The art of war: Innate and adaptive immune responses

Immunoglobulin class-switch recombination: Mechanism, regulation, and related diseases

Maturation of the secondary antibody repertoire requires class-switch recombination (CSR), which switches IgM to other immunoglobulins (Igs), and somatic hypermutation, which promotes the production of high-affinity antibodies. Following immune response or infection within the body, activation of T cell-dependent and T cell-independent antigens triggers the activation of activation-induced cytidine deaminase, initiating the CSR process. CSR has the capacity to modify the functional properties of antibodies, thereby contributing to the adaptive immune response in the organism. Ig CSR defects, characterized by an abnormal relative frequency of Ig isotypes, represent a rare form of primary immunodeficiency. Elucidating the molecular basis of Ig diversification is essential for a better understanding of diseases related to Ig CSR defects and could provide clues for clinical diagnosis and therapeutic approaches. Here, we review the most recent insights on the diversification of five Ig isotypes and choose several classic diseases, including hyper-IgM syndrome, Waldenström macroglobulinemia, hyper-IgD syndrome, selective IgA deficiency, hyper-IgE syndrome, multiple myeloma, and Burkitt lymphoma, to illustrate the mechanism of Ig CSR deficiency. The investigation into the underlying mechanism of Ig CSR holds significant potential for the advancement of increasingly precise diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Medullary Thyroid Cancer: Molecular Drivers and Immune Cellular Milieu of the Tumour Microenvironment-Implications for Systemic Treatment

In this review, we explore the underlying molecular biology of medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) and its interplay with the host immune system. MTC is consistently driven by a small number of specific pathogenic variants, beyond which few additional genetic events are required for tumorigenesis. This explains the exceedingly low tumour mutational burden seen in most MTC, in contrast to other cancers. However, because of the low tumour mutational burden (TMB), there is a correspondingly low level of tumour-associated neoantigens that are presented to the host immune system. This reduces tumour visibility and vigour of the anti-tumour immune response and suggests the efficacy of immunotherapy in MTC is likely to be poor, acknowledging this inference is largely based on the extrapolation of data from other tumour types. The dominance of specific RET (REarranged during Transfection) pathogenic variants in MTC tumorigenesis rationalizes the observed efficacy of the targeted RET-specific tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in comparison to multi-kinase inhibitors (MKIs). Therapeutic durability of pathway inhibitors is an ongoing research focus. It may be limited by the selection pressure TKI treatment creates, promoting survival of resistant tumour cell clones that can escape pathway inhibition through binding-site mutations, activation of alternate pathways, and modulation of the cellular and cytokine milieu of the tumour microenvironment (TME).

Rab GTPases, Active Members in Antigen-Presenting Cells, and T Lymphocytes

Processes such as cell migration, phagocytosis, endocytosis, and exocytosis refer to the intense exchange of information between the internal and external environment in the cells, known as vesicular trafficking. In eukaryotic cells, these essential cellular crosstalks are controlled by Rab GTPases proteins through diverse adaptor proteins like SNAREs complex, coat proteins, phospholipids, kinases, phosphatases, molecular motors, actin, or tubulin cytoskeleton, among others, all necessary for appropriate mobilization of vesicles and distribution of molecules. Considering these molecular events, Rab GTPases are critical components in specific biological processes of immune cells, and many reports refer primarily to macrophages; therefore, in this review, we address specific functions in immune cells, concretely in the mechanism by which the GTPase contributes in dendritic cells (DCs) and, T/B lymphocytes.

Genetic and epigenetic dysregulation of innate immune mechanisms in autoinflammatory diseases

Dysregulation and hyperactivation of innate immune responses can lead to the onset of systemic autoinflammatory diseases. Monogenic autoinflammatory diseases are caused by inborn genetic errors and based on molecular mechanisms at play, can be divided into inflammasomopathies, interferonopathies, relopathies, protein misfolding, and endogenous antagonist deficiencies. On the other hand, more common autoinflammatory diseases are multifactorial, with both genetic and non-genetic factors playing an important role. During the last decade, long-term memory characteristics of innate immune responses have been described (also called trained immunity) that in physiological conditions provide enhanced host protection from pathogenic re-infection. However, if dysregulated, induction of trained immunity can become maladaptive, perpetuating chronic inflammatory activation. Here, we describe the mechanisms of genetic and epigenetic dysregulation of the innate immune system and maladaptive trained immunity that leads to the onset and perpetuation of the most common and recently described systemic autoinflammatory diseases.

The clinical features and potential mechanisms of cognitive disorders in peripheral autoimmune and inflammatory diseases

According to a study from World Health Organization's Global Burden of Disease, mental and neurological disorders have accounted for 13% of global diseases in recent years and are on the rise. Neuropsychiatric conditions or neuroinflammatory disorders are linked by the presence of an exaggerated immune response both peripherally and in the central nervous system (CNS). Cognitive dysfunction (CD) encompasses a complex group of diseases and has frequently been described in the field of autoimmune diseases, especially in multiple non-CNS-related autoimmune diseases. Recent studies have provided various hypotheses regarding the occurrence of cognitive impairment in autoimmune diseases, including that abnormally activated immune cells can disrupt the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to trigger a central neuroinflammatory response. When the BBB is intact, autoantibodies and pro-inflammatory molecules in peripheral circulation can enter the brain to activate microglia, inducing CNS inflammation and CD. However, the mechanisms explaining the association between the immune system and neural function and their contribution to diseases are uncertain. In this review, we used clinical statistics to illustrate the correlation between CD and autoimmune diseases that do not directly affect the CNS, summarized the clinical features and mechanisms by which autoimmune diseases trigger cognitive impairment, and explored existing knowledge regarding the link between CD and autoimmune diseases from the perspective of the field of neuroimmunology.

Climate warming has divergent physiological impacts on sympatric lizards

Climate warming is expected to affect the vulnerability of sympatric species differentially due to their divergent traits, but the underlying physiological mechanisms of those impacts are poorly understood. We conducted field warming experiments (present climate vs. warm climate) using open-top chambers to determine the effects of climate warming on active body temperature, oxidative damage, immune competence, growth and survival in two sympatric desert-dwelling lizards, Eremias multiocellata and Eremias argus from May 2019 to September 2020. Our climate warming treatment did not affect survival of the two species, but it did increase active body temperatures and growth rate in E. multiocellata compared to E. argus. Climate warming also induced greater oxidative damage (higher malondialdehyde content and catalase activity) in E. multiocellata, but not in E. argus. Further, climate warming increased immune competence in E. multiocellata, but decreased immune competence in E. argus, with regards to white blood cell counts, bacteria killing ability and relative expression of immunoglobulin M. Our results suggest that climate warming enhances body temperature, and thereby oxidative stress, immune competence and growth in E. multiocellata, but decreases immune competence of E. argus, perhaps as a cost of thermoregulation to maintain body temperatures under climate warming. The divergent physiological effects of climate warming on sympatric species may have profound ecological consequences if it eventually leads to changes in reproductive activities, population dynamics and community structure. Our study highlights the importance of considering interspecific differences in physiological traits when we evaluate the impact of climate warming on organisms, even for those closely-related species coexisting within the same geographical area.

Critical review of the phytohemagglutinin assay for assessing amphibian immunity

Infectious diseases are a major driver of the global amphibian decline. In addition, many factors, including genetics, stress, pollution, and climate change can influence the response to pathogens. Therefore, it is important to be able to evaluate amphibian immunity in the laboratory and in the field. The phytohemagglutinin (PHA) assay is an inexpensive and relatively non-invasive tool that has been used extensively to assess immunocompetence, especially in birds, and more recently in amphibians. However, there is substantial variation in experimental methodology among amphibian PHA studies in terms of species and life stages, PHA doses and injection sites, and use of experimental controls. Here, we compile and compare all known PHA studies in amphibians to identify knowledge gaps and develop best practices for future work. We found that research has only been conducted on a limited number of species, which may not reflect the diversity of amphibians. There is also a lack of validation studies in most species, so that doses and timing of PHA injection and subsequent swelling measurements may not effectively evaluate immunocompetence. Based on these and other findings, we put forward a set of recommendations to make future PHA studies more consistent and improve the ability to utilize this assay in wild populations, where immune surveillance is greatly needed.

Phytochemicals as Immunomodulatory Molecules in Cancer Therapeutics

Phytochemicals are natural plant-derived products that provide significant nutrition, essential biomolecules, and flavor as part of our diet. They have long been known to confer protection against several diseases via their anti-inflammatory, immune-regulatory, anti-microbial, and several other properties. Deciphering the role of phytochemicals in the prevention, inhibition, and treatment of cancer-unrestrained cell proliferation due to the loss of tight regulation on cell growth and replication-has been the focus of recent research. Particularly, the immunomodulatory role of phytochemicals, which is pivotal in unchecked cell proliferation and metastasis, has recently been studied extensively. The immune system is a critical component of the tumor microenvironment, and it plays essential roles in both preventing and promoting oncogenesis. Immunomodulation includes stimulation, amplification, or inactivation of some stage(s) of the immune response. Phytochemicals and their products have demonstrated immune regulation, such as macrophage migration, nitric oxide synthase inhibition, lymphocyte, T-cell, and cytokine stimulation, natural killer cell augmentation, and NFκB, TNF, and apoptosis regulation. There is a dearth of extensive accounts of the immunomodulatory effects of phytochemicals in cancer; thus, we have compiled these effects with mechanistic aspects of dietary phytochemicals in cancer, highlighting promising candidates and ongoing clinical trials on immunotherapeutic strategies to mitigate oncogenesis.

Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogel Microcapsules Harnessing the COVID-19 Immune Response for Cancer Therapeutics

The combination of gene therapy and immunotherapy concepts, along recent advances in DNA nanotechnology, have the potential to provide important tools for cancer therapies. We present the development of stimuli-responsive microcapsules, loaded with a viral immunogenetic agent, harnessing the immune response against the Coronavirus Disease 2019, COVID-19, to selectively attack liver cancer cells (hepatoma) or recognize breast cancer or hepatoma, by expression of green fluorescence protein, GFP. The pH-responsive microcapsules, modified with DNA-tetrahedra nanostructures, increased hepatoma permeation by 50 %. Incorporation of a GFP-encoding lentivirus vector inside the tumor-targeting pH-stimulated miRNA-triggered and Alpha-fetoprotein-dictated microcapsules enables the demonstration of neoplasm selectivity, with approximately 5,000-, 8,000- and 50,000-fold more expression in the cancerous cells, respectively. The incorporation of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in the gene vector promotes specific recognition of the immune-evading hepatoma by the COVID-19-analogous immune response, which leads to cytotoxic and inflammatory activity, mediated by serum components taken from vaccinated or recovered COVID-19 patients, resulting in effective elimination of the hepatoma (>85 % yield).

Exploring the anti-inflammatory activity of sulforaphane

Dysregulation of innate immune responses can result in chronic inflammatory conditions. Glucocorticoids, the current frontline therapy, are effective immunosuppressive drugs but come with a trade-off of cumulative and serious side effects. Therefore, alternative drug options with improved safety profiles are urgently needed. Sulforaphane, a phytochemical derived from plants of the brassica family, is a potent inducer of phase II detoxification enzymes via nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) signaling. Moreover, a growing body of evidence suggests additional diverse anti-inflammatory properties of sulforaphane through interactions with mediators of key signaling pathways and inflammatory cytokines. Multiple studies support a role for sulforaphane as a negative regulator of nuclear factor kappa-light chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) activation and subsequent cytokine release, inflammasome activation and direct regulation of the activity of macrophage migration inhibitory factor. Significantly, studies have also highlighted potential steroid-sparing activity for sulforaphane, suggesting that it may have potential as an adjunctive therapy for some inflammatory conditions. This review discusses published research on sulforaphane, including proposed mechanisms of action, and poses questions for future studies that might help progress our understanding of the potential clinical applications of this intriguing molecule.

Assessing the role of T cells in response to retinal injury to uncover new therapeutic targets for the treatment of retinal degeneration

BACKGROUND

Retinal degeneration is a disease affecting the eye, which is an immune-privileged site because of its anatomical and physiological properties. Alterations in retinal homeostasis-because of injury, disease, or aging-initiate inflammatory cascades, where peripheral leukocytes (PL) infiltrate the parenchyma, leading to retinal degeneration. So far, research on PL's role in retinal degeneration was limited to observing a few cell types at specific times or sectioning the tissue. This restricted our understanding of immune cell interactions and response duration.

METHODS

In vivo microscopy in preclinical mouse models can overcome these limitations enabling the spatio-temporal characterization of PL dynamics. Through in vivo imaging, we assessed structural and fluorescence changes in response to a focal injury at a defined location over time. We also utilized minimally invasive techniques, pharmacological interventions, and knockout (KO) mice to determine the role of PL in local inflammation. Furthermore, we investigated PL abundance and localization during retinal degeneration in human eyes by histological analysis to assess to which extent our preclinical study translates to human retinal degeneration.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that PL, especially T cells, play a detrimental role during retinal injury response. In mice, we observed the recruitment of helper and cytotoxic T cells in the parenchyma post-injury, and T cells also resided in the macula and peripheral retina in pathological conditions in humans. Additionally, we found that the pharmacological PL reduction and genetic depletion of T-cells reduced injured areas in murine retinas and rescued the blood-retina barrier (BRB) integrity. Both conditions promoted morphological changes of Cx3cr1+ cells, including microglial cells, toward an amoeboid phenotype during injury response. Interestingly, selective depletion of CD8+ T cells accelerated recovery of the BRB compared to broader depletions. After anti-CD8 treatment, the retinal function improved, concomitant to a beneficial immune response.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data provide novel insights into the adaptive immune response to retinal injury in mice and human retinal degeneration. Such information is fundamental to understanding retinal disorders and developing therapeutics to modulate immune responses to retinal degeneration safely.

The nutrition and immunity (nutrIMM) study: protocol for a non-randomized, four-arm parallel-group, controlled feeding trial investigating immune function in obesity and type 2 diabetes

Introduction

Individuals with obesity and/or type 2 diabetes are at higher risk of infection and have worse prognoses compared to healthy individuals. Several factors may influence immune responses in this population, including high adiposity, hyperglycemia, and unhealthy dietary habits. However, there is insufficient data on the independent or clustered contribution of these factors to obesity-related immune dysfunction, especially accounting for dietary intake. This study aims to establish the independent contribution of obesity and hyperglycemia to immune dysfunction independent of diet in adults with and without obesity with or without type 2 diabetes.

Methods

The Nutrition and Immunity (nutrIMM) study is a single-centre, non-randomized, four-arm, parallel-group, controlled feeding trial. It will enroll adults without obesity (Lean-NG) and with obesity and three metabolic phenotypes of normoglycemia, glucose intolerance, and type 2 diabetes. Participants will be assigned to one of four groups and will consume a standard North American-type diet for 4 weeks. The primary outcomes are plasma concentration of C-reactive protein and concentration of ex-vivo interleukin-2 secreted upon stimulation of T cells with phytohemagglutinin.

Discussion

This will be the first controlled feeding study examining the contribution of obesity, hyperglycemia, and diet on systemic inflammation, immune cell phenotype, and function in adults of both sexes. Results of this clinical trial can ultimately be used to develop personalized dietary strategies to optimize immune function in individuals with obesity with different immune and metabolic profiles.

Clinical trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT04291391.

The ratio of adaptive to innate immune cells differs between genders and associates with improved prognosis and response to immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has revolutionised cancer treatment. However, not all cancer patients benefit, and current stratification strategies based primarily on PD1 status and mutation burden are far from perfect. We hypothesised that high activation of an innate response relative to the adaptive response may prevent proper tumour neoantigen identification and decrease the specific anticancer response, both in the presence and absence of immunotherapy. To investigate this, we obtained transcriptomic data from three large publicly available cancer datasets, the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), the Hartwig Medical Foundation (HMF), and a recently published cohort of metastatic bladder cancer patients treated with immunotherapy. To analyse immune infiltration into bulk tumours, we developed an RNAseq-based model based on previously published definitions to estimate the overall level of infiltrating innate and adaptive immune cells from bulk tumour RNAseq data. From these, the adaptive-to-innate immune ratio (A/I ratio) was defined. A meta-analysis of 32 cancer types from TCGA overall showed improved overall survival in patients with an A/I ratio above median (Hazard ratio (HR) females 0.73, HR males 0.86, P < 0.05). Of particular interest, we found that the association was different for males and females for eight cancer types, demonstrating a gender bias in the relative balance of the infiltration of innate and adaptive immune cells. For patients with metastatic disease, we found that responders to immunotherapy had a significantly higher A/I ratio than non-responders in HMF (P = 0.036) and a significantly higher ratio in complete responders in a separate metastatic bladder cancer dataset (P = 0.022). Overall, the adaptive-to-innate immune ratio seems to define separate states of immune activation, likely linked to fundamental immunological reactions to cancer. This ratio was associated with improved prognosis and improved response to immunotherapy, demonstrating potential relevance to patient stratification. Furthermore, by demonstrating a significant difference between males and females that associates with response, we highlight an important gender bias which likely has direct clinical relevance.

Phenotypic characteristics of peripheral immune cells of Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome via transmission electron microscopy: A pilot study

Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is a complex chronic multi-systemic disease characterized by extreme fatigue that is not improved by rest, and worsens after exertion, whether physical or mental. Previous studies have shown ME/CFS-associated alterations in the immune system and mitochondria. We used transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to investigate the morphology and ultrastructure of unstimulated and stimulated ME/CFS immune cells and their intracellular organelles, including mitochondria. PBMCs from four participants were studied: a pair of identical twins discordant for moderate ME/CFS, as well as two age- and gender- matched unrelated subjects-one with an extremely severe form of ME/CFS and the other healthy. TEM analysis of CD3/CD28-stimulated T cells suggested a significant increase in the levels of apoptotic and necrotic cell death in T cells from ME/CFS patients (over 2-fold). Stimulated Tcells of ME/CFS patients also had higher numbers of swollen mitochondria. We also found a large increase in intracellular giant lipid droplet-like organelles in the stimulated PBMCs from the extremely severe ME/CFS patient potentially indicative of a lipid storage disorder. Lastly, we observed a slight increase in platelet aggregation in stimulated cells, suggestive of a possible role of platelet activity in ME/CFS pathophysiology and disease severity. These results indicate extensive morphological alterations in the cellular and mitochondrial phenotypes of ME/CFS patients' immune cells and suggest new insights into ME/CFS biology.

Effects of early-life cecal microbiota transplantation from divergently selected inbred chicken lines on growth, gut serotonin, and immune parameters in recipient chickens

Recent studies have revealed that fecal microbiota transplantation exerts beneficial effects on modulating stress-related inflammation and gastrointestinal health of the host. The aim of this study was to examine if cecal microbiota transplantation (CMT) presents similar efficiency in improving the health status of egg-laying strain chickens. Chicken lines 6₃ and 7₂ divergently selected for resistance or susceptibility to Marek's disease were used as CMT donors. Eighty-four d-old male recipient chicks (a commercial DeKalb XL layer strain) were randomly assigned into 3 treatments with 7 replicates per treatment and 4 birds per replicate (n = 7): saline (control, CTRL), cecal solution of line 6₃ (6₃-CMT), and cecal solution of line 7₂ (7₂-CMT) for a 16-wk trial. Cecal transplant gavage was conducted once daily from d 1 to d 10, then boosted once weekly from wk 3 to wk 5. The results indicated that 7₂-CMT birds had the highest body weight and ileal villus/crypt ratio among the treatments at wk 5 (P ≤ 0.05); and higher heterophil/lymphocyte ratios than that of 6₃-CMT birds at wk 16 (P < 0.05). 7₂-CMT birds also had higher levels of plasma natural IgG and Interleukin (IL)-6 at wk 16, while 6₃-CMT birds had higher concentrations of ileal mucosal secretory IgA at wk 5 and plasma IL-10 at wk 16 (P < 0.05), with a tendency for lower mRNA abundance of splenic IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α at wk 16 (P = 0.08 and 0.07, respectively). In addition, 7₂-CMT birds tended to have the lowest serotonin concentrations (P = 0.07) with the highest serotonin turnover in the ileum at wk 5 (P < 0.05). There were no treatment effects on the levels of plasma corticosterone and testosterone at wk 16 (P > 0.05). In conclusion, early postnatal CMT from different donors led to different patterns of growth and health status through the regulation of ileal morphological structures, gut-derived serotonergic activities, peripheral cytokines, and antibody production in recipient chickens.

The Forgotten Brother: The Innate-like B1 Cell in Multiple Sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS), traditionally considered a chronic autoimmune attack against the insulating myelin sheaths around axons. However, the exact etiology has not been identified and is likely multi-factorial. Recently, evidence has been accumulating that implies that autoimmune processes underlying MS may, in fact, be triggered by pathological processes initiated within the CNS. This review focuses on a relatively unexplored immune cell-the "innate-like" B1 lymphocyte. The B1 cell is a primary-natural-antibody- and anti-inflammatory-cytokine-producing cell present in the healthy brain. It has been recently shown that its frequency and function may differ between MS patients and healthy controls, but its exact involvement in the MS pathogenic process remains obscure. In this review, we propose that this enigmatic cell may play a more prominent role in MS pathology than ever imagined. We aim to shed light on the human B1 cell in health and disease, and how dysregulation in its delicate homeostatic role could impact MS. Furthermore, novel therapeutic avenues to restore B1 cells' beneficial functions will be proposed.

Cyclodextrins as Anti-inflammatory Agents: Basis, Drugs and Perspectives

Inflammation is a biological response of the immune system to harmful stimuli. Importantly, inflammation is also a hallmark of several human diseases such as cancer or diabetes. Novel drugs to treat this response are constantly researched, but the formulation is usually forgotten. Cyclodextrins (CDs) are a well-known excipient for complexing and drug delivery. Anti-inflammatory drugs and bioactive compounds with similar activities have been favored from these CD processes. CDs also illustrate anti-inflammatory activity per se. This review tried to describe the capacities of CDs in this field, and is divided into two parts: Firstly, a short description of the inflammation disease (causes, symptoms, treatment) is explained; secondly, the effects of different CDs alone or forming inclusion complexes with drugs or bioactive compounds are discussed.

An Update on the Pathogenic Role of Macrophages in Adult-Onset Still's Disease and Its Implication in Clinical Manifestations and Novel Therapeutics

Increasing evidence indicates a pivotal role of macrophages in innate immunity, which contributes to the pathogenesis of adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD). Despite the available reviews that summarized the pathogenic role of proinflammatory cytokines in AOSD, a systematic approach focusing on the crucial role of macrophages in this disease is still lacking. This review summarizes the updated functions of macrophages in AOSD and their implication in clinical manifestations and therapeutics. We searched the MEDLINE database using the PubMed interface and reviewed the English-language literature as of 31 March 2021, from 1971 to 2021. We focus on the existing evidence on the pathogenic role of macrophages in AOSD and its implication in clinical characteristics and novel therapeutics. AOSD is an autoinflammatory disease mainly driven by the innate immune response. Among the innate immune responses, macrophage activation is a hallmark of AOSD pathogenesis. The pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) on macrophages recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns and damage-associated molecular patterns and subsequently cause overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines and recruit adaptive immunity. Some biomarkers, such as ferritin and gasdermin D, reflecting macrophage activation were elevated and correlated with AOSD activity. Given that macrophage activation with the overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines plays a pathogenic role in AOSD, these inflammatory mediators would be the therapeutic targets. Accordingly, the inhibitors to interleukin- (IL-) 1, IL-6, and IL-18 have been shown to be effective in AOSD treatment. Gaining insights into the pathogenic role of macrophages in AOSD can aid in identifying disease biomarkers and therapeutic agents for this disease.

Anhedonia and Increased Evoked Immune Response

There is a growing body of evidence supporting the association between immune processes and psychopathology, including major depressive disorder (MDD). However, lack of diagnostic specificity has given rise to a search for specific symptom types, as opposed to more heterogeneous categorical diagnoses, linked to increased inflammation. One such symptom could be anhedonia, which is not only a key feature of MDD, but also a pervasive and persistent transdiagnostic symptom. To evaluate the specific role of anhedonia as well as categorical MDD diagnoses, we examined endotoxin-evoked immune responses in vitro in relation to current levels of anhedonia and history of recurrent MDD (rMDD) in a sample of adults recruited from the community. A total of 39 participants either had a history of rMDD (n ​= ​20) or no lifetime history of any MDD episodes (n ​= ​19). The average age of participants was 36.81 years and the majority were women (87.2%) and Caucasian (76.3%). We found that higher levels of current anhedonia, but not history of rMDD, were associated with increased lipopolysaccharide-stimulated levels of inflammatory markers even after we statistically adjusted for the potential influence of participants’ demographic (age, sex, ethnicity, income) and physiological (body temperature, BMI) characteristics, current symptoms of depression and anxiety, and the time of day of the sample collection. These findings highlight the relation of anhedonia specifically, rather than rMDD more generally, with inflammatory processes and identify endotoxin-stimulated cytokine production as a plausible biological marker of current anhedonia.

Deimmunization of protein therapeutics - Recent advances in experimental and computational epitope prediction and deletion

Biotherapeutics, and antimicrobial proteins in particular, are of increasing interest for human medicine. An important challenge in the development of such therapeutics is their potential immunogenicity, which can induce production of anti-drug-antibodies, resulting in altered pharmacokinetics, reduced efficacy, and potentially severe anaphylactic or hypersensitivity reactions. For this reason, the development and application of effective deimmunization methods for protein drugs is of utmost importance. Deimmunization may be achieved by unspecific shielding approaches, which include PEGylation, fusion to polypeptides (e.g., XTEN or PAS), reductive methylation, glycosylation, and polysialylation. Alternatively, the identification of epitopes for T cells or B cells and their subsequent deletion through site-directed mutagenesis represent promising deimmunization strategies and can be accomplished through either experimental or computational approaches. This review highlights the most recent advances and current challenges in the deimmunization of protein therapeutics, with a special focus on computational epitope prediction and deletion tools.

Hydrogen peroxide in neutrophil inflammation: Lesson from the zebrafish

The zebrafish has become an excellent model for the study of inflammation and immunity. Its unique advantages for in vivo imaging and gene and drug screening have allowed the visualization of dual oxidase 1 (Duox1)-derived hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) tissue gradients and its crosstalk with neutrophil infiltration to inflamed tissue. Thus, it has been shown that H₂O₂ directly recruits neutrophils via the Src-family tyrosine kinase Lyn and indirectly by the activation of several signaling pathways involved in inflammation, such as nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), mitogen activated kinases and the transcription factor AP1. In addition, this model has also unmasked the unexpected ability of H₂O₂ to induce the expression of the gene encoding the key neutrophil chemoattractant CXC chemokine ligand 8 by facilitating the accessibility of transcription factors to its promoter through histone covalent modifications. Finally, zebrafish models of psoriasis have shown that a H₂O₂/NF-κB/Duox1 positive feedback inflammatory loop operates in this chronic inflammatory disorder and that pharmacological inhibition of Duox1, but not of downstream mediators, inhibits inflammation and restores epithelial homeostasis. Therefore, these results have pointed out DUOX1 and H₂O₂ as therapeutic targets for the treatment of skin inflammatory disorders, such as psoriasis.

Beyond defense: regulation of neuronal morphogenesis and brain functions via Toll-like receptors

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are well known as critical pattern recognition receptors that trigger innate immune responses. In addition, TLRs are expressed in neurons and may act as the gears in the neuronal detection/alarm system for making good connections. As neuronal differentiation and circuit formation take place along with programmed cell death, neurons face the challenge of connecting with appropriate targets while avoiding dying or dead neurons. Activation of neuronal TLR3, TLR7 and TLR8 with nucleic acids negatively modulates neurite outgrowth and alters synapse formation in a cell-autonomous manner. It consequently influences neural connectivity and brain function and leads to deficits related to neuropsychiatric disorders. Importantly, neuronal TLR activation does not simply duplicate the downstream signal pathways and effectors of classical innate immune responses. The differences in spatial and temporal expression of TLRs and their ligands likely account for the diverse signaling pathways of neuronal TLRs. In conclusion, the accumulated evidence strengthens the idea that the innate immune system of neurons serves as an alarm system that responds to exogenous pathogens as well as intrinsic danger signals and fine-tune developmental processes of neurons.

The innate immune perspective of autoimmune and autoinflammatory conditions

Innate immunity is one of two immune defence system arms. It is present at birth and does not require 'learning' through exposure to foreign organisms. It activates various mechanisms collectively to eliminate pathogens and hold an infection until the adaptive response are mounted. The innate immune system consists of four elements: the epithelial barrier, cells (e.g. macrophages, NK cells), plasma proteins (e.g. complement) and cytokines. These components act in concert to induce complex processes, as well as recruitment, activation and differentiation of adaptive responses. The innate response is more than just the 'first line of defence', as it essentially withholds the vast majority of any intruder, has a complex interplay with the adaptive arm and is crucial for survival of the host. Finally, yet importantly, a myriad of diseases has been linked with innate immune dysregulation. In this mini-review we will shed some light on these conditions, particularly regarding autoinflammatory ones.

Prevention of Adult Colitis by Oral Ferric Iron in Juvenile Mice Is Associated with the Inhibition of the Tbet Promoter Hypomethylation and Gene Overexpression

Iron is an essential nutrient needed for physiological functions, particularly during the developmental period of the early childhood of at-risk populations. The purpose of this study was to investigate, in an experimental colitis, the consequences of daily oral iron ingestion in the early period on the inflammatory response, the spleen T helper (Th) profiles and the associated molecular mechanisms. Juvenile mice orally received microencapsulated ferric iron or water for 6 weeks. On adult mice, we induced a sham or experimental trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) moderate colitis during the last week of the experiment before sacrificing the animals 7 days later. The severity of the gut inflammation was assessed by macroscopic damage scores (MDS) and the myeloperoxidase activity (MPO). Th profiles were evaluated by the examination of the splenic gene expression of key transcription factors of the Th differentiation (Tbet, Gata3, Foxp3 and RORγ) and the methylation of their respective promoter. While TNBS-induced colitis was associated with a change of the Th profile (notably an increase in the Tbet/Gata3 ratio in the spleen), the colitis-inhibition induced by ferric iron was associated with a limitation of the splenic Th profiles perturbation. The inhibition of the splenic Tbet gene overexpression was associated with an inhibition of promoter hypomethylation. In summary, mice treated by long-term oral ferric iron in the early period of life exhibited an inhibition of colitis associated with the inhibition of the splenic Tbet promoter hypomethylation and gene overexpression.

Molecular identification and expression analysis of four Lysin motif (LysM) domain-containing proteins from turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)

Lysin motif (LysM) is involved in chitin, peptidoglycan and other structurally-related oligosaccharides recognition and binding, and it is important for the biological processes of responsing to bacterial and viral infections and pathogen defense. LysM is also a widely spread protein, ranging from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, including bacteria, plants and mammals. However, research of LysM in teleosts especially in marine fish was rarely scarce. In the present study, four novel LysM domain-containing proteins in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), named as SmLysMd1, SmLysMd2, SmLysMd3, and SmLysMd4, were cloned and identified firstly. The full-length cDNA of SmLysMd1 was 1235 bp with a 678 bp ORF, capable of encoding a peptide of 225 amino acids. The complete cDNA sequence of SmLysMd2 was 1273 bp, and contained a 675 bp ORF, encoding a predicted protein of 224 amino acids. The full-length of SmLysMd3 cDNA was 2132 bp, containing a ORF of 987 bp, with a ORF of encoding 328 amino acids. The full-length SmLysMd4 cDNA was 1115 bp contained a 888 bp ORF, encoding 295 amino acids. And all the four predicated proteins contained a specific LYSM domain. Moreover, SmLysMd1 and SmLysMd2 belong to the intracellular non-secretory types, and SmLysMd3 and SmLysMd4 belong to the anchored transmembrane types. In addition, the four SmLysMd were ubiquitously expressed in all the examined tissues. Moreover, the SmLysMds levels were up-regulated in muscle and liver, and had a reduce tendency immediately in different degree following Vibrio vulnificus challenge, indicating that the turbot LysM could be participant in the immune responses to bacterial infections. The present result of LysM in turbot for the first time in a marine fish will provide foundation knowledge for the functions studies of LysM in immune responses. Further studies should be carried out to better understand their immune mechanism in turbot and other teleosts.

Molecular identification and function analysis of bactericidal permeability-increasing protein/LPS-binding protein 1 (BPI/LBP1) from turbot (Scophthalmus maximus)

Bactericidal permeability-increasing protein (BPI) and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) play important roles in host antimicrobial defense. In the present study, we identified one isoform of BPI/LBP gene from turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), designated as SmBPI/LBP1. The full-length cDNA sequence of SmBPI/LBP1 was 1826 bp, which encoding one secreted protein with 480 amino acid residues. Structurally, the SmBPI/LBP1 showed high similarity to its homologs from other vertebrates or invertebrates, which all contained a signal peptide, a BPI/LBP/CETP N-terminal with a LPS-binding domain, and a BPI/LBP/CETP C-terminal domain. The deduced amino acid sequences of SmBPI/LBP1 shared significant similarity to BPI/LBP of Seriola lalandi dorsalis (71%) and Paralichthys olivaceus (69%). Phylogentic analysis further supported that SmBPI/LBP1 act as a new member of vertebrate BPI/LBP family. SmBPI/LBP1 was ubiquitously expressed in all tested tissues, with the highest expression level in spleen tissue. The mRNA expression of SmBPI/LBP1 in spleen and kidney were significantly up-regulated after Vibrio vulnificus challenge. Finally, the recombinant SmBPI/LBP1 showed high affinity to lipopolysaccharide, followed by peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid, which is the ubiquitous component of Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria. These results indicated that SmBPI/LBP1 probably played important roles in immune response against bacteria infection.

Sensitivity of CD3/CD28-stimulated versus non-stimulated lymphocytes to ionizing radiation and genotoxic anticancer drugs: key role of ATM in the differential radiation response

Activation of T cells, a major fraction of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLCS), is essential for the immune response. Genotoxic stress resulting from ionizing radiation (IR) and chemical agents, including anticancer drugs, has serious impact on T cells and, therefore, on the immune status. Here we compared the sensitivity of non-stimulated (non-proliferating) vs. CD3/CD28-stimulated (proliferating) PBLC to IR. PBLCs were highly sensitive to IR and, surprisingly, stimulation to proliferation resulted in resistance to IR. Radioprotection following CD3/CD28 activation was observed in different T-cell subsets, whereas stimulated CD34+ progenitor cells did not become resistant to IR. Following stimulation, PBLCs showed no significant differences in the repair of IR-induced DNA damage compared with unstimulated cells. Interestingly, ATM is expressed at high level in resting PBLCs and CD3/CD28 stimulation leads to transcriptional downregulation and reduced ATM phosphorylation following IR, indicating ATM to be key regulator of the high radiosensitivity of resting PBLCs. In line with this, pharmacological inhibition of ATM caused radioresistance of unstimulated, but not stimulated, PBLCs. Radioprotection was also achieved by inhibition of MRE11 and CHK1/CHK2, supporting the notion that downregulation of the MRN-ATM-CHK pathway following CD3/CD28 activation results in radioprotection of proliferating PBLCs. Interestingly, the crosslinking anticancer drug mafosfamide induced, like IR, more death in unstimulated than in stimulated PBLCs. In contrast, the bacterial toxin CDT, damaging DNA through inherent DNase activity, and the DNA methylating anticancer drug temozolomide induced more death in CD3/CD28-stimulated than in unstimulated PBLCs. Thus, the sensitivity of stimulated vs. non-stimulated lymphocytes to genotoxins strongly depends on the kind of DNA damage induced. This is the first study in which the killing response of non-proliferating vs. proliferating T cells was comparatively determined. The data provide insights on how immunotherapeutic strategies resting on T-cell activation can be impacted by differential cytotoxic effects resulting from radiation and chemotherapy.

Immune Ecosystem of Virus-Infected Host Tissues

Virus infected host cells serve as a central immune ecological niche during viral infection and replication and stimulate the host immune response via molecular signaling. The viral infection and multiplication process involves complex intracellular molecular interactions between viral components and the host factors. Various types of host cells are also involved to modulate immune factors in delicate and dynamic equilibrium to maintain a balanced immune ecosystem in an infected host tissue. Antiviral host arsenals are equipped to combat or eliminate viral invasion. However, viruses have evolved with strategies to counter against antiviral immunity or hijack cellular machinery to survive inside host tissue for their multiplication. However, host immune systems have also evolved to neutralize the infection; which, in turn, either clears the virus from the infected host or causes immune-mediated host tissue injury. A complex relationship between viral pathogenesis and host antiviral defense could define the immune ecosystem of virus-infected host tissues. Understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying this ecosystem would uncover strategies to modulate host immune function for antiviral therapeutics. This review presents past and present updates of immune-ecological components of virus infected host tissue and explains how viruses subvert the host immune surveillances.

STING dependent sensing - Does HIV actually care?

Sensing of DNA is essential for the innate immune system to detect threats, like viruses, intracellular bacteria or cellular DNA damage. At the centre of this conserved mammalian mechanism stands the adaptor protein STING. STING is highly regulated and is part of a complex signalling network. This network depends on the sensors cGAS and IFI16 to detect misplaced DNA in the cytoplasm as well as on the kinase TBK1 and the transcription factor IRF3. The DNA sensing machinery has been implicated in many diseases, among others HIV. Here we present a comprehensive review of current status on the STING pathway with all its components and regulations related to HIV pathogenesis. By this, we try to answer the question if STING-mediated DNA sensing plays a role in HIV infections.

Immuno-thermal ablations - boosting the anticancer immune response

The use of immunomodulation to treat malignancies has seen a recent explosion in interest. The therapeutic appeal of these treatments is far reaching, and many new applications continue to evolve. In particular, immune modulating drugs have the potential to enhance the systemic anticancer immune effects induced by locoregional thermal ablation. The immune responses induced by ablation monotherapy are well documented, but independently they tend to be incapable of evoking a robust antitumor response. By adding immunomodulators to traditional ablative techniques, several researchers have sought to amplify the induced immune response and trigger systemic antitumor activity. This paper summarizes the work done in animal models to investigate the immune effects induced by the combination of ablative therapy and immunomodulation. Combination therapy with radiofrequency ablation, cryoablation, and microwave ablation are all reviewed, and special attention has been paid to the addition of checkpoint blockades.

Pleiotropic effects of oxidized phospholipids

Oxidized phospholipids (OxPLs) are increasingly recognized to play a role in a variety of normal and pathological states. OxPLs were implicated in regulation of inflammation, thrombosis, angiogenesis, endothelial barrier function, immune tolerance and other important processes. Rapidly accumulating evidence suggests that OxPLs are biomarkers of atherosclerosis and other pathologies. In addition, successful application of experimental drugs based on structural scaffold of OxPLs in animal models of inflammation was recently reported. This review briefly summarizes current knowledge on generation, methods of quantification and biological activities of OxPLs. Furthermore, receptor and cellular mechanisms of these effects are discussed. The goal of the review is to give a broad overview of this class of lipid mediators inducing pleiotropic biological effects.

Invadosomes are coming: new insights into function and disease relevance

Invadopodia and podosomes are discrete, actin-based molecular protrusions that form in cancer cells and normal cells, respectively, in response to diverse signaling pathways and extracellular matrix cues. Although they participate in a host of different cellular processes, they share a common functional theme of controlling pericellular proteolytic activity, which sets them apart from other structures that function in migration and adhesion, including focal adhesions, lamellipodia, and filopodia. In this review, we highlight research that explores the function of these complex structures, including roles for podosomes in embryonic and postnatal development, in angiogenesis and remodeling of the vasculature, in maturation of the postsynaptic membrane, in antigen sampling and recognition, and in cell-cell fusion mechanisms, as well as the involvement of invadopodia at multiple steps of the metastatic cascade, and how all of this may apply in the treatment of human disease states. Finally, we explore recent research that implicates a novel role for exosomes and microvesicles in invadopodia-dependent and invadopodia-independent mechanisms of invasion, respectively.

Memory and Specificity in the Insect Immune System: Current Perspectives and Future Challenges

The immune response of a host to a pathogen is typically described as either innate or adaptive. The innate form of the immune response is conserved across all organisms, including insects. Previous and recent research has focused on the nature of the insect immune system and the results imply that the innate immune response of insects is more robust and specific than previously thought. Priming of the insect innate immune system involves the exposure of insects to dead or a sublethal dose of microbes in order to elicit an initial response. Comparing subsequent infections in primed insects to non-primed individuals indicates that the insect innate immune response may possess some of the qualities of an adaptive immune system. Although some studies demonstrate that the protective effects of priming are due to a "loitering" innate immune response, others have presented more convincing elements of adaptivity. While an immune mechanism capable of producing the same degree of recognition specificity as seen in vertebrates has yet to be discovered in insects, a few interesting cases have been identified and discussed.

A Synthetic Mammalian Therapeutic Gene Circuit for Sensing and Suppressing Inflammation

Inflammation, which is a highly regulated host response against danger signals, may be harmful if it is excessive and deregulated. Ideally, anti-inflammatory therapy should autonomously commence as soon as possible after the onset of inflammation, should be controllable by a physician, and should not systemically block beneficial immune response in the long term. We describe a genetically encoded anti-inflammatory mammalian cell device based on a modular engineered genetic circuit comprising a sensor, an amplifier, a "thresholder" to restrict activation of a positive-feedback loop, a combination of advanced clinically used biopharmaceutical proteins, and orthogonal regulatory elements that linked modules into the functional device. This genetic circuit was autonomously activated by inflammatory signals, including endogenous cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced inflammation in mice and serum from a systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis (sIJA) patient, and could be reset externally by a chemical signal. The microencapsulated anti-inflammatory device significantly reduced the pathology in dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced acute murine colitis, demonstrating a synthetic immunological approach for autonomous anti-inflammatory therapy.

Inhibition of ROS and upregulation of inflammatory cytokines by FoxO3a promotes survival against Salmonella typhimurium

Virulent intracellular pathogens, such as the Salmonella species, engage numerous virulence factors to subvert host defence mechanisms to induce a chronic infection that leads to typhoid or exacerbation of other chronic inflammatory conditions. Here we show the role of the forkhead transcription factor FoxO3a during infection of mice with Salmonella typhimurium (ST). Although FoxO3a signalling does not affect the development of CD8⁺ T cell responses to ST, FoxO3a has an important protective role, particularly during the chronic stage of infection, by limiting the persistence of oxidative stress. Furthermore, FoxO3a signalling regulates ERK signalling in macrophages, which results in the maintenance of a proinflammatory state. FoxO3a signalling does not affect cell proliferation or cell death. Thus, these results reveal mechanisms by which FoxO3a promotes host survival during infection with chronic, virulent intracellular bacteria.

FoxO3a signalling has limited influence over acute bacterial infection. Here the authors show that FoxO3a promotes survival of mice in response to chronic Salmonella typhimurium infection by restraining oxidative stress and ERK signalling.

Monitoring PD-L1 positive circulating tumor cells in non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with the PD-1 inhibitor Nivolumab

Controversial results on the predictive value of programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) status in lung tumor tissue for response to immune checkpoint inhibitors do not allow for any conclusive consideration. Liquid biopsy might allow real-time sampling of patients for PD-L1 through the course of the disease. Twenty-four stage IV NSCLC patients included in the Expanded Access Program with Nivolumab were enrolled. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) were analyzed by CellSearch with anti-human B7-H1/PD-L1 PE-conjugated antibody. PD-L1 expressing CTCs were assessed at baseline, at 3 and 6 months after starting therapy, and correlated with outcome. At baseline and at 3 months of treatment, the presence of CTCs and the expression of PD-L1 on their surface were found associated to poor patients outcome. Nevertheless, the high frequency of PD-L1 expressing CTCs hampered to discriminate the role of PD-L1 in defining prognosis. Conversely although CTCs were found in all patients 6 months after treatment, at this time patients could be dichotomized into two groups based PD-L1 expression on CTCs. Patients with PD-L1 negative CTCs all obtained a clinical benefit, while patients with PD-L1 (+) CTCs all experienced progressive disease. This suggests that the persistence of PD-L1(+) CTCs might mirror a mechanism of therapy escape.

Atlantic salmon populations reveal adaptive divergence of immune related genes - a duplicated genome under selection

Background

Populations of Atlantic salmon display highly significant genetic differences with unresolved molecular basis. These differences may result from separate postglacial colonization patterns, diversifying natural selection and adaptation, or a combination. Adaptation could be influenced or even facilitated by the recent whole genome duplication in the salmonid lineage which resulted in a partly tetraploid species with duplicated genes and regions.

Results

In order to elucidate the genes and genomic regions underlying the genetic differences, we conducted a genome wide association study using whole genome resequencing data from eight populations from Northern and Southern Norway. From a total of ~4.5 million sequencing-derived SNPs, more than 10 % showed significant differentiation between populations from these two regions and ten selective sweeps on chromosomes 5, 10, 11, 13–15, 21, 24 and 25 were identified. These comprised 59 genes, of which 15 had one or more differentiated missense mutation. Our analysis showed that most sweeps have paralogous regions in the partially tetraploid genome, each lacking the high number of significant SNPs found in the sweeps. The most significant sweep was found on Chr 25 and carried several missense mutations in the antiviral mx genes, suggesting that these populations have experienced differing viral pressures. Interestingly the second most significant sweep, found on Chr 5, contains two genes involved in the NF-KB pathway (nkap and nkrf), which is also a known pathogen target that controls a large number of processes in animals.

Conclusion

Our results show that natural selection acting on immune related genes has contributed to genetic divergence between salmon populations in Norway. The differences between populations may have been facilitated by the plasticity of the salmon genome. The observed signatures of selection in duplicated genomic regions suggest that the recently duplicated genome has provided raw material for evolutionary adaptation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-016-2867-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Chronic Iron Overload Results in Impaired Bacterial Killing of THP-1 Derived Macrophage through the Inhibition of Lysosomal Acidification

Iron is essential for living organisms and the disturbance of iron homeostasis is associated with altered immune function. Additionally, bacterial infections can cause major complications in instances of chronic iron overload, such as patients with transfusion-dependent thalassemia. Monocytes and macrophages play important roles in maintaining systemic iron homoeostasis and in defense against invading pathogens. However, the effect of iron overload on the function of monocytes and macrophages is unclear. We elucidated the effects of chronic iron overload on human monocytic cell line (THP-1) and THP-1 derived macrophages (TDM) by continuously exposing them to high levels of iron (100 μM) to create I-THP-1 and I-TDM, respectively. Our results show that iron overload did not affect morphology or granularity of I-THP-1, but increased the granularity of I-TDM. Bactericidal assays for non-pathogenic E. coli DH5α, JM109 and pathogenic P. aeruginosa all revealed decreased efficiency with increasing iron concentration in I-TDM. The impaired P. aeruginosa killing ability of human primary monocyte derived macrophages (hMDM) was also found when cells are cultured in iron contained medium. Further studies on the bactericidal activity of I-TDM revealed lysosomal dysfunction associated with the inhibition of lysosomal acidification resulting in increasing lysosomal pH, the impairment of post-translational processing of cathepsins (especially cathepsin D), and decreased autophagic flux. These findings may explain the impaired innate immunity of thalassemic patients with chronic iron overload, suggesting the manipulation of lysosomal function as a novel therapeutic approach.

Natural antibodies bridge innate and adaptive immunity

Natural Abs, belonging to isotypes IgM, IgG3, and IgA, were discovered nearly half a century ago. Despite knowledge about the role of the polyreactive natural IgM in pathogen elimination, B cell survival and homeostasis, inflammatory diseases, and autoimmunity, there is a lack of clarity about the physiological role of natural IgG and natural IgA because they appear incapable of recognizing Ags on their own and are perceived as nonreactive. However, recent research revealed exciting functions of natural IgG in innate immunity. Natural IgG:lectin collaboration swiftly and effectively kills invading pathogens. These advances prompt further examination of natural Abs in immune defense and homeostasis, with the potential for developing novel therapeutics. This review provides new insights into the interaction between natural Abs and lectins, with implications on how interactions between molecules of the innate and adaptive immune systems bridge these two arms of immunity.

Clinical trials of helminth therapy in autoimmune diseases: rationale and findings

Some helminths are major human pathogens. Recently, however, increased understanding of the immunoregulatory responses induced by this class of parasites, in combination with epidemiologic and animal studies, suggests that helminths may have therapeutic potential in autoimmune diseases (AD) and other conditions. This article reviews the rationale for and results of clinical trials to test the safety and efficacy of helminth therapy in AD. Also discussed are future prospects for investigation and the possibility that helminth treatment may serve as a probe to help reveal the pathogenesis of AD.