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Brychka D, Ayala-Nunez NV, Dupas A, Bare Y, Partiot E, Mittelheisser V, Lucansky V, Goetz JG, Osmani N, Gaudin R. Targeting monocytic Occludin impairs transendothelial migration and HIV neuroinvasion. EMBO Rep 2024; 25:3276-3299. [PMID: 39039298 PMCID: PMC11315906 DOI: 10.1038/s44319-024-00190-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Transmigration of circulating monocytes from the bloodstream to tissues represents an early hallmark of inflammation. This process plays a pivotal role during viral neuroinvasion, encephalitis, and HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. How monocytes locally unzip endothelial tight junction-associated proteins (TJAPs), without perturbing impermeability, to reach the central nervous system remains poorly understood. Here, we show that human circulating monocytes express the TJAP Occludin (OCLN) to promote transmigration through endothelial cells. We found that human monocytic OCLN (hmOCLN) clusters at monocyte-endothelium interface, while modulation of hmOCLN expression significantly impacts monocyte transmigration. Furthermore, we designed OCLN-derived peptides targeting its extracellular loops (EL) and show that transmigration of treated monocytes is inhibited in vitro and in zebrafish embryos, while preserving vascular integrity. Monocyte transmigration toward the brain is an important process for HIV neuroinvasion and we found that the OCLN-derived peptides significantly inhibit HIV dissemination to cerebral organoids. In conclusion, our study identifies an important role for monocytic OCLN during transmigration and provides a proof-of-concept for the development of mitigation strategies to prevent monocyte infiltration and viral neuroinvasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Brychka
- CNRS, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Montpellier, France
- Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Nilda Vanesa Ayala-Nunez
- CNRS, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Montpellier, France
- Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Empa - Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Lerchenfeldstrasse 5, 9014, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Amandine Dupas
- Tumor Biomechanics, INSERM UMR_S1109, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Strasbourg, France
- Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Strasbourg, France
| | - Yonis Bare
- CNRS, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Montpellier, France
- Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Emma Partiot
- CNRS, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Montpellier, France
- Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Vincent Mittelheisser
- Tumor Biomechanics, INSERM UMR_S1109, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Strasbourg, France
- Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Strasbourg, France
| | - Vincent Lucansky
- CNRS, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Montpellier, France
- Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin (JFMED CU), Department of Pathophysiology, Comenius University in Bratislava, Martin, Slovakia
| | - Jacky G Goetz
- Tumor Biomechanics, INSERM UMR_S1109, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Strasbourg, France
- Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Strasbourg, France
| | - Naël Osmani
- Tumor Biomechanics, INSERM UMR_S1109, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Strasbourg, France
- Equipe Labellisée Ligue Contre le Cancer, Strasbourg, France
| | - Raphael Gaudin
- CNRS, Institut de Recherche en Infectiologie de Montpellier (IRIM), Montpellier, France.
- Univ Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
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Monif M, Sequeira RP, Muscat A, Stuckey S, Sanfilippo PG, Minh V, Loftus N, Voo V, Fazzolari K, Moss M, Maltby VE, Nguyen AL, Wesselingh R, Seery N, Nesbitt C, Baker J, Dwyer C, Taylor L, Rath L, Van der Walt A, Marriott M, Kalincik T, Lechner-Scott J, O'Brien TJ, Butzkueven H. CLADIN- CLADribine and INnate immune response in multiple sclerosis - A phase IV prospective study. Clin Immunol 2024; 265:110304. [PMID: 38964633 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2024.110304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
Cladribine (Mavenclad®) is an oral treatment for relapsing remitting MS (RRMS), but its mechanism of action and its effects on innate immune responses in unknown. This study is a prospective Phase IV study of 41 patients with RRMS, and aims to investigate the mechanism of action of cladribine on peripheral monocytes, and its impact on the P2X7 receptor. There was a significant reduction in monocyte count in vivo at week 1 post cladribine administration, and the subset of cells being most impacted were the CD14lo CD16+ 'non-classical' monocytes. Of the 14 cytokines measured in serum, CCL2 levels increased at week 1. In vitro, cladrabine induced a reduction in P2X7R pore as well as channel activity. This study demonstrates a novel mechanism of action for cladribine. It calls for studying potential benefits of cladribine in progressive forms of MS and other neurodegenerative diseases where innate immune related inflammation is implicated in disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mastura Monif
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Neurology, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Richard P Sequeira
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrea Muscat
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Sian Stuckey
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul G Sanfilippo
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Viet Minh
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; School of Nursing, Midwifery and Paramedicine, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Naomi Loftus
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Veronica Voo
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Melinda Moss
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Vicki E Maltby
- John Hunter Hospital, Department of Neurology, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine and Public Health, Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Ai-Lan Nguyen
- Department of Neurology, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Robb Wesselingh
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Nabil Seery
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Cassie Nesbitt
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Neurology, Barwon Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Josephine Baker
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Chris Dwyer
- Department of Neurology, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Lisa Taylor
- Department of Neurology, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Louise Rath
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Anneke Van der Walt
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Mark Marriott
- Department of Neurology, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Neurology, Eastern Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Tomas Kalincik
- Department of Neurology, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medicine, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Jeannette Lechner-Scott
- John Hunter Hospital, Department of Neurology, New Lambton Heights, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine and Public Health, Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
| | - Terence J O'Brien
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Helmut Butzkueven
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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3
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Arneth B. Current Knowledge about Nonclassical Monocytes in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis, a Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7372. [PMID: 39000478 PMCID: PMC11242477 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25137372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Monocytes play a critical role in the initiation and progression of multiple sclerosis (MS). Recent research indicates the importance of considering the roles of monocytes in the management of MS and the development of effective interventions. This systematic review examined published research on the roles of nonclassical monocytes in MS and how they influence disease management. Reputable databases, such as PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane, and Google Scholar, were searched for relevant studies on the influence of monocytes on MS. The search focused on studies on humans and patients with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) published between 2014 and 2024 to provide insights into the study topic. Fourteen articles that examined the role of monocytes in MS were identified; the findings reported in these articles revealed that nonclassical monocytes could act as MS biomarkers, aid in the development of therapeutic interventions, reveal disease pathology, and improve approaches for monitoring disease progression. This review provides support for the consideration of monocytes when researching effective diagnostics, therapeutic interventions, and procedures for managing MS pathophysiology. These findings may guide future research aimed at gaining further insights into the role of monocytes in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borros Arneth
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiochemistry, Hospital of the Universities of Giessen and Marburg, UKGM, Philipps University Marburg, Baldingerst 1, 35043 Marburg, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiochemistry, Hospital of the Universities of Giessen and Marburg, UKGM, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Feulgenstr 12, 35392 Giessen, Germany
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Gudenschwager Basso EK, Ju J, Soliman E, de Jager C, Wei X, Pridham KJ, Olsen ML, Theus MH. Immunoregulatory and neutrophil-like monocyte subsets with distinct single-cell transcriptomic signatures emerge following brain injury. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:41. [PMID: 38310257 PMCID: PMC10838447 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03032-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Monocytes represent key cellular elements that contribute to the neurological sequela following brain injury. The current study reveals that trauma induces the augmented release of a transcriptionally distinct CD115+/Ly6Chi monocyte population into the circulation of mice pre-exposed to clodronate depletion conditions. This phenomenon correlates with tissue protection, blood-brain barrier stability, and cerebral blood flow improvement. Uniquely, this shifted the innate immune cell profile in the cortical milieu and reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory Il6, IL1r1, MCP-1, Cxcl1, and Ccl3 cytokines. Monocytes that emerged under these conditions displayed a morphological and gene profile consistent with a subset commonly seen during emergency monopoiesis. Single-cell RNA sequencing delineated distinct clusters of monocytes and revealed a key transcriptional signature of Ly6Chi monocytes enriched for Apoe and chitinase-like protein 3 (Chil3/Ym1), commonly expressed in pro-resolving immunoregulatory monocytes, as well as granule genes Elane, Prtn3, MPO, and Ctsg unique to neutrophil-like monocytes. The predominate shift in cell clusters included subsets with low expression of transcription factors involved in monocyte conversion, Pou2f2, Na4a1, and a robust enrichment of genes in the oxidative phosphorylation pathway which favors an anti-inflammatory phenotype. Transfer of this monocyte assemblage into brain-injured recipient mice demonstrated their direct role in neuroprotection. These findings reveal a multifaceted innate immune response to brain injury and suggest targeting surrogate monocyte subsets may foster tissue protection in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwin K Gudenschwager Basso
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, 970 Washington Street SW, Life Sciences I, Rm 249 (MC0910), Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
- Department of Physiology and Aging, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jing Ju
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, 970 Washington Street SW, Life Sciences I, Rm 249 (MC0910), Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Eman Soliman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, 970 Washington Street SW, Life Sciences I, Rm 249 (MC0910), Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Caroline de Jager
- Translational, Biology, Medicine and Health Graduate Program, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | - Xiaoran Wei
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Kevin J Pridham
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, 970 Washington Street SW, Life Sciences I, Rm 249 (MC0910), Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Michelle L Olsen
- School of Neuroscience, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Michelle H Theus
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, 970 Washington Street SW, Life Sciences I, Rm 249 (MC0910), Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
- Center for Engineered Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
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5
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Chen H, Xu C, Zeng H, Zhang Z, Wang N, Guo Y, Zheng Y, Xia S, Zhou H, Yu X, Fu X, Tang T, Wu X, Chen Z, Peng Y, Cai J, Li J, Yan F, Gu C, Chen G, Chen J. Ly6C-high monocytes alleviate brain injury in experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage in mice. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:270. [PMID: 37978532 PMCID: PMC10657171 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02939-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is an uncommon type of potentially fatal stroke. The pathophysiological mechanisms of brain injury remain unclear, which hinders the development of drugs for SAH. We aimed to investigate the pathophysiological mechanisms of SAH and to elucidate the cellular and molecular biological response to SAH-induced injury. METHODS A cross-species (human and mouse) multiomics approach combining high-throughput data and bioinformatic analysis was used to explore the key pathophysiological processes and cells involved in SAH-induced brain injury. Patient data were collected from the hospital (n = 712). SAH was established in adult male mice via endovascular perforation, and flow cytometry, a bone marrow chimera model, qPCR, and microglial depletion experiments were conducted to explore the origin and chemotaxis mechanism of the immune cells. To investigate cell effects on SAH prognosis, murine neurological function was evaluated based on a modified Garcia score, pole test, and rotarod test. RESULTS The bioinformatics analysis confirmed that inflammatory and immune responses were the key pathophysiological processes after SAH. Significant increases in the monocyte levels were observed in both the mouse brains and the peripheral blood of patients after SAH. Ly6C-high monocytes originated in the bone marrow, and the skull bone marrow contribute a higher proportion of these monocytes than neutrophils. The mRNA level of Ccl2 was significantly upregulated after SAH and was greater in CD11b-positive than CD11b-negative cells. Microglial depletion, microglial inhibition, and CCL2 blockade reduced the numbers of Ly6C-high monocytes after SAH. With CCR2 antagonization, the neurological function of the mice exhibited a slow recovery. Three days post-SAH, the monocyte-derived dendritic cell (moDC) population had a higher proportion of TNF-α-positive cells and a lower proportion of IL-10-positive cells than the macrophage population. The ratio of moDCs to macrophages was higher on day 3 than on day 5 post-SAH. CONCLUSIONS Inflammatory and immune responses are significantly involved in SAH-induced brain injury. Ly6C-high monocytes derived from the bone marrow, including the skull bone marrow, infiltrated into mouse brains via CCL2 secreted from microglia. Moreover, Ly6C-high monocytes alleviated neurological dysfunction after SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaijun Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chaoran Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hanhai Zeng
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhihua Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ning Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yinghan Guo
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yonghe Zheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Siqi Xia
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hang Zhou
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiaobo Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiongjie Fu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Tianchi Tang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xinyan Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zihang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yucong Peng
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jing Cai
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jianru Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Feng Yan
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chi Gu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Gao Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Jingyin Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Precise Treatment and Clinical Translational Research of Neurological Diseases, Hangzhou, China.
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Cosma NC, Eren N, Üsekes B, Gerike S, Heuser I, Peters O, Hellmann-Regen J. Acute and Chronic Macrophage Differentiation Modulates TREM2 in a Personalized Alzheimer's Patient-Derived Assay. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2023:10.1007/s10571-023-01351-7. [PMID: 37198381 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-023-01351-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer`s disease (AD). Brain macrophage populations differentially modulate the immune response to AD pathology according to the disease stage. Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is known to play a protective role in AD and has been postulated as a putative therapeutic target. Whether, and to which extent TREM2 expression can be modulated in the aged macrophage population of the brain is unknown, emphasizing the need for a human, patient-specific model. Using cells from AD patients and matched controls (CO) we designed an assay based on monocyte-derived macrophages to mimic brain-infiltrating macrophages and to assess the individualized TREM2 synthesis in vitro. We systematically assessed the effects of short-term (acute-2 days) and long-term (chronic-10 days) M1- (LPS), M2- (IL-10, IL-4, TGF-β), and M0- (vehicle) macrophage differentiation on TREM2 synthesis. Moreover, the effects of retinoic acid (RA), a putative TREM2 modulator, on individualized TREM2 synthesis were assessed. We report increased TREM2 synthesis after acute M2- compared to M1-differentiation in CO- but not AD-derived cells. Chronic M2- and M0-differentiation however resulted in an increase of TREM2 synthesis in both AD- and CO-derived cells while chronic M1-differentiation increased TREM2 in AD-derived cells only. Moreover, chronic M2- and M0-differentiation improved the amyloid-β (Aβ) uptake of the CO-derived whereas M1-differentiation of the AD-derived cells. Interestingly, RA-treatment did not modulate TREM2. In the age of personalized medicine, our individualized model could be used to screen for potential drug-mediated treatment responses in vitro. Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) has been postulated as a putative therapeutic target in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Using cells from AD patients and matched controls (CO), we designed a monocyte-derived macrophages (Mo-MФs) assay to assess the individualized TREM2 synthesis in vitro. We report increased TREM2 synthesis after acute M2- compared to M1- macrophage differentiation in CO- but not AD-derived cells. Chronic M2- and M0- differentiation however resulted in an increase of TREM2 synthesis in both AD- and CO-derived cells while chronic M1-differentiation increased TREM2 in AD-cells only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoleta-Carmen Cosma
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Neriman Eren
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203, Berlin, Germany
| | - Berk Üsekes
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203, Berlin, Germany
| | - Susanna Gerike
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203, Berlin, Germany
| | - Isabella Heuser
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203, Berlin, Germany
| | - Oliver Peters
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julian Hellmann-Regen
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Section Clinical Neurobiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Hindenburgdamm 30, 12203, Berlin, Germany
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7
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Nuber-Champier A, Voruz P, Jacot de Alcântara I, Breville G, Allali G, Lalive P, Assal F, Péron J. Monocytosis in the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection predicts the presence of anosognosia for cognitive deficits in the chronic phase. Brain Behav Immun Health 2022; 26:100511. [PMID: 36128057 PMCID: PMC9477785 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Reduced awareness of neuropsychological disorders (i.e., anosognosia) is a striking symptom of post-COVID-19 condition. Some leukocyte markers in the acute phase may predict the presence of anosognosia in the chronic phase, but they have not yet been identified. This study aimed to determine whether patients with anosognosia for their memory deficits in the chronic phase presented specific leukocyte distribution in the acute phase, and if so, whether these leukocyte levels might be predictive of anosognosia. First, we compared the acute immunological data (i.e., white blood cell differentiation count) of 20 patients who displayed anosognosia 6–9 months after being infected with SARS-CoV-2 (230.25 ± 46.65 days) versus 41 patients infected with SARS-Cov-2 who did not develop anosognosia. Second, we performed an ROC analysis to evaluate the predictive value of the leukocyte markers that emerged from this comparison. Blood circulating monocytes (%) in the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection were associated with long-term post-COVID-19 anosognosia. A monocyte percentage of 7.35% of the total number of leukocytes at admission seemed to predict the presence of chronic anosognosia 6–9 months after infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Nuber-Champier
- Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland
- Neurology Division, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland
| | - P. Voruz
- Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland
- Neurology Division, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - I. Jacot de Alcântara
- Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland
- Neurology Division, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland
| | - G. Breville
- Neurology Division, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland
| | - G. Allali
- Leenaards Memory Center, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - P.H. Lalive
- Neurology Division, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - F. Assal
- Neurology Division, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | - J.A. Péron
- Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology Laboratory, Faculty of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland
- Neurology Division, Geneva University Hospitals, Switzerland
- Corresponding author. Faculté de Psychologie et des Sciences de l'Education, 40 bd du Pont d’Arve, 1205, Geneva, Switzerland.
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Immunosenescence and Aging: Neuroinflammation Is a Prominent Feature of Alzheimer's Disease and Is a Likely Contributor to Neurodegenerative Disease Pathogenesis. J Pers Med 2022; 12:jpm12111817. [PMID: 36579548 PMCID: PMC9698256 DOI: 10.3390/jpm12111817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic multifactorial and complex neuro-degenerative disorder characterized by memory impairment and the loss of cognitive ability, which is a problem affecting the elderly. The pathological intracellular accumulation of abnormally phosphorylated Tau proteins, forming neurofibrillary tangles, and extracellular amyloid-beta (Aβ) deposition, forming senile plaques, as well as neural disconnection, neural death and synaptic dysfunction in the brain, are hallmark pathologies that characterize AD. The prevalence of the disease continues to increase globally due to the increase in longevity, quality of life, and medical treatment for chronic diseases that decreases the mortality and enhance the survival of elderly. Medical awareness and the accurate diagnosis of the disease also contribute to the high prevalence observed globally. Unfortunately, no definitive treatment exists that can be used to modify the course of AD, and no available treatment is capable of mitigating the cognitive decline or reversing the pathology of the disease as of yet. A plethora of hypotheses, ranging from the cholinergic theory and dominant Aβ cascade hypothesis to the abnormally excessive phosphorylated Tau protein hypothesis, have been reported. Various explanations for the pathogenesis of AD, such as the abnormal excitation of the glutamate system and mitochondrial dysfunction, have also been suggested. Despite the continuous efforts to deliver significant benefits and an effective treatment for this distressing, globally attested aging illness, multipronged approaches and strategies for ameliorating the disease course based on knowledge of the underpinnings of the pathogenesis of AD are urgently needed. Immunosenescence is an immune deficit process that appears with age (inflammaging process) and encompasses the remodeling of the lymphoid organs, leading to alterations in the immune function and neuroinflammation during advanced aging, which is closely linked to the outgrowth of infections, autoimmune diseases, and malignant cancers. It is well known that long-standing inflammation negatively influences the brain over the course of a lifetime due to the senescence of the immune system. Herein, we aim to trace the role of the immune system in the pathogenesis of AD. Thus, we explore alternative avenues, such as neuroimmune involvement in the pathogenesis of AD. We determine the initial triggers of neuroinflammation, which is an early episode in the pre-symptomatic stages of AD and contributes to the advancement of the disease, and the underlying key mechanisms of brain damage that might aid in the development of therapeutic strategies that can be used to combat this devastating disease. In addition, we aim to outline the ways in which different aspects of the immune system, both in the brain and peripherally, behave and thus to contribute to AD.
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9
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Associations between cardiorespiratory fitness, monocyte polarization, and exercise-related changes in mnemonic discrimination performance in older adults. Exp Gerontol 2022; 169:111973. [PMID: 36206875 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2022.111973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Biological aging is accompanied by a chronic pro-inflammatory state that may facilitate losses in hippocampal-dependent mnemonic discrimination. Aerobic exercise training promotes adaptations that include improved immune competency, higher cardiorespiratory fitness, and maintenance of hippocampal function. However, it is poorly understood whether, in active older adults, baseline immune cell profiles and cardiorespiratory fitness are possible mechanisms that facilitate the long-term benefits to hippocampal dependent mnemonic discrimination performance. This within-subjects study with counterbalanced conditions aimed to investigate whether baseline monocyte polarization and cardiorespiratory fitness influenced performance in the mnemonic similarity task (MST) and related Lure Discrimination Index (LDI) score after an acute bout of exercise. Twenty-one active older adults (M = 68 ± 5 yrs) underwent baseline testing in which blood samples were collected and cardiorespiratory fitness measured. Participants then returned and completed a seated rest or moderate intensity aerobic exercise condition in which the MST was proctored prior to and 5 min after each condition. A linear mixed effects model was used in which Participant ID was a random effect and Condition (rest v. exercise), Time (pre- v post-), and order were fixed main effects. Simple linear regression models were used to determine the variance accounted for by monocyte phenotypes and cardiorespiratory fitness for LDI scores post-condition. Post-rest LDI scores were significantly lower than post-exercise LDI scores (t(20) = -2.65, p < 0.02, d = -0.57). Intermediate monocytes were significant predictors of the change in pre- to post-exercise LDI scores (F(1, 19) = 6.03, p = 0.024, R2 = 0.24) and cardiorespiratory fitness was a significant predictor of the difference between post-condition LDI scores (F(1, 19) = 6.71, p = 0.018, R2 = 0.26). Our results suggest baseline cardiorespiratory fitness and intermediate monocytes may relate to the integrity of hippocampal-dependent mnemonic discrimination performance, and possibly the degree of responsiveness to aerobic exercise interventions.
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10
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Maheshwari A. The Phylogeny, Ontogeny, and Organ-specific Differentiation of Macrophages in the Developing Intestine. NEWBORN (CLARKSVILLE, MD.) 2022; 1:340-355. [PMID: 36698382 PMCID: PMC9872774 DOI: 10.5005/jp-journals-11002-0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are large highly motile phagocytic leukocytes that appear early during embryonic development and have been conserved during evolution. The developmental roles of macrophages were first described nearly a century ago, at about the time these cells were being identified as central effectors in phagocytosis and elimination of microbes. Since then, we have made considerable progress in understanding the development of various subsets of macrophages and the diverse roles these cells play in both physiology and disease. This article reviews the phylogeny and the ontogeny of macrophages with a particular focus on the gastrointestinal tract, and the role of these mucosal macrophages in immune surveillance, innate immunity, homeostasis, tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, and repair of damaged tissues. We also discuss the importance of these macrophages in the inflammatory changes in neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). This article presents a combination of our own peer-reviewed clinical and preclinical studies, with an extensive review of the literature using the databases PubMed, EMBASE, and Scopus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akhil Maheshwari
- Global Newborn Society, Clarksville, Maryland, United States of America
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11
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Kowalski EA, Soliman E, Kelly C, Basso EKG, Leonard J, Pridham KJ, Ju J, Cash A, Hazy A, de Jager C, Kaloss AM, Ding H, Hernandez RD, Coleman G, Wang X, Olsen ML, Pickrell AM, Theus MH. Monocyte proinflammatory phenotypic control by ephrin type A receptor 4 mediates neural tissue damage. JCI Insight 2022; 7:e156319. [PMID: 35737458 PMCID: PMC9462496 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.156319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Circulating monocytes have emerged as key regulators of the neuroinflammatory milieu in a number of neuropathological disorders. Ephrin type A receptor 4 (Epha4) receptor tyrosine kinase, a prominent axon guidance molecule, has recently been implicated in the regulation of neuroinflammation. Using a mouse model of brain injury and a GFP BM chimeric approach, we found neuroprotection and a lack of significant motor deficits marked by reduced monocyte/macrophage cortical infiltration and an increased number of arginase-1+ cells in the absence of BM-derived Epha4. This was accompanied by a shift in monocyte gene profile from pro- to antiinflammatory that included increased Tek (Tie2 receptor) expression. Inhibition of Tie2 attenuated enhanced expression of M2-like genes in cultured Epha4-null monocytes/macrophages. In Epha4-BM-deficient mice, cortical-isolated GFP+ monocytes/macrophages displayed a phenotypic shift from a classical to an intermediate subtype, which displayed reduced Ly6chi concomitant with increased Ly6clo- and Tie2-expressing populations. Furthermore, clodronate liposome-mediated monocyte depletion mimicked these effects in WT mice but resulted in attenuation of phenotype in Epha4-BM-deficient mice. This demonstrates that monocyte polarization not overall recruitment dictates neural tissue damage. Thus, coordination of monocyte proinflammatory phenotypic state by Epha4 is a key regulatory step mediating brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A. Kowalski
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Eman Soliman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Colin Kelly
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- School of Neuroscience, and
| | | | - John Leonard
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Kevin J. Pridham
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Jing Ju
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Alison Cash
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Amanda Hazy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Caroline de Jager
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Alexandra M. Kaloss
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Hanzhang Ding
- Translational Biology Medicine and Health Graduate Program, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Raymundo D. Hernandez
- Translational Biology Medicine and Health Graduate Program, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | | | - Xia Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | | | | | - Michelle H. Theus
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- School of Neuroscience, and
- Translational Biology Medicine and Health Graduate Program, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- Center for Engineered Health, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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12
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Oral Enrichment of Streptococcus and its Role in Systemic Inflammation Related to Monocyte Activation in Humans with Cocaine Use Disorder. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2022; 17:305-317. [PMID: 34448131 PMCID: PMC8881519 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-021-10007-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine use is commonly associated with increased chronic systemic inflammation. However, the drivers for cocaine use-mediated systemic inflammation are not fully understood. In the current study, we recruited individuals with cocaine use disorder and healthy individuals who did not use cocaine and collected paired saliva and blood samples. The saliva samples were used to assess the oral microbiome, and the plasma samples were evaluated for 33 cytokines and chemokines. Cocaine users exhibited decreased saliva microbial diversities compared to non-users. Streptococcus was the only increased genus in the saliva from cocaine users, whereas several genera were decreased in cocaine users compared to non-users. Notably, cocaine users exhibited increased plasma levels of several monocyte activation markers, including monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-4, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-3α, macrophage-derived chemokine (MDC), and thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC), all of which were correlated with increased saliva levels of three Streptococcus species. Furthermore, treatment with Streptococcus or its lipoteichoic acid preferentially activated primary human monocytes to produce proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as MIP-3α and TARC, in vitro compared to controls. However, monocytes failed to produce these chemokines after exposure to cocaine or cocaine plus bacteria compared to medium or bacteria alone. This study revealed that chronic cocaine use-associated inflammation in the blood may result from increased oral Streptococcus and its effects on myeloid cell activation, but does not result from cocaine directly.
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13
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Diaz K, Kohut ML, Russell DW, Stegemöller EL. Peripheral inflammatory cytokines and motor symptoms in persons with Parkinson's disease. Brain Behav Immun Health 2022; 21:100442. [PMID: 35308082 PMCID: PMC8927904 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Many of the motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD) impact quality of life and are not fully ameliorated by current pharmacological and surgical treatments. A better understanding of the pathophysiology underlying these symptoms is needed. Previous research has suggested that inflammation may play a significant role in PD pathophysiology and progression, but there is limited research exploring how inflammation directly relates to motor symptoms in PD. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate associations between peripheral immune inflammatory markers and motor symptoms of PD, specifically, tremor, bradykinesia, and postural and gait instability. We hypothesized that peripheral inflammatory cytokines would predict the severity of motor symptoms in persons with PD, and that there will be higher levels of peripheral inflammatory cytokine markers in persons with PD when compared to age-matched healthy older adults. Methods Twenty-six participants with PD and fourteen healthy older adults completed the study. For participants with PD, the motor section of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) was recorded and scored by two Movement Disorders Neurologists masked to the study. A blood sample was collected from both participants with PD and the healthy older adults. Through the MILLIPLEX® map High Sensitivity Human Cytokine Kit, key inflammation-related markers were analyzed (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-8, IL-2, IL-7, IL-5, IL-13, IL, 4, IL-10 IL-12p70, GM-CSF, and IL-6). Results Results revealed significantly higher levels of IL-6 in persons with PD when compared to healthy older adults (p = 0.005). Moreover, results revealed that higher levels of IL-4 (p = 0.011) and lower levels of IFNγ (p = 0.003) significantly predicted more severe tremor in persons with PD. No other associations between the peripheral inflammation markers and other motor symptoms were observed. Conclusions Overall, these results are consistent with a growing body of literature that implicates inflammatory cytokines in the PD, and further suggests that inflammatory cytokines, or lack thereof, may be associated with tremor in persons with PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Diaz
- Department of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - M L Kohut
- Department of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - D W Russell
- Department of Human Development & Family Studies, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - E L Stegemöller
- Department of Kinesiology, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
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14
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Abstract
Systemic inflammation elicited by sepsis can induce an acute cerebral dysfunction known as sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE). Recent evidence suggests that SAE is common but shows a dynamic trajectory over time. Half of all patients with sepsis develop SAE in the intensive care unit, and some survivors present with sustained cognitive impairments for several years after initial sepsis onset. It is not clear why some, but not all, patients develop SAE and also the factors that determine the persistence of SAE. Here, we first summarize the chronic pathology and the dynamic changes in cognitive functions seen after the onset of sepsis. We then outline the cerebral effects of sepsis, such as neuroinflammation, alterations in neuronal synapses and neurovascular changes. We discuss the key factors that might contribute to the development and persistence of SAE in older patients, including premorbid neurodegenerative pathology, side effects of sedatives, renal dysfunction and latent virus reactivation. Finally, we postulate that some of the mechanisms that underpin neuropathology in SAE may also be relevant to delirium and persisting cognitive impairments that are seen in patients with severe COVID-19. In this Review, Manabe and Heneka examine how the systemic inflammation associated with sepsis can lead to acute cerebral dysfunction known as sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE). Moreover, they suggest that some of the mechanisms involved in SAE may be relevant for understanding the cognitive impairments that develop in some patients with COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Manabe
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Geriatric Psychiatry, University of Bonn Medical Center, Bonn, Germany.,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany
| | - Michael T Heneka
- Department of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Geriatric Psychiatry, University of Bonn Medical Center, Bonn, Germany. .,German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Bonn, Germany. .,Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
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15
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Nkiliza A, Joshi U, Evans JE, Ait-Ghezala G, Parks M, Crawford F, Mullan M, Abdullah L. Adaptive Immune Responses Associated with the Central Nervous System Pathology of Gulf War Illness. Neurosci Insights 2021; 16:26331055211018458. [PMID: 34104887 PMCID: PMC8155779 DOI: 10.1177/26331055211018458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Gulf War Illness is a multisymptomatic condition which affects 30% of veterans
from the 1991 Gulf War. While there is evidence for a role of peripheral
cellular and humoral adaptive immune responses in Gulf War Illness, a potential
role of the adaptive immune system in the central nervous system pathology of
this condition remains unknown. Furthermore, many of the clinical features of
Gulf War Illness resembles those of autoimmune diseases, but the biological
processes are likely different as the etiology of Gulf War Illness is linked to
hazardous chemical exposures specific to the Gulf War theatre. This review
discusses Gulf War chemical–induced maladaptive immune responses and a potential
role of cellular and humoral immune responses that may be relevant to the
central nervous system symptoms and pathology of Gulf War Illness. The
discussion may stimulate investigations into adaptive immunity for developing
novel therapies for Gulf War Illness.
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16
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Carroll JA, Foliaki ST, Haigh CL. A 3D cell culture approach for studying neuroinflammation. J Neurosci Methods 2021; 358:109201. [PMID: 33932455 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2021.109201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neurodegenerative diseases are highly complex making them challenging to model in cell culture. All cell types of the brain have been implicated as exerting an effect on pathogenesis, and disease progression is likely influenced by the cross-talk between the different cell types. Sophisticated investigation of the cellular level consequences of cross-talk between different cells types requires three-dimensional (3D) co-culture systems. NEW METHOD Murine neural stem cells were differentiated into mixed-neuronal lineage populations in 3D culture. By seeding these differentiated cultures with microglia from adult brain, we have generated a 3D ex-vivo model of murine brain tissue populated with microglia. RESULTS Monitoring the infiltration of GFP-expressing microglia into the 3D neuronal lineage cultures showed population throughout the tissue and assumption of ramified homeostatic morphology by the microglia. The co-cultures showed good longevity and were functionally responsive to external stimuli. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS We have previously used 2-dimensional adhered cultures to model cell-cell interactions between microglia and neuronal lineage cells. While the microglia integrate well into these cultures and demonstrate inter-cellular cross-talk, it is known that adhered culture can change their activation state and therefore a 3D system better represents communication throughout a network of neuronal and support cells. CONCLUSIONS Our system offers a straight-forward and time effective way to model 3D mouse brain tissue that is responsive to external neuroinflammatory stimulus. It not only allows inter-cellular interactions to be studied in live tissue but additionally permits study of changes within any available mouse genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Carroll
- TSE/Prion and Retroviral Pathogenesis Unit, Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 South 4th Street, Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Simote T Foliaki
- Prion Cell Biology Unit, Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 South 4th Street, Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA
| | - Cathryn L Haigh
- Prion Cell Biology Unit, Laboratory of Persistent Viral Diseases, Rocky Mountain Laboratories, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, 903 South 4th Street, Hamilton, MT, 59840, USA.
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17
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Bart VMT, Pickering RJ, Taylor PR, Ipseiz N. Macrophage reprogramming for therapy. Immunology 2021; 163:128-144. [PMID: 33368269 PMCID: PMC8114216 DOI: 10.1111/imm.13300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysfunction of the immune system underlies a plethora of human diseases, requiring the development of immunomodulatory therapeutic intervention. To date, most strategies employed have been focusing on the modification of T lymphocytes, and although remarkable improvement has been obtained, results often fall short of the intended outcome. Recent cutting-edge technologies have highlighted macrophages as potential targets for disease control. Macrophages play central roles in development, homeostasis and host defence, and their dysfunction and dysregulation have been implicated in the onset and pathogenesis of multiple disorders including cancer, neurodegeneration, autoimmunity and metabolic diseases. Recent advancements have led to a greater understanding of macrophage origin, diversity and function, in both health and disease. Over the last few years, a variety of strategies targeting macrophages have been developed and these open new therapeutic opportunities. Here, we review the progress in macrophage reprogramming in various disorders and discuss the potential implications and challenges for macrophage-targeted approaches in human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert J Pickering
- Immunology Network, Adaptive Immunity Research Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Stevenage, UK.,Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Philip R Taylor
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at Cardiff, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Natacha Ipseiz
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
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18
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Chronic exposure to IL-6 induces a desensitized phenotype of the microglia. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:31. [PMID: 33482848 PMCID: PMC7821504 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02063-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background When the homeostasis of the central nervous system (CNS) is altered, microglial cells become activated displaying a wide range of phenotypes that depend on the specific site, the nature of the activator, and particularly the microenvironment generated by the lesion. Cytokines are important signals involved in the modulation of the molecular microenvironment and hence play a pivotal role in orchestrating microglial activation. Among them, interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic cytokine described in a wide range of pathological conditions as a potent inducer and modulator of microglial activation, but with contradictory results regarding its detrimental or beneficial functions. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of chronic IL-6 production on the immune response associated with CNS-axonal anterograde degeneration. Methods The perforant pathway transection (PPT) paradigm was used in transgenic mice with astrocyte-targeted IL6-production (GFAP-IL6Tg). At 2, 3, 7, 14, and 21 days post-lesion, the hippocampal areas were processed for immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, and protein microarray. Results An increase in the microglia/macrophage density was observed in GFAP-IL6Tg animals in non-lesion conditions and at later time-points after PPT, associated with higher microglial proliferation and a major monocyte/macrophage cell infiltration. Besides, in homeostasis, GFAP-IL6Tg showed an environment usually linked with an innate immune response, with more perivascular CD11b+/CD45high/MHCII+/CD86+ macrophages, higher T cell infiltration, and higher IL-10, IL-13, IL-17, and IL-6 production. After PPT, WT animals show a change in microglia phenotype expressing MHCII and co-stimulatory molecules, whereas transgenic mice lack this shift. This lack of response in the GFAP-IL6Tg was associated with lower axonal sprouting. Conclusions Chronic exposure to IL-6 induces a desensitized phenotype of the microglia. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-020-02063-1.
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19
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Burn injury induces elevated inflammatory traffic: the role of NF-κB. Inflamm Res 2020; 70:51-65. [PMID: 33245371 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-020-01426-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A burn insult generally sustains a hypovolemic shock due to a significant loss of plasma from the vessels. The burn injury triggers the release of various mediators, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), cytokines, and inflammatory mediators. Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), stemming from foreign microbial discharge and damaged tissue or necrotic cells from the burn-injured site, enter the systemic circulation, activate toll-like receptors (TLRs), and trigger the excessive secretion of cytokines and inflammatory mediators. Inflammation plays a vital role in remodeling an injured tissue, detoxifying toxins, and helps in the healing process. A transcription factor, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), contributes to a variety of physiological and pathological conditions, including immune response, cell death, cell survival, and inflammatory processes. During the pathogenesis of a burn wound, upregulation of various cytokines and growth factors lead to undesirable tissue inflammation. Thus, NF-κB, a dominant moderator of inflammation, needs to be altered to prove beneficial to the treatment of burns or other inflammation-associated diseases. This review addresses the relationship between NF-κB and elevated inflammation in a burn condition that could potentially be altered to induce an early wound-healing mechanism of burn wounds.
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20
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Quarta A, Berneman Z, Ponsaerts P. Functional consequences of a close encounter between microglia and brain-infiltrating monocytes during CNS pathology and repair. J Leukoc Biol 2020; 110:89-106. [PMID: 33155726 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.3ru0820-536r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is recognized as an important factor contributing to the development and progression of several central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Upon CNS trauma or disease, parenchymal microglia highly proliferate and accumulate in and around the lesion site. In addition, blood-derived monocytes can infiltrate the inflamed CNS in response to cellular damage and/or a compromised blood-brain barrier. Both microglia and infiltrating monocytes are characterized by multiple functional states and can either display highly proinflammatory properties or promote resolution of inflammation and tissue regeneration. Despite sharing some basic immunologic functions, microglia and monocytes display many distinctive features, which ultimately define their contribution to neuropathology. Understanding how the innate immune system participates to brain disease is imperative to identify novel treatment options for CNS inflammatory disorders. In this context, existing and newly developed in vitro platforms for disease modeling are fundamental tools to investigate and modulate microglia and monocyte immune functions within a specific neuropathologic context. In this review, we first briefly summarize the current knowledge on microglia and monocyte ontogenesis, as well as their complex and interconnected contributions to the development of various CNS pathologies. Following the well-recognized concept that both microglia and monocytes can either exert neuroprotective functions or exacerbate tissue damage, we provide a comprehensive overview of cellular models currently available for in vitro study of neuroinflammatory responses. In this context, we highlight how simplified single-cell models may not always correctly recapitulate in vivo biology, hence future research should move toward novel models with higher and multicellular complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Quarta
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Zwi Berneman
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Peter Ponsaerts
- Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Vaccine and Infectious Disease Institute (Vaxinfectio), University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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Bohnert S, Seiffert A, Trella S, Bohnert M, Distel L, Ondruschka B, Monoranu CM. TMEM119 as a specific marker of microglia reaction in traumatic brain injury in postmortem examination. Int J Legal Med 2020; 134:2167-2176. [PMID: 32719959 PMCID: PMC7578160 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-020-02384-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was a refined analysis of neuroinflammation including TMEM119 as a useful microglia-specific marker in forensic assessments of traumatic causes of death, e.g., traumatic brain injury (TBI). Human brain tissue samples were obtained from autopsies and divided into cases with lethal TBI (n = 25) and subdivided into three groups according to their trauma survival time and compared with an age-, gender-, and postmortem interval-matched cohort of sudden cardiovascular fatalities as controls (n = 23). Brain tissue samples next to cortex contusions and surrounding white matter as well as samples of the ipsilateral uninjured brain stem and cerebellum were collected and stained immunohistochemically with antibodies against TMEM119, CD206, and CCR2. We could document the highest number of TMEM119-positive cells in acute TBI death with highly significant differences to the control numbers. CCR2-positive monocytes showed a significantly higher cell count in the cortex samples of TBI cases than in the controls with an increasing number of immunopositive cells over time. The number of CD206-positive M2 microglial cells increased survival time-dependent. After 3 days of survival, the cell number increased significantly in all four regions investigated compared with controls. In sum, we validate a specific and robustly expressed as well as fast reacting microglia marker, TMEM119, which distinguishes microglia from resident and infiltrating macrophages and thus offers a great potential for the estimation of the minimum survival time after TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Bohnert
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Wuerzburg, Versbacher Str. 3, 97078, Wuerzburg, Germany.
| | - Anja Seiffert
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Wuerzburg, Versbacher Str. 3, 97078, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Stefanie Trella
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Wuerzburg, Versbacher Str. 3, 97078, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Michael Bohnert
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Wuerzburg, Versbacher Str. 3, 97078, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Luitpold Distel
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Friedrich Alexander University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Universitätsstr. 27, 91054, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Benjamin Ondruschka
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Butenfeld 34, 22529, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Camelia-Maria Monoranu
- Department of Neuropathology, Institute of Pathology, University of Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider Str. 2, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany
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22
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Abstract
Objectives: The beneficial effects of many substances have been discovered because of regular dietary consumption. This is also the case with curcumin, whose effects have been known for more than 4,000 years in Eastern countries such as China and India. A curcumin-rich diet has been known to counteract many human diseases, including cancer and diabetes, and has been shown to reduce inflammation. The effect of a curcumin treatment for neurological diseases, such as spinal muscular atrophy; Alzheimer's disease; Parkinson's disease; amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; multiple sclerosis; and others, has only recently been brought to the attention of researchers and the wider population.Methods: In this paper, we summarise the studies on this natural product, from its isolation two centuries ago to its characterisation a century later.Results: We describe its role in the treatment of neurological diseases, including its cellular and common molecular mechanisms, and we report on the clinical trials of curcumin with healthy people and patients.Discussion: Commenting on the different approaches adopted by the efforts made to increase its bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Adami
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Bottai
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
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23
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Garré JM, Silva HM, Lafaille JJ, Yang G. P2X7 receptor inhibition ameliorates dendritic spine pathology and social behavioral deficits in Rett syndrome mice. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1784. [PMID: 32286307 PMCID: PMC7156443 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15590-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysregulated immunity has been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders but its contribution to synaptic and behavioral deficits in Rett syndrome (RTT) remains unknown. P2X7 receptors (P2X7Rs) are unique purinergic receptors with pro-inflammatory functions. Here, we report in a MECP2-deficient mouse model of RTT that the border of the cerebral cortex exhibits increased number of inflammatory myeloid cells expressing cell-surface P2X7Rs. Total knockout of P2X7Rs in MECP2 deficient mice decreases the number of inflammatory myeloid cells, restores cortical dendritic spine dynamics, and improves the animals’ neurological function and social behavior. Furthermore, either genetic depletion of P2X7Rs in bone-marrow derived leukocytes or pharmacological block of P2X7Rs primarily outside of the central nervous system parenchyma, recapitulates the beneficial effects of total P2X7R depletion on the social behavior. Together, our results highlight the pathophysiological roles of P2X7Rs in a mouse model of RTT. P2X7 receptors are purinergic receptors with pro-inflammatory functions. Here, the authors show that inhibition of leukocyte P2X7 receptors reduces dendritic spine pathology and social behavioral deficits in a mouse model of Rett syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Mauricio Garré
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA. .,Department of Anesthesiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
| | - Hernandez Moura Silva
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Juan J Lafaille
- Kimmel Center for Biology and Medicine at the Skirball Institute, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.,Department of Pathology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Guang Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA. .,Department of Anesthesiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
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24
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Jyonouchi H, Geng L, Toruner GA, Rose S, Bennuri SC, Frye RE. Serum microRNAs in ASD: Association With Monocyte Cytokine Profiles and Mitochondrial Respiration. Front Psychiatry 2019; 10:614. [PMID: 31551826 PMCID: PMC6748029 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous research has shown that purified peripheral blood monocytes (PRMo) from individuals who are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and have innate immune abnormalities reveal altered interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß)/IL-10 ratios. We also found, in separate studies, that microRNA (miRNA) expression in PBMo and mitochondrial respiration in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) differed in the IL-1ß/IL-10-based ASD subgroups. This study explored whether serum miRNAs are associated with both altered innate immune responses and changes in mitochondrial respiration as a link of regulatory mechanisms for these two common abnormalities in ASD subjects. Serum miRNA levels were examined by high-throughput deep sequencing in ASD and non-ASD control sera with concurrent measurement of PBMo cytokine production and mitochondrial respiration by PBMCs. ASD samples were examined as a whole group and with respect to the previously defined IL-1ß/IL-10-based ASD subgroups (high, normal, and low groups). Serum miRNA levels differed between the overall ASD sera (N = 116) and non-ASD control sera (N = 35) and also differed across the IL-1ß/IL-10-based ASD subgroups. Specifically, miRNA levels were increased and decreased in eight and nine miRNAs, respectively, in the high-ratio ASD subgroup (N = 48). In contrast, the low- (N = 25) and normal- (N = 43) ratio ASD subgroups only showed decreased miRNAs levels (18 and 10 miRNAs, respectively). Gene targets of the altered miRNAs in the high and/or low IL-1β/IL-10 ratio ASD subgroups were enriched in pathways critical for monocyte functions and metabolic regulation. Gene targets of the altered miRNAs in all the ASD subgroups were enriched in pathways of neuronal development and synaptic plasticity, along with cell proliferation/differentiation. ASD subgroup-specific associations were observed between serum miRNA expression and IL-1ß/IL-10 ratios, mitochondrial respiration, and monocyte cytokine profiles (IL-10, CCL2, and TNF-α). In summary, our results indicate that serum levels of select miRNAs may serve as promising biomarkers for screening and monitoring changes in innate immunity and mitochondrial respiration in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harumi Jyonouchi
- Department of Pediatrics, Saint Peter's University Hospital (SPUH), New Brunswick, NJ, United States
| | - Lee Geng
- Department of Pediatrics, Saint Peter's University Hospital (SPUH), New Brunswick, NJ, United States
| | - Gokce A Toruner
- Clinical Cytogenetics, Department of Hematopathology, MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Shannon Rose
- Department of Pediatrics, Arkansas Children's Hospital Research Institute, Little Rock, AR, United States
| | - Sirish C Bennuri
- Department of Pediatrics, Arkansas Children's Hospital Research Institute, Little Rock, AR, United States
| | - Richard E Frye
- Department of Pediatrics, Phoenix Children's Hospital, Phoenix, AZ, United States
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