summarizes recent efforts in medicinal chemistry toward novel LTA4H inhibitors, recent clinical trials testing LTA4H inhibitors in pulmonary inflammatory diseases, and potential reasons for the discontinuation of former development programs.Expert opinionGiven the prominent role of LTB4 in initiating and perpetuating inflammation, LTA4H remains an appealing drug target. The reason former attempts targeting this enzyme have not met with success in the clinic can be attributed to compound-specific liabilities of first-generation inhibitors and/or choice of target indications to test this mode of action. A new generation of highly potent and selective LTA4H inhibitors is currently undergoing clinical testing in indications with a strong link to LTB4 biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Till A Röhn
- Autoimmunity, Transplantation and Inflammation, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Shin Numao
- Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Heike Otto
- Autoimmunity, Transplantation and Inflammation, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Loesche
- Translational Medicine, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Gebhard Thoma
- Global Discovery Chemistry, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
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5
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Wawrzyniak P, Noureddine N, Wawrzyniak M, Lucchinetti E, Krämer SD, Rogler G, Zaugg M, Hersberger M. Nutritional Lipids and Mucosal Inflammation. Mol Nutr Food Res 2020; 65:e1901269. [PMID: 32780927 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201901269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by chronic relapsing inflammation in the intestine. Given their role in regulation of inflammation, long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) represent a potential supplementary therapeutic approach to current drug regimens used for IBD. Mechanistically, there is ample evidence for an anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution effect of long-chain n-3 PUFAs after they incorporate into cell membrane phospholipids. They disrupt membrane rafts and when released from the membrane suppress inflammatory signaling by activating PPAR-γ and free fatty acid receptor 4; furthermore, they shift the lipid mediator profile from pro-inflammatory eicosanoids to specialized pro-resolving mediators. The allocation of long-chain n-3 PUFAs also leads to a higher microbiome diversity in the gut, increases short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria, and improves intestinal barrier function by sealing epithelial tight junctions. In line with these mechanistic studies, most epidemiological studies support a beneficial effect of long-chain n-3 PUFAs intake on reducing the incidence of IBD. However, the results from intervention trials on the prevention of relapse in IBD patients show no or only a marginal effect of long-chain n-3 PUFAs supplementation. In light of the current literature, international recommendations are supported that adequate diet-derived n-3 PUFAs might be beneficial in maintaining remission in IBD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Wawrzyniak
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, 8032, Switzerland.,Children's Research Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, 8032, Switzerland
| | - Nazek Noureddine
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, 8032, Switzerland.,Children's Research Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, 8032, Switzerland.,Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland
| | - Marcin Wawrzyniak
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, 8091, Switzerland
| | - Eliana Lucchinetti
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Stefanie D Krämer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, 8093, Switzerland
| | - Gerhard Rogler
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital Zurich and University of Zurich, Zurich, 8091, Switzerland
| | - Michael Zaugg
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine and Cardiovascular Research Centre, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2R3, Canada.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Martin Hersberger
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, 8032, Switzerland.,Children's Research Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, 8032, Switzerland.,Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland
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6
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Aloe emodin shows high affinity to active site and low affinity to two other sites to result consummately reduced inhibition of lipoxygenase. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2020; 150:106453. [PMID: 32380176 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2020.106453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Lipoxygenases (LOXs) are potential treatment targets in a variety of inflammatory conditions. It is assumed that blocking the arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism via COX inhibition by either traditional NSAIDs or selective cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors could lead to the generation of pro-inflammatory leukotrienes and lipoxins via the LOX pathway, partly accounting for the side effects seen with traditional NSAIDs and selective COX-2 inhibitors. To counter this, several LOX, phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitors have been reported nowadays from natural sources. Cassia angustifolia (Vahl.) is a medicinal herb belonging to the family Leguminosae and their LOX inhibitory profiles are reported in this study. Results indicate that ethyl acetate extract of Cassia leaves could inhibit LOX. MS and IR data revealed the presence of aloe emodin (270.2 m/z) in the isolated fraction. Enzyme kinetics showed that aloe emodin inhibit Lipoxygenase competitively with an IC50 of 29.49 μM. Interaction of aloe emodin with LOX was also studied using fluorescence quenching method. ITC results indicate that the interaction of LOX with aloe emodin is endothermic in nature with a stoichiometry of n = 3. In conclusion, anti-inflammatory property of the plant could be assigned to the presence of aloe emodin.
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7
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Dileep KV, Remya C, Tintu I, Mandal PK, Karthe P, Haridas M, Sadasivan C. Crystal structure of phospholipase A 2 in complex with 1-naphthaleneacetic acid. IUBMB Life 2018; 70:995-1001. [PMID: 30120882 DOI: 10.1002/iub.1924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2018] [Revised: 05/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipase A2 (PLA2 ) is one of the rate limiting enzymes involved in the production of arachidonic acid, a potent inflammatory mediator. PLA2 is widely distributed all over the animal kingdom. It is also seen in inflammatory exudation and venoms of different organisms. The studies demonstrated that PLA2 inhibitors have broad spectrum activities that they can either be used against inflammation or envenomation. In this study, the inhibitory activity of 1-napthaleneacetic acid (NAA) against porcine pancreatic PLA2 has been explained through isothermal titration calorimetry and enzyme kinetics studies. The atomic level of interactions of NAA with PLA2 was also studied using X-ray crystallography. Apart from these findings, the theoretical binding affinities and mode of interactions of two naphthalene-based NSAIDs such as naproxen (NAP) and nabumetone (NAB) were studied through molecular modeling. The studies proved that the selected ligands are binding at the doorway of the active site cleft and hindering the substrate entry to the active site. The study brings out a potential scaffold for the designing of broad spectrum PLA2 inhibitors which can be used for inflammation or envenomation. © 2018 IUBMB Life, 70(10):995-1001, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalarickal V Dileep
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Kannur University, Kannur, Kerala, India
| | - Chandran Remya
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Kannur University, Kannur, Kerala, India
| | - Ignatius Tintu
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Kannur University, Kannur, Kerala, India
| | - Pradeep K Mandal
- Centre of Advanced Study in Crystallography and Biophysics, University of Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ponnuraj Karthe
- Centre of Advanced Study in Crystallography and Biophysics, University of Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Madathilkovilakathu Haridas
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Kannur University, Kannur, Kerala, India.,Inter University Centre for Bioscience, Kannur University, Kannur, Kerala, India
| | - Chittalakkottu Sadasivan
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Kannur University, Kannur, Kerala, India.,Inter University Centre for Bioscience, Kannur University, Kannur, Kerala, India
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8
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Abstract
Fever depends on a complex physiologic response to infectious agents and other conditions. To alleviate fever, many medicinal agents have been developed over a century of trying to improve upon aspirin, which was determined to work by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. We present the process of fever induction through prostaglandin synthesis and discuss the development of pharmaceuticals that target enzymes and receptors involved in prostaglandin-mediated signal transduction, including prostaglandin H2 synthase (also known as cyclooxygenase), phospholipase A2, microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase-1, EP receptors, and transient potential cation channel subfamily V member 1. Clinical use of established antipyretics will be discussed as well as medicinal agents under clinical trials and future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J Lee
- Biochemistry Department, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
| | - Daniel L Simmons
- Biochemistry Department, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States.
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9
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Calder PC, Bosco N, Bourdet-Sicard R, Capuron L, Delzenne N, Doré J, Franceschi C, Lehtinen MJ, Recker T, Salvioli S, Visioli F. Health relevance of the modification of low grade inflammation in ageing (inflammageing) and the role of nutrition. Ageing Res Rev 2017; 40:95-119. [PMID: 28899766 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Revised: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Ageing of the global population has become a public health concern with an important socio-economic dimension. Ageing is characterized by an increase in the concentration of inflammatory markers in the bloodstream, a phenomenon that has been termed "inflammageing". The inflammatory response is beneficial as an acute, transient reaction to harmful conditions, facilitating the defense, repair, turnover and adaptation of many tissues. However, chronic and low grade inflammation is likely to be detrimental for many tissues and for normal functions. We provide an overview of low grade inflammation (LGI) and determine the potential drivers and the effects of the "inflamed" phenotype observed in the elderly. We discuss the role of gut microbiota and immune system crosstalk and the gut-brain axis. Then, we focus on major health complications associated with LGI in the elderly, including mental health and wellbeing, metabolic abnormalities and infections. Finally, we discuss the possibility of manipulating LGI in the elderly by nutritional interventions. We provide an overview of the evidence that exists in the elderly for omega-3 fatty acid, probiotic, prebiotic, antioxidant and polyphenol interventions as a means to influence LGI. We conclude that slowing, controlling or reversing LGI is likely to be an important way to prevent, or reduce the severity of, age-related functional decline and the onset of conditions affecting health and well-being; that there is evidence to support specific dietary interventions as a strategy to control LGI; and that a continued research focus on this field is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip C Calder
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Nabil Bosco
- Nestlé Research Center Asia, 21 Biopolis Road, 138567, Singapore
| | | | - Lucile Capuron
- INRA, Nutrition and Integrative Neurobiology, 33076 Bordeaux, France; Nutrition and Integrative Neurobiology (NutriNeuro), UMR 1286, University of Bordeaux, 33076 Bordeaux, France
| | - Nathalie Delzenne
- Metabolism and Nutrition Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Catholic University of Louvain, B-1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Joel Doré
- MetaGénoPolis, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Claudio Franceschi
- IRCCS, Institute of Neurological Sciences of Bologna, Bologna 40124, Italy
| | - Markus J Lehtinen
- DuPont Nutrition and Health, Global Health and Nutrition Science, 02460 Kantvik, Finland
| | - Tobias Recker
- International Life Sciences Institute European Branch, 1200 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Stefano Salvioli
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic, and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesco Visioli
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35121 Padova, Italy; IMDEA-Food, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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10
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Abstract
Leukotrienes are proinflammatory lipid mediators that have been shown to be upregulated in several diseases, including asthma, aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), inflammatory bowel disease, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Leukotrienes have been explored as therapeutic targets for these diseases and others; however, leukotriene inhibitors have had limited success in the clinic. There are noted differences in the incidence of leukotriene-mediated diseases in males and females, but sex as a factor in the response to leukotriene inhibitors has not been fully explored. In this issue of the JCI, Pace and colleagues present evidence that there are sex-specific differences in the effectiveness of certain leukotriene inhibitors and link the differences in response to the presence of androgens. The results of this study indicate that sex needs to be taken into consideration in the future evaluation of leukotriene inhibitors to treat disease.
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11
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Novel HPTLC and UV-AUC analyses: For simple, economical, and rapid determination of Zileuton racemate. ARAB J CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2013.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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12
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Shirey KA, Lai W, Pletneva LM, Karp CL, Divanovic S, Blanco JCG, Vogel SN. Role of the lipoxygenase pathway in RSV-induced alternatively activated macrophages leading to resolution of lung pathology. Mucosal Immunol 2014; 7:549-57. [PMID: 24064666 PMCID: PMC3965659 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2013.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Resolution of severe Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)-induced bronchiolitis is mediated by alternatively activated macrophages (AA-Mφ) that counteract cyclooxygenase (COX)-2-induced lung pathology. Herein, we report that RSV infection of 5-lipoxygenase (LO)(-/-) and 15-LO(-/-) macrophages or mice failed to elicit AA-Mφ differentiation and concomitantly exhibited increased COX-2 expression. Further, RSV infection of 5-LO(-/-) mice resulted in enhanced lung pathology. Pharmacologic inhibition of 5-LO or 15-LO also blocked differentiation of RSV-induced AA-Mφ in vitro and, conversely, treatment of 5-LO(-/-) macrophages with downstream products, lipoxin A4 and resolvin E1, but not leukotriene B4 or leukotriene D4, partially restored expression of AA-Mφ markers. Indomethacin blockade of COX activity in RSV-infected macrophages increased 5-LO and 15-LO, as well as arginase-1 mRNA expression. Treatment of RSV-infected mice with indomethacin also resulted not only in enhanced lung arginase-1 mRNA expression and decreased COX-2, but also decreased lung pathology in RSV-infected 5-LO(-/-) mice. Treatment of RSV-infected cotton rats with a COX-2-specific inhibitor resulted in enhanced lung 5-LO mRNA and AA-Mφ marker expression. Together, these data suggest a novel therapeutic approach for RSV that promotes AA-Mφ differentiation by activating the 5-LO pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari Ann Shirey
- Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Wendy Lai
- Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Christopher L. Karp
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Senad Divanovic
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Research Foundation, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | | | - Stefanie N. Vogel
- Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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13
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Burnett BP, Levy RM. 5-Lipoxygenase metabolic contributions to NSAID-induced organ toxicity. Adv Ther 2012; 29:79-98. [PMID: 22351432 DOI: 10.1007/s12325-011-0100-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase (COX)-1, COX-2, and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) enzymes produce effectors of pain and inflammation in osteoarthritis (OA) and many other diseases. All three enzymes play a key role in the metabolism of arachidonic acid (AA) to inflammatory fatty acids, which contribute to the deterioration of cartilage. AA is derived from both phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) conversion of cell membrane phospholipids and dietary consumption of omega-6 fatty acids. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit the COX enzymes, but show no anti-5-LOX activity to prevent the formation of leukotrienes (LTs). Cysteinyl LTs, such as LTC(4), LTD(4), LTE(4), and leukoattractive LTB(4) accumulate in several organs of mammals in response to NSAID consumption. Elevated 5-LOX-mediated AA metabolism may contribute to the side-effect profile observed for NSAIDs in OA. Current therapeutics under development, so-called "dual inhibitors" of COX and 5-LOX, show improved side-effect profiles and may represent a new option in the management of OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce P Burnett
- Department of Medical Education and Scientific Affairs, Primus Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Scottsdale, Arizona, USA.
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14
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Aparoy P, Kumar Reddy K, Kalangi SK, Chandramohan Reddy T, Reddanna P. Pharmacophore modeling and virtual screening for designing potential 5-lipoxygenase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 20:1013-8. [PMID: 20045317 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.12.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2009] [Revised: 12/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/11/2009] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Inhibitors of the 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LOX) pathway have a therapeutic potential in a variety of inflammatory disorders such as asthma. In this study, chemical feature based pharmacophore models of inhibitors of 5-LOX have been developed with the aid of HipHop and HypoGen modules within Catalyst program package. The best quantitative pharmacophore model, Hypo1, which has the highest correlation coefficient (0.97), consists of two hydrogen-bond acceptors, one hydrophobic feature and one ring aromatic feature. Hypo1 was further validated by test set and cross validation method. The application of the model shows great success in predicting the activities of 65 known 5-LOX inhibitors in our test set with a correlation coefficient of 0.85 with a cross validation of 95% confidence level, proving that the model is reliable in identifying structurally diverse compounds for inhibitory activity against 5-LOX. Furthermore, Hypo1 was used as a 3D query for screening Maybridge and NCI databases within catalyst and also drug like compounds obtained from Enamine Ltd, which follow Lipinski's rule of five. The hit compounds were subsequently subjected to filtering by docking and visualization, to identify the potential lead molecules. Finally 5 potential lead compounds, identified in the above process, were evaluated for their inhibitory activities. These studies resulted in the identification of two compounds with potent inhibition of 5-LOX activity with IC(50) of 14 microM and 35 microM, respectively. These studies thus validate the pharmacophore model generated and suggest the usefulness of the model in screening of various small molecule libraries and identification of potential lead compounds for 5-LOX inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Aparoy
- School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500 046, India
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15
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Ahmad B, Shah SMH, Bashir S, Shah J. Enzyme inhibition activities of Andrachne cardifolia Muell. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2008; 22:235-8. [PMID: 17518351 DOI: 10.1080/14756360601051258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The crude methanolic extract and various fractions of Andrachne cardifolia Muell, including chloroform, ethyl acetate and n-butanol fractions were subjected to in vitro enzyme inhibition activity against acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, lipoxygenase and urease enzymes. A significant enzyme inhibition activity (40-89%) was shown by the crude methanolic extract and its fractions against lipoxygenase, while low to significant activity (40-71%) against butyrylcholinesterase. The crude methanolic extract and its various fractions demonstrated poor to significant activity (25-73%) against acetylcholinesterase and no activity against urease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bashir Ahmad
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan.
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16
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Whittle BJR, Varga C, Berko A, Horvath K, Posa A, Riley JP, Lundeen KA, Fourie AM, Dunford PJ. Attenuation of inflammation and cytokine production in rat colitis by a novel selective inhibitor of leukotriene A4 hydrolase. Br J Pharmacol 2007; 153:983-91. [PMID: 18157165 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4)), formed by the sequential actions of the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) and leukotriene A(4) hydrolase (LTA(4)H), is a pro-inflammatory mediator implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. However, inhibitors of 5-LO have not proved to be consistent in their therapeutic efficacy in colitis. Another approach to inhibiting LTB(4) synthesis is through the use of inhibitors of LTA(4)H, such as the novel, potent and selective compound, JNJ 26993135. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The effect of oral administration of JNJ 26993135 has been evaluated in a rat model of colitis provoked by colonic instillation of trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid (TNBS). The extent and severity of the macroscopic inflammatory response, the colonic levels of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and LTB(4) and of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were measured. KEY RESULTS Oral administration of JNJ 26993135 (5, 15 and 30 mg kg(-1), twice a day) dose-dependently reduced both the extent and intensity of the colonic inflammatory damage observed 3 days after TNBS challenge. JNJ 26993135 also dose-dependently reduced the elevated colonic levels of LTB(4), as well as the inflammatory biomarkers, MPO, IL-6 and TNF-alpha. This dosing regimen was supported by the pharmacokinetic profile of JNJ 26993135, along with the demonstration of the inhibition of ex vivo production of LTB(4) in whole blood following oral administration. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These results with JNJ 26993135 in the rat TNBS model support the role of LTB(4) in colitis and the potential value of targeting LTA(4)H for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- B J R Whittle
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London, Queen Mary's School of Medicine, Charterhouse Square, London, UK.
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17
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Jupp J, Hillier K, Elliott DH, Fine DR, Bateman AC, Johnson PA, Cazaly AM, Penrose JF, Sampson AP. Colonic expression of leukotriene-pathway enzymes in inflammatory bowel diseases. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2007; 13:537-46. [PMID: 17230539 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.20094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leukotrienes derived from the 5-lipoxygenase pathway are proinflammatory lipid mediators that possibly play a role in inflammatory bowel diseases. The expression of 5-lipoxygenase pathway proteins has not previously been examined in colonic mucosa in inflammatory bowel disease. RESULTS Quantitative immunohistochemical analyses showed that, compared to those of the control subjects (n = 9), colonic biopsies from patients with active inflammatory bowel disease (n = 17) had 3- to 7-fold higher mean counts of cells expressing 5-lipoxygenase (P = 0.03), 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein (P = 0.005), and the leukotriene A(4) hydrolase (P = 0.004), which make up the biosynthetic pathway of the potent neutrophil chemotaxin leukotriene B(4). Immunoexpression of the leukotriene C(4) synthase was unaltered (P > 0.2). The increased representation of leukotriene B(4)-pathway enzymes was associated with higher counts of neutrophils (P = 0.0001), macrophages (P = 0.03), eosinophils (P = 0.0004), CD8(+) T cells (P < 0.001), activated T cells (P < 0.05), and B cells (P < 0.05) but not of mast cells (P > 0.9). These eicosanoid and cellular changes were most marked in the subgroup of patients with ulcerative colitis (n = 9), and were absent in patients with quiescent disease (n = 6). The anomalies in the 5-lipoxygenase pathway were accompanied as expected by more cells immunostaining for cytokine-inducible COX-2 (P = 0.004, n = 17), but this study also revealed a greater number of cells expressing COX-1 in the samples from the patients in the ulcerative colitis subgroup (P = 0.03, n = 9). CONCLUSIONS The 5-lipoxygenase data provide a cellular basis for increased tissue synthesis of the leukotriene B(4), as reflected in the colonic mucosa and rectal dialysates of patients with active inflammatory bowel disease, which contributes to neutrophil influx and colonic injury. The COX-1/COX-2 data highlight the ambiguous functional role of prostanoid pathways in inflammatory bowel diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Jupp
- Division of Infection, Inflammation & Repair, University of Southampton School of Medicine, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, United Kingdom
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18
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Ballester I, Daddaoua A, López-Posadas R, Nieto A, Suárez MD, Zarzuelo A, Martínez-Augustin O, de Medina FS. The bisphosphonate alendronate improves the damage associated with trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid-induced colitis in rats. Br J Pharmacol 2007; 151:206-15. [PMID: 17375077 PMCID: PMC2013953 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The nitrogen-containing bisphosphonates are drugs used successfully in the treatment of osteoporosis. They act inhibiting farnesyl diphosphate synthase. This mechanism may also produce anti-inflammatory effects. The therapeutic activity of alendronate was tested in vivo using a model of inflammatory bowel disease. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid model of colitis in the rat was used. Rats were treated orally with alendronate and its efficacy compared with that of oral sulphasalazine or vehicle, starting 2 h after colitis induction. The status of the animals was assessed 5 days later. KEY RESULTS Alendronate treatment (25 or 75 mg kg(-1) day(-1)) resulted in a decrease in the colonic damage score and loss of body weight (at 25 mg kg(-1) day(-1) only). This was associated to a dramatic reduction in the mRNA levels of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 beta), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) and interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1 ra). The magnitude of the beneficial effect was comparable to that of sulphasalazine (at a 6-20 fold higher dose). Thus sulphasalazine post-treatment reduced the mRNA levels of IL-1 beta/IL-1 ra and MCP-1 to the same extent as alendronate and additionally lowered colonic alkaline phosphatase activity, but failed to affect body weight loss or colonic damage score. Alendronate failed to exert beneficial effects when administered intraperitoneally. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Oral but not intraperitoneal alendronate significantly protected the colon in experimental rat colitis. Inflammatory bowel disease patients might benefit from exposure to oral alendronate.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Ballester
- Department of Pharmacology, CIBEREHD, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada Granada, Spain
| | - A Daddaoua
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, CIBEREHD, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada Granada, Spain
| | - R López-Posadas
- Department of Pharmacology, CIBEREHD, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada Granada, Spain
| | - A Nieto
- Banco de Líneas Celulares de Andalucía, Hospital Virgen de las Nieves Granada, Spain
| | - M D Suárez
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, CIBEREHD, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada Granada, Spain
| | - A Zarzuelo
- Department of Pharmacology, CIBEREHD, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada Granada, Spain
| | - O Martínez-Augustin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, CIBEREHD, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada Granada, Spain
| | - F Sánchez de Medina
- Department of Pharmacology, CIBEREHD, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada Granada, Spain
- Author for correspondence:
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Anthoni C, Laukoetter MG, Rijcken E, Vowinkel T, Mennigen R, Müller S, Senninger N, Russell J, Jauch J, Bergmann J, Granger DN, Krieglstein CF. Mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory actions of boswellic acid derivatives in experimental colitis. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2006; 290:G1131-7. [PMID: 16423918 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00562.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Recent clinical trials of the gum resin of Boswellia serrata have shown promising results in patients with ulcerative colitis. The objective of this study was to determine whether a semisynthetic form of acetyl-11-keto-beta-boswellic acid (sAKBA), the most potent anti-inflammatory component of the resin, also confers protection in experimental murine colitis induced by dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) to compare its effects with those standard medications of ulcerative colitis like steroids and to examine whether leukocyte-endothelial cell adhesion is a major target of action of sAKBA. Clinical measurements of disease activity and histology were used to assess disease progression, and intravital microscopy was employed to monitor the adhesion of leukocytes and platelets in postcapillary venules of the inflamed colon. sAKBA treatment significantly blunted disease activity as assessed both grossly and by histology. Similarly, the recruitment of adherent leukocytes and platelets into inflamed colonic venules was profoundly reduced in mice treated with sAKBA. Because previous studies in the DSS model have shown that P-selectin mediates these blood cell-endothelial cell interactions, the expression of P-selectin in the colonic microcirculation was monitored using the dual-radiolabeled antibody technique. The treatment of established colitis with sAKBA largely prevented the P-selectin upregulation normally associated with DSS colitis. All of the protective responses observed with sAKBA were comparable to that realized in mice treated with a corticosteroid. Our findings demonstrated an anti-inflammatory effect of sAKBA and indicated that P-selectin-mediated recruitment of inflammatory cells is a major site of action for this novel anti-inflammatory agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Anthoni
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, 71130, USA
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20
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Funk CD. Leukotriene modifiers as potential therapeutics for cardiovascular disease. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2005; 4:664-72. [PMID: 16041318 DOI: 10.1038/nrd1796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 254] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Owing to their anti-inflammatory properties, leukotriene modifiers have been the primary therapeutics in asthma management for several years. Although blocking the inflammatory component of human disease is a long-standing and established concept, the use of leukotriene modifiers in treating the inflammatory component of cardiovascular disease encompassing atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, stroke and aortic aneurysm has, surprisingly, only been seriously contemplated in the past few years. As reviewed here, several exciting studies have recently contributed to this expanding area of interest, and so far one leukotriene modifier has entered Phase II clinical trials to assess its potential for reducing the risk of heart attacks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin D Funk
- Department of Biochemistry, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada.
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22
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Bell RL, Harris RR. The enzymology and pharmacology of 5-lipoxygenase and 5-lipoxygenase activating protein. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 1999; 17:91-109. [PMID: 10436861 DOI: 10.1007/bf02737599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R L Bell
- Abbott Laboratories, Immunoscience Research Area, Abbott Park, IL 60064, USA
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23
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Zarif A, Eiznhamer D, Callaghan C, Doria MI, Broutman L, Keshavarzian A. The effect of a selective 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor, zileuton, on tissue damage in acute colonic inflammation in rats. Inflammation 1996; 20:217-27. [PMID: 8796377 DOI: 10.1007/bf01488200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Though the mechanism of tissue damage induced by colonic inflammation in ulcerative colitis is unknown, it has been established that the inflammatory mediator and potent neutrophil (PMN) chemotaxin, leukotriene B4(LTB4), is present in elevated amounts in the inflamed mucosa. The unique role of 5-lipoxygenase in the production of leukotrienes has made it a target for inhibition. This study used a rat model of acute colonic inflammation induced by a single IP injection of Mitomycin-C to test the efficacy of a specific and potent 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor zileuton in the treatment of colonic inflammation. We hypothesized that after inducing colitis in rats with mitomycin-C, the administration of oral zileuton would inhibit leukotriene production, thus preventing PMN infiltration and subsequent tissue damage. Zileuton decreased colonic tissue damage as measured by Histological score. However, zileuton did not significantly decrease neutrophil infiltration measured by mucosal PMN or myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels. Although zileuton was successful in significantly decreasing the frequency of severe colitis in our model, the fact that the decrease in PMN count and MPO level was not statistically significant suggests that another mechanism may be involved in its anti-inflammatory effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Zarif
- Department of Medicine, Loyola University School of Medicine, Maywood, Illinois, USA
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Abstract
The choice of medical therapies for Crohn's disease continues to grow. Although our understanding of the mechanisms of the disease is incomplete, increasing knowledge of the pathogenesis of inflammation in general and Crohn's disease in particular allows targeting of therapies at various points in the immunoinflammatory cascade. In addition, the division of Crohn's disease into subtypes by location, aggressiveness, and the presence or absence of perianal and fistulizing disease allows the tailoring of medical therapy to the individual patient. For those patients with moderate to severe symptoms or frequent flares of disease activity, and those who have required surgical resection, maintenance therapy can substantially reduce the rate of recurrence. Despite these advances, available medical therapies for Crohn's disease remain imperfect, as evidenced by their sometimes substantial toxicities and the continued frequent need for surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Elton
- Section of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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