Psychological correlates of teenage motherhood

Experiencing loneliness in parenthood: a scoping review

AIMS

Chronic loneliness is experienced by around a third of parents, but there is no comprehensive review into how, why and which parents experience loneliness. This scoping review aimed to provide insight into what is already known about parental loneliness and give directions for further applied and methodological research.

METHODS

Searches for peer-reviewed articles were undertaken in six databases: PsycINFO, Medline, CINAHL, Embase, Web of Science and Scopus, during May 2019 to February 2020. We searched for English studies which examined loneliness experienced during parenthood, including studies that involved parents with children under 16 years and living at home and excluding studies on pregnancy, childbirth or postbirth hospital care.

RESULTS

From 2566 studies retrieved, 133 were included for analysis. Most studies (n = 80) examined the experience of loneliness in specific groups of parents, for example, teenage parents, parents of a disabled child. Other studies examined theoretical issues (n = 6) or health and wellbeing impacts on parents (n = 16) and their offspring (n = 17). There were 14 intervention studies with parents that measured loneliness as an outcome. Insights indicate that parental loneliness may be different to loneliness experienced in other cohorts. There is evidence that parental loneliness has direct and intergenerational impacts on parent and child mental health. Some parents (e.g. with children with chronic illness or disability, immigrant or ethnic minority parents) also appear to be at increased risk of loneliness although evidence is not conclusive.

CONCLUSION

This work has identified key gaps with further international, comparative and conceptual research needed.

Pregnant and Parenting Adolescents

This study comlpared pregnant adolescents intending to relinquish their infants, pregnant adolescents intending to parent, and parenting adolescents on measures of coping and psychosocial adjustment. Comparisons were also made either to a group ofnonpregnant adolescents or to norms. Pregnant adolescents intending to relinquish their infants showed better overall levels of self-image than pregnant adolescents intending to parent, and parenting adolescents. Parenting adolescents showed significantly more disruption in specific areas of psychosocial adjustment than pregnant adolescents intending to parent. These differences were discussed as target areas for intervention. The parenting experience also affected the types of coping strategies used by adolescents. Both groups, pregnant adolescents and nonpregnant adolescents, were more likely to use less active coping strategies than parenting adolescents. A negative relationship found between these less active forms of coping and psychosocial adjustment underscored the importance of targeting individual differences in adolescents' responses to the stressors of pregnancy and parenthood.

The Significance of Social Context: The Case of Adolescent Childbearing in the African American Community

The incidence of adolescent childbearing is significantly higher among African Americans compared to Whites, whereas the rates of early childbirth have declined more rapidlyforAfricanAmericans over the past two decades. Although traditional measures of socioeconomic status do not account for the difference in adolescent childbirth rates by race, there are important reasons to question the external validity of these conventional variables. After summarizing differences in teen childbearing by race, this article addresses the problems inherent in a comparative approach to understanding race differences. More meaningful measures of socioeconomic status that provide a richer account of the social context of adolescents at risk of early childbearing are outlined. The social context approach might help inform literature on the role of family factors in adolescent childbearing, and some recent exanples of such an approach are provided. The resiliency shown by African American adolescents living within socially disadvantaged communities is also discussed. Finally, a brief excursion into how attention to the social context of teen childbearing might inform public policy is undertaken.

“Can't You See The Courage, The Strength That I Have?”: Listening to Urban Adolescent Girls Speak about Their Relationships

This study explored, qualitatively, the ways in which 12 urban, poor and working-class adolescent girls spoke about themselves, their relationships, and their school over a 3 year period. The ability to be outspoken or to “speak one's mind” in relationships was identified as the most prevalent theme in their interviews. Ten of the 12 adolescent girls indicated that they were able to speak openly and honestly in many of their relationships. These outspoken voices were focused not only on expressing anger and disagreement in relationships, but also on voicing care and connection. Seven of the adolescents indicated, however, that while they were outspoken in their relationships with parents, teachers, and female friends, they were not willing to “speak their minds” in their relationships with boys. These findings raise critical questions regarding the psychology of girls and women.

Effects of Adolescent Childbearing on Maternal Depression and Problem Behaviors: A Prospective, Population-Based Study Using Risk-Set Propensity Scores

Adolescent mothers are reportedly at risk for depression and problem behaviors in the postpartum period, but studies have rarely considered developmental context and have yet to disentangle the effects of childbearing on adolescent functioning from selection effects that are associated with early pregnancy. The current study examined changes in adolescent depression, conduct problems and substance use (alcohol, tobacco and marijuana) across the peripartum period using risk-set propensity scores derived from a population-based, prospective study that began in childhood (the Pittsburgh Girls Study, PGS). Each of 147 childbearing adolescents (ages 12–19) was matched with two same-age, non-childbearing adolescents (n = 294) on pregnancy propensity using 15 time-varying risk variables derived from sociodemographic, psychopathology, substance use, family, peer and neighborhood domains assessed in the PGS wave prior to each pregnancy (T1). Postpartum depression and problem behaviors were assessed within the first 6 months following delivery (T2); data gathered from the non-childbearing adolescent controls spanned the same interval. Within the childbearing group, conduct problems and marijuana use reduced from T1 to T2, but depression severity and frequency of alcohol or tobacco use showed no change. When change was compared across the matched groups, conduct problems showed a greater reduction among childbearing adolescents. Relative to non-childbearing adolescents who reported more frequent substance use with time, childbearing adolescents reported no change in alcohol use and less frequent use of marijuana across the peripartum period. There were no group differences in patterns of change for depression severity and tobacco use. The results do not support the notion that adolescent childbearing represents a period of heightened risk for depression or problem behaviors.

Parenting Stress, Social Support, and Depression for Ethnic Minority Adolescent Mothers: Impact on Child Development

Rates of teenage pregnancies are higher for African American and Latina adolescents compared to their White peers. African American and Latina adolescent mothers also experience more adversities than their White peers, such as higher rates of depression, school dropout, and economic disadvantage. Furthermore, children of adolescent mothers are at higher risk for adverse development. Parenting stress and social support can impact outcomes experienced by adolescent parents and their children. The present study examined the influence of adolescent mothers' parenting stress and perceived social support on maternal depression at baseline (six months after birth), and its impact on infant development one year later (18 months after birth). Participants were 180 adolescent mothers of African American or Latino/Hispanic descent. Results suggest that higher levels of parenting stress and less perceived social support were associated with higher levels of depression in the adolescent mothers at baseline. Higher levels of maternal depression were also associated with more developmental delays in infants one year post-baseline. Additionally, depression mediated the relationship between parenting stress and later child outcomes. These findings highlight the importance of examining parenting factors such as parenting stress, social support, and maternal depression in ethnic minority adolescent parents, and provide valuable information regarding unique risk and protective factors associated with positive maternal outcomes for ethnic minority adolescent parents and healthy development for their children.

The growth of maternal-fetal emotional attachment in pregnant adolescents: a prospective cohort study

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To describe self-reported maternal-fetal emotional attachment in adolescent women over the course of pregnancy, compare it with adult pregnant women, and identify risk factors for poor attachment.

DESIGN

A prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Young mothers' clinics in 2 public hospitals in metropolitan Melbourne, Australia.

PARTICIPANTS

English-speaking young women aged 20 years and under attending their first antenatal visit.

METHODS

Self-report questionnaires were completed in each trimester. Validated measures were used to assess anxiety and depression symptoms and maternal-fetal emotional attachment. Data were analyzed with existing data from pregnant adults. Regression analyses were conducted to establish factors independently associated with higher mean first-trimester attachment score and lowest-quartile third trimester score adjusting for confounding variables.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Maternal-fetal emotional attachment, assessed by the Quality and Intensity subscales and Global score on Maternal Antenatal Attachment Scale (MAAS).

RESULTS

165/194 (85%) completed the first questionnaire; 130/165 (79%) provided complete data. Mean anxiety but not depression scores were significantly higher in adolescents than adults across pregnancy. Mean (95%CI) first-trimester adolescent Global MAAS was significantly lower than adults (70.3 (68.4, 72.2) vs 76.8 (75.4, 78.2) P < .01), but there were no significant second- or third-trimester between-group differences. Adjusted odds of a lowest-quartile third-trimester MAAS score was significantly associated with lower first-trimester score (P < .001), previous abortion (P = .02) and being born overseas (P = .002).

CONCLUSION

Adolescents report slower development of antenatal emotional attachment than adults. Women with risk factors for poor attachment in late pregnancy are identifiable in early pregnancy and may benefit from additional multidisciplinary care.

Parental Timing and Depressive Symptoms in Early Adulthood

Using data from a panel of 459 women, we find that early parents (< 20 years old at first birth) report higher levels of depressive symptoms in young adulthood (roughly age 29) compared to later parents (first birth in their 20's) or nonparents. Early parenting is also associated with more stressors and fewer resources in young adulthood. As young adults, early parents have lower educational attainment, less secure employment and a weaker sense of personal control; they also experience greater financial strain and more traumatic life events than later and nonparents. By the end of their twenties, early parents are also more likely to be single compared to late parents. The higher levels of depressive symptoms reported among early parents, compared to both later parents and nonparents, are primarily explained by their greater financial strain and lower sense of personal control.

Renewal and Risk: The Dual Experience of Young Motherhood and Aging Out of the Child Welfare System

This interpretive study examines how childhood history and the personal experience of being mothered impact the meaning attributed to motherhood among young mothers aging out of the child welfare system. Through the use of an interpretive approach, findings are derived from interviews with 15 females who reported an experience of pregnancy or parenting at the time of the interview. In the midst of the strain and challenge of motherhood, these young women report that motherhood has the potential to provide opportunities relevant to their own identity as well as to healing from their pasts. Findings aim to inform ways of understanding and responding to the unique and dual experience of mothering and aging out of the child welfare system.

Depressive symptoms in black and Puerto Rican adolescent mothers in the first 3 years postpartum

While depressive symptoms in adolescent mothers may affect both their own and their babies' development, little research has focused on the mothers. Self-reported symptoms on the Beck Depression Inventory were collected at 1, 6, 12, and 28–36 months postpartum. Concurrent and reciprocal longitudinal relations among symptom levels, stressful life events, and social supports were investigated. Symptom levels declined over the four assessments, with changes in somatic, rather than cognitive affective, symptoms accounting for the decrease. Stressful life events and all sources of social supports predicted concurrent levels of depressive symptoms, but only social supports predicted declines in symptoms in the first year postpartum. Reciprocally, depressive symptoms tended (p = .06) to predict increases in stressful life events over time. Mothers were also categorized as reporting few (50%), intermittent (27.5%), or chronic (22.5%) symptoms in the first 12 months postpartum. Intermittently and chronically depressed mothers perceived their own mothers as less accepting than nondepressed mothers. Compared to nondepressed and intermittently depressed mothers, chronically depressed mothers also reported more stressful life events, were more likely to live alone, and experienced more moves by 28–36 months postpartum. The reciprocal causal relations among depressive symptoms, stress, and attachments to grandmothers and peers are discussed.

Quality of life and family functioning in children with nonsyndromic orofacial clefts at preschool ages

Children with orofacial clefts (OFC) at preschool ages may have to tolerate psychosocial disadvantages due to their altered speech and facial appearance probably affecting their quality of life (QoL) and family functioning. In 147 children with OFC aged between 5 and 6 years and their families, the QoL and family functioning were analyzed using the KINDL questionnaire for measuring health-related QoL in children and impact on family scale. The KINDL scores were lowest in the dimension self-esteem. In all dimensions, the KINDL scores of children were higher than those of the parents suggesting a superior QoL than the caregivers estimated (P<0.001). In affected families, the impact on family scale dimensions personal impact and impact on coping strategies were found highest. Families having children with isolated cleft lip or cleft lip and palate had higher impacts on coping strategies when compared with children having isolated cleft palate (P<0.041). The impact for siblings (P<0.02) was found highest in patients with cleft lip and palate. In all examined dimensions, children with OFC perceived a higher QoL than their caregivers expected. However, self-esteem seems to be problematic in all types of OFC and in both genders. Knowledge of potential impacts related to the type of cleft and the gender of the patient will probably facilitate health care professionals to identify children and families at high risk to experience a reduced QoL and may help to offer specific support and treatment strategies.

Depression during pregnancy and the postpartum period in adolescent and adult Portuguese mothers

OBJECTIVE

To study prevalence as well as risk factors for pregnancy and postpartum depression in a sample of adolescent and adult Portuguese mothers.

METHODS

The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was administered to 108 (54 adult and 54 adolescent) Portuguese women at 24-36 weeks of pregnancy and at 2-3 months postpartum.

RESULTS

Rates for EPDS > 12 are high during the 3(rd) trimester of pregnancy (18.5%) and at 2-3 months postpartum (17.6%), and not significantly different between these two periods; more than 1/4 of the sample (27.8%) had an EPDS > 12 before or after delivery. Adolescent mothers presented more depressive symptoms as well as more EPDS > 12 than adult mothers, both in pregnancy (25.9% versus 11.1%) and at 2-3 months postpartum (25.9% versus 9.3%); moreover, when considering other socio-demographics, adolescent mothers were still at risk for depressive symptoms during pregnancy as well as for postpartum depression. Women depressed in pregnancy, and ones who are under 18 years old and who live with the partner, were at risk for postpartum EPDS > 12.

CONCLUSION

Adolescent mothers seem particularly at risk for depression during pregnancy and the postpartum period, therefore, just like the women who are depressed during pregnancy, they should be better targeted in preventive and intervention measures.

Social support in pregnant and parenting adolescents: research, critique, and recommendations

ISSUE AND PURPOSE: Adolescent pregnancies continue to occur at an alarming rate in the United States, resulting in adverse outcomes for both the adolescent and her baby. Since social support has been shown to improve pregnancy and parenting outcomes, a critique of research in this area is presented.

SOURCES

Published literature.

CONCLUSIONS

Multisite research studies, which are longitudinal in design, are needed, with particular attention paid to variations in the need for social support by stage of adolescence.

Postabortion psychological adjustment: are minors at increased risk?

PURPOSE

To assess whether younger adolescents experience greater adverse psychological outcomes after abortion than those aged 18-21 years, whether abortion places all adolescents at risk for negative sequelae, and what factors predict negative outcomes.

METHODS

A total of 96 young women aged 14-21 years seeking counseling for unwanted pregnancies at four clinics completed questionnaires after counseling. These included the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), an emotion scale, questions regarding sociodemographic and reproductive background, feelings about pregnancy, and decision-making. Sixty-three respondents were reinterviewed 4 weeks postabortion and completed the BDI, emotion scale, Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory, Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, Impact of Events Scale, and Positive States of Mind Scale. Chi-squares and Student's t-tests were used to compare: (a) responses of adolescents under 18 years of age with those 18-21 years, (b) preabortion and postabortion responses, and (c) the current sample with other samples of adolescents.

RESULTS

Adolescents under age 18 years were less comfortable with their decision, but showed no other differences compared with those aged 18-21 years. Both groups showed significant improvement in psychological responses postabortion. Postabortion scores did not differ significantly from those of other adolescent samples reported in the literature. Preabortion emotional state and perception of partner pressure predicted postabortion response.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite its legal significance, age 18 years was not a meaningful cutoff point for psychological response to abortion in this sample. There was no evidence that abortion poses a threat to adolescents' psychological well-being.

A comparison of young women's psychosocial status based on age of their first childbirth

This 12-year longitudinal study examined the psychological status; social relationships; and home, work, and parenting stress and satisfaction in their young adulthood for a sample of rural women who were teen mothers compared to their cohort who had their first child in their twenties. Differences in depression, loneliness, and self-esteem were explained by prior psychological status as teens. Home stress/satisfaction factors and parenting satisfaction and efficacy were also similar after controlling for number of children. Service providers need to understand psychosocial outcomes of first childbirth in order to more effectively meet the physical and mental health needs of all young mothers.

Responses of seventh grade students to "do you have a partner with whom you would like to have a baby?"

This study investigated differences in demographic data, self-esteem, and coping skills for 225 students in Grade 7 who reported having a partner with whom they wanted to have a baby and 946 students who did not. Data were collected on the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, the Family Crisis-oriented Personal Evaluation Scale, and questions related to attitudes towards teen pregnancy and demographic data. The sample included 548 (46.8%) boys and 624 (53.2%) girls whose mean age was 13.2 yr. Students with a partner had significantly lower scores on the curriculum questions, self-esteem, and family coping skills, combined with higher scores in passivity. They indicated a desire to have a greater number of children, beginning by having their first child at a younger age and believed that having a baby improves a couple's relationship. Possible approaches may include effective teaching methods to overcome passivity through boosting self-confidence, goal-setting, and acquiring a purpose in life besides parenting a child.

Adolescent pregnancy and loneliness

The number of adolescent pregnancies in the United States has reached epidemic proportions. Loneliness and adolescent sexuality, however, have not been previously studied. This descriptive study investigated the relationships of characterological and situational loneliness in childbearing adolescents. Related variables of shyness, self-esteem, perceived maternal and paternal expressiveness, and social support also were studied. The data were collected at multiple sites in Northern California using a convenience sample of adolescents ranging in age from 12 to 21 years: early (n = 11), middle (n = 22), and late (n = 24). Results of the analysis of variance and the Tukey-HSD indicated situational variables were more significant than characterological variables in understanding loneliness in early and middle adolescence. The characterological variables were not statistically significant. Using Pearson's correlation coefficient, significant relationships were found among and between variables. The findings suggest parental relationships were powerful in influencing the existence of loneliness as well as self-esteem, shyness, and social support.

The complexity of support: the impact of family structure and provisional support on African American and white adolescent mothers' well-being

The importance of social support to the well-being of adolescent parents is a frequently discussed topic in the teen parenting literature. However, the meaning and conceptualization of social support varies across study and the heterogeneity within the teen parent population is often overlooked. In an effort to understand its role more precisely, the present study defined support both in terms of its structural and provision components, and examined the association of these components with both perceived psychological and behavioral measures of maternal well-being for a sample of white and African American teen mothers. Specifically, the relative contribution of household structure and provisional social support to the well-being of a sample of 107 African American and 146 white teen mothers was measured respectively. Results indicate great variability in the structural and provisional support adolescent mothers receive, regardless of race. Independent of other effects, provisional supports are more strongly associated with maternal well-being than is family structure. Further, the impact of these different types of support varies by race.

Cultural specificity of support sources, correlates and contexts: three studies of African-American and caucasian youth

Levels and correlates of parental support, peer support, partner support, and/or spiritual support among African American and Caucasian youth were examined in three contexts: adolescent pregnancy (Study 1), first year of college (Study 2), and adolescence and young adulthood (age 15-29; Study 3). Partially consistent with a cultural specificity perspective, in different contexts different support sources were higher in level and/or more strongly related to adjustment for one ethnic group than the other. Among pregnant adolescents, levels of spiritual support were higher for African Americans than Caucasians; additionally, peer support was positively related to well-being only for African Americans whereas partner support was positively related to well-being only for Caucasians. Among college freshmen, family support was more strongly related to institutional and goal commitment for African Americans than Caucasians; conversely, peer support was more strongly related to institutional and goal commitment among Caucasians. Among 15 to 29-year-olds, levels of parental support and spiritual support were higher among African Americans than Caucasians; additionally, spiritual support was positively related to self-esteem for African Americans but not for Caucasians. Implications and limitations of the research are discussed.

Factors that influence the mother-infant dyad relationships and infant well-being

This article presents a theoretical model derived by synthesizing research findings relevant to maternal perceived support, maternal attachment, infant well-being, and infant attachment. The model, depicting possible predictors that facilitate positive mother-infant relations as well as outcomes of the dyadic relationship, may be used to plan interventions to promote healthy mother-infant relationships. Implications for nursing practice are described.

Prevalence and correlates of psychopathology in pregnant adolescents

PURPOSE

To investigate the prevalence and correlates of psychopathology, as measured by the Youth Self-Report Scale, in pregnant adolescents so that interventions during pregnancy may be tailored to treat the psychopathology and thereby improve maternal and child outcomes.

METHODS

Scores on seven psychologic syndromes (withdrawn, delinquent, aggressive behaviors; anxiety/depression; and social, thought, and attention problems) were compared for groups of pregnant adolescents (n = 185), never pregnant teenagers (n = 126), and previously published normative samples of clinically referred (n = 518) and nonreferred (n = 518) female adolescents using chi-square, Student's t-tests, analysis of covariance, or multiple logistic regression. Correlates of psychopathology were identified for the pregnant sample using odds ratios and 95% confidence limits.

RESULTS

Pregnant adolescents exhibited less serious or lower rates of psychopathology than groups against which they were compared. Correlates of psychopathology included substance use during pregnancy, prior assault, maternal childbirth before age 18 years, ethnicity, > or = 3 sexual partners, and absence of a relationship with the baby's father.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the prevalence of psychopathology was lower among pregnant patients, those who exhibit psychopathology are likely to engage in risky health behaviors that contribute to poor perinatal outcome.

Adolescent mothers: what factors relate to level of preventive health care sought for their infants?

This exploratory study investigated the level of preventive health care services that adolescent mothers (ages 14 to 17) sought for their infants during the first 2 years of the infants' lives. Findings showed that mothers who maintained a relationship with their child's father or exhibited a high Powerful Others Locus of Control were more likely to practice better preventive health care. The role that social support and locus of control play in mediating parental stress is discussed. Implications for nurses working with adolescent mothers are presented.

Mental health of adolescent mothers

OBJECTIVE

To propose an assessment and intervention model for adolescent mothers that evaluates the influence of physical, cognitive, affective, and interpersonal development on such areas of psychological dysfunction as unprotected sexual activity, substance abuse, and psychopathology.

METHOD

More than 100 studies were reviewed to identify correlations between discrete developmental events and evidence of psychological dysfunction in adolescent mothers.

RESULTS

The adolescent's nascent developmental skill in one domain of functioning (e.g., cognitive) frequently exerts a synergistic effect on other areas of functioning (e.g., affective). This synergy increases the likelihood of psychological dysfunction. In turn, psychological dysfunction affects the emerging relationship between the adolescent mother and her infant.

CONCLUSION

The interaction between the nascent developmental status of the adolescent caregiver and her psychosocial environment enhances the probability of a maladaptive exchange between mother and infant. A model designed to overcome the adolescent's developmental limitations and promote adaptive interaction with the infant may avert dyadic interpersonal failure.

The role of family support in determining developmental outcomes in children of teen mothers

Children from teen parent families are impaired developmentally compared to children of older mothers. Family support has frequently been proposed as a mediator of the stress that teen parents experience as a result of teen parenthood. This longitudinal study investigates the role of family support factors and maternal characteristics in relation to child outcomes (6-7 year old children) in teen parent families. Two models outlining the role of partner and grandmother family support are proposed to explain the process by which child development occurs within the family contexts of teen families. Implications of the results for intervention are discussed.

Enhancing the adolescent reproductive process: efforts to implement a program for black adolescent fathers

The importance of adolescent fathers participating more fully in pregnancy and childrearing has been emphasized increasingly in the literature. This article describes the development and evaluation of childbearing clinical services designed for adolescent fathers. This multidisciplinary effort used an action research model that integrates empirical research into ongoing programs, continuously monitoring progress. It is comprised of five elements: population description, determination of clients' health needs, assessment and development of resources, evaluation of program services, and monitoring of outcomes. Although the study was not designed exclusively for black adolescents, 95% of the individuals who participated were black. The cultural composition of the study population suggests and impact on the findings. Suggestions are made for future program efforts with adolescent parents.

Differentiation of girls at risk of early pregnancy from the general population of adolescents

The purpose of this study was to examine two psychological characteristics (locus of control and purpose in life) that have been associated with early pregnancy. The characteristics were examined first in samples drawn from a general population of adolescents and then in samples of ever-pregnant and never-pregnant adolescents. Ever-pregnant girls differed neither from the general population of adolescents nor from the matched sample of never-pregnant girls on the two psychological dimensions. Alternatives for conceptualizing risk are proposed.

Adolescent mothers, stress, and prevention

Adolescent mothers face problems that can lead to psychological stress. Based on prospective data from the present study, these problems point toward the need for a coping skills prevention approach to help adolescent mothers manage stress. This paper reports data from outcome research on such an approach with adolescent mothers. Subjects were 79 adolescent mothers who were tested before, immediately after, and three months following the provision of coping skills intervention in an experimental condition. Subjects in a test-only control condition received no special intervention. At posttest, experimental condition subjects showed more positive outcomes on measures of social support, cognitive performance, conflict management, and interpersonal competence. At three-month follow-up, experimental condition subjects had more positive outcomes on social support, cognitive performance, parenting ability, child care self-efficacy, and measures of psychological well-being.

The effect of marital status at first birth on marital dissolution among adolescent mothers

The effect of the sequencing of marriage and first birth on marital dissolution among adolescent mothers is investigated. We compare three groups who had a first live birth before age 20: those married before becoming pregnant, those married between conception and birth, and those who did not marry before the birth. The analysis demonstrates that teenage mothers are less likely to experience a separation if they marry before rather than after the birth. Among those marrying before the birth, there is little difference between those who marry before or after becoming pregnant. The effects of marital status at first birth are shown to vary by race, marital duration, and historical time.