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Yang SN, Shi Y, Berggren PO. The anterior chamber of the eye technology and its anatomical, optical, and immunological bases. Physiol Rev 2024; 104:881-929. [PMID: 38206586 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00024.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The anterior chamber of the eye (ACE) is distinct in its anatomy, optics, and immunology. This guarantees that the eye perceives visual information in the context of physiology even when encountering adverse incidents like inflammation. In addition, this endows the ACE with the special nursery bed iris enriched in vasculatures and nerves. The ACE constitutes a confined space enclosing an oxygen/nutrient-rich, immune-privileged, and less stressful milieu as well as an optically transparent medium. Therefore, aside from visual perception, the ACE unexpectedly serves as an excellent transplantation site for different body parts and a unique platform for noninvasive, longitudinal, and intravital microimaging of different grafts. On the basis of these merits, the ACE technology has evolved from the prototypical through the conventional to the advanced version. Studies using this technology as a versatile biomedical research platform have led to a diverse range of basic knowledge and in-depth understanding of a variety of cells, tissues, and organs as well as artificial biomaterials, pharmaceuticals, and abiotic substances. Remarkably, the technology turns in vivo dynamic imaging of the morphological characteristics, organotypic features, developmental fates, and specific functions of intracameral grafts into reality under physiological and pathological conditions. Here we review the anatomical, optical, and immunological bases as well as technical details of the ACE technology. Moreover, we discuss major achievements obtained and potential prospective avenues for this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shao-Nian Yang
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yue Shi
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Per-Olof Berggren
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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2
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Aggarwal M, Striegel DA, Hara M, Periwal V. Geometric and topological characterization of the cytoarchitecture of islets of Langerhans. PLoS Comput Biol 2023; 19:e1011617. [PMID: 37943957 PMCID: PMC10662755 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The islets of Langerhans are critical endocrine micro-organs that secrete hormones regulating energy metabolism in animals. Insulin and glucagon, secreted by beta and alpha cells, respectively, are responsible for metabolic switching between fat and glucose utilization. Dysfunction in their secretion and/or counter-regulatory influence leads to diabetes. Debate in the field centers on the cytoarchitecture of islets, as the signaling that governs hormonal secretion depends on structural and functional factors, including electrical connectivity, innervation, vascularization, and physical proximity. Much effort has therefore been devoted to elucidating which architectural features are significant for function and how derangements in these features are correlated or causative for dysfunction, especially using quantitative network science or graph theory characterizations. Here, we ask if there are non-local features in islet cytoarchitecture, going beyond standard network statistics, that are relevant to islet function. An example is ring structures, or cycles, of α and δ cells surrounding β cell clusters or the opposite, β cells surrounding α and δ cells. These could appear in two-dimensional islet section images if a sphere consisting of one cell type surrounds a cluster of another cell type. To address these issues, we developed two independent computational approaches, geometric and topological, for such characterizations. For the latter, we introduce an application of topological data analysis to determine locations of topological features that are biologically significant. We show that both approaches, applied to a large collection of islet sections, are in complete agreement in the context both of developmental and diabetes-related changes in islet characteristics. The topological approach can be applied to three-dimensional imaging data for islets as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manu Aggarwal
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Deborah A. Striegel
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Manami Hara
- Section of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Vipul Periwal
- Laboratory of Biological Modeling, NIDDK, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
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3
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Park WY, Kim J, Le H, Kim B, Berggren PO, Kim KH. Longitudinal monitoring of pancreatic islet damage in streptozotocin-treated mice with optical coherence microscopy. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 14:54-64. [PMID: 36698658 PMCID: PMC9841987 DOI: 10.1364/boe.470188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Pancreatic islets regulate glucose homeostasis in the body, and their dysfunction is closely related to diabetes. Islet transplantation into the anterior chamber of the eye (ACE) was recently developed for both in vivo islet study and diabetes treatment. Optical coherence microscopy (OCM) was previously used to monitor ACE transplanted islets in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice for detecting autoimmune attack. In this study, OCM was applied to streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mouse models for the early detection of islet damage. A custom extended-focus OCM (xfOCM) was used to image islet grafts in the ACE longitudinally during STZ-induced beta cell destruction together with conventional bright-field (BF) imaging and invasive glucose level measurement. xfOCM detected local structural changes and vascular degradation during the islet damage which was confirmed by confocal imaging of extracted islet grafts. xfOCM detection of islet damage was more sensitive than BF imaging and glucose measurement. Longitudinal xfOCM images of islet grafts were quantitatively analyzed. All these results showed that xfOCM could be used as a non-invasive and sensitive monitoring method for the early detection of deficient islet grafts in the ACE with potential applications to human subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won Yeong Park
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaeyoon Kim
- Division of Integrative Biosciences & Biotechnology, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Hoan Le
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Bumju Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
| | - Per-Olof Berggren
- Division of Integrative Biosciences & Biotechnology, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-17 76 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ki Hean Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk 37673, Republic of Korea
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Jacobelli J, Buser AE, Heiden DL, Friedman RS. Autoimmunity in motion: Mechanisms of immune regulation and destruction revealed by in vivo imaging. Immunol Rev 2022; 306:181-199. [PMID: 34825390 PMCID: PMC9135487 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Autoimmunity arises when mechanisms of immune tolerance fail. Here we discuss mechanisms of T cell activation and tolerance and the dynamics of the autoimmune response at the site of disease. Live imaging of autoimmunity provides the ability to analyze immune cell dynamics at the single-cell level within the complex intact environment where disease occurs. These analyses have revealed mechanisms of T cell activation and tolerance in the lymph nodes, mechanisms of T cell entry into sites of autoimmune disease, and mechanisms leading to pathogenesis or protection in the autoimmune lesions. The overarching conclusions point to stable versus transient T cell antigen presenting cell interactions dictating the balance between T cell activation and tolerance, and T cell restimulation as a driver of pathogenesis at the site of autoimmunity. Findings from models of multiple sclerosis and type 1 diabetes are highlighted, however, the results have implications for basic mechanisms of T cell regulation during immune responses, tumor immunity, and autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Jacobelli
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Alan E. Buser
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Dustin L. Heiden
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Rachel S. Friedman
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, Department of Immunology & Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
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Zhao K, Shi Y, Yu J, Yu L, Mael A, Li Y, Kolton A, Joyce T, Odorico J, Berggren PO, Yang SN. Intracameral Microimaging of Maturation of Human iPSC Derivatives into Islet Endocrine Cells. Cell Transplant 2022; 31:9636897211066508. [PMID: 35156411 PMCID: PMC8848082 DOI: 10.1177/09636897211066508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We exploited the anterior chamber of the eye (ACE) of immunodeficient mice as an ectopic site for both transplantation and microimaging of engineered surrogate islets from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC-SIs). These islets contained a majority of insulin-expressing cells, positive or negative for PDX1 and NKX6.1, and a minority of glucagon- or somatostatin-positive cells. Single, non-aggregated hiPSC-SIs were satisfactorily engrafted onto the iris. They underwent gradual vascularization and progressively increased their light scattering signals, reflecting the abundance of zinc-insulin crystal packaged inside mature insulin secretory granules. Intracameral hiPSC-SIs retrieved from recipients showed enhanced insulin immunofluorescence in correlation with the parallel increase in overall vascularization and light backscattering during the post-transplantation period. This approach enables longitudinal, nondestructive and intravital microimaging of cell fates, engraftment, vascularization and mature insulin secretory granules of single hiPSC-SI grafts, and may offer a feasible and reliable means to screen compounds for promoting in vivo hiPSC-SI maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaixuan Zhao
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital L1, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yue Shi
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital L1, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jia Yu
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital L1, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lina Yu
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital L1, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Amber Mael
- Regenerative Medical Solutions, Inc., Madison, WI, USA
| | - Yuxin Li
- National Engineering Laboratory for Druggable Gene and Protein Screening, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
| | | | - Thomas Joyce
- Regenerative Medical Solutions, Inc., Madison, WI, USA
| | - Jon Odorico
- Regenerative Medical Solutions, Inc., Madison, WI, USA
| | - Per-Olof Berggren
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital L1, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Shao-Nian Yang
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital L1, Stockholm, Sweden.,National Engineering Laboratory for Druggable Gene and Protein Screening, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, China
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Ilegems E, Berggren PO. The Eye as a Transplantation Site to Monitor Pancreatic Islet Cell Plasticity. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:652853. [PMID: 33967961 PMCID: PMC8104082 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.652853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The endocrine cells confined in the islets of Langerhans are responsible for the maintenance of blood glucose homeostasis. In particular, beta cells produce and secrete insulin, an essential hormone regulating glucose uptake and metabolism. An insufficient amount of beta cells or defects in the molecular mechanisms leading to glucose-induced insulin secretion trigger the development of diabetes, a severe disease with epidemic spreading throughout the world. A comprehensive appreciation of the diverse adaptive procedures regulating beta cell mass and function is thus of paramount importance for the understanding of diabetes pathogenesis and for the development of effective therapeutic strategies. While significant findings were obtained by the use of islets isolated from the pancreas, in vitro studies are inherently limited since they lack the many factors influencing pancreatic islet cell function in vivo and do not allow for longitudinal monitoring of islet cell plasticity in the living organism. In this respect a number of imaging methodologies have been developed over the years for the study of islets in situ in the pancreas, a challenging task due to the relatively small size of the islets and their location, scattered throughout the organ. To increase imaging resolution and allow for longitudinal studies in individual islets, another strategy is based on the transplantation of islets into other sites that are more accessible for imaging. In this review we present the anterior chamber of the eye as a transplantation and imaging site for the study of pancreatic islet cell plasticity, and summarize the major research outcomes facilitated by this technological platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwin Ilegems
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Erwin Ilegems, ; Per-Olof Berggren,
| | - Per-Olof Berggren
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
- Diabetes Research Institute, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- Center for Diabetes and Metabolism Research, Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Ulster University, Coleraine, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Erwin Ilegems, ; Per-Olof Berggren,
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Alcazar O, Hernandez LF, Nakayasu ES, Piehowski PD, Ansong C, Abdulreda MH, Buchwald P. Longitudinal proteomics analysis in the immediate microenvironment of islet allografts during progression of rejection. J Proteomics 2020; 223:103826. [PMID: 32442648 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.103826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The applicability and benefits of pancreatic islet transplantation are limited due to various issues including the need to avoid immune-mediated rejection. Here, we used our experimental platform of allogeneic islet transplant in the anterior chamber of the eye (ACE-platform) to longitudinally monitor the progress of rejection in mice and obtain aqueous humor samples representative of the microenvironment of the graft for accurately-timed proteomic analyses. LC-MS/MS-based proteomics performed on such mass-limited samples (~5 μL) identified a total of 1296 proteins. Various analyses revealed distinct protein patterns associated with the mounting of the inflammatory and immune responses and their evolution with the progression of the rejection. Pathway analyses indicated predominant changes in cytotoxic functions, cell movement, and innate and adaptive immune responses. Network prediction analyses revealed transition from humoral to cellular immune response and exacerbation of pro-inflammatory signaling. One of the proteins identified by this localized proteomics as a candidate biomarker of islet rejection, Cystatin 3, was further validated by ELISA in the aqueous humor. This study provides (1) experimental evidence demonstrating the feasibility of longitudinal localized proteomics using small aqueous humor samples and (2) proof-of-concept for the discovery of biomarkers of impending immune attack from the immediate local microenvironment of ACE-transplanted islets. SIGNIFICANCE: The combination of the ACE-platform and longitudinal localized proteomics offers a powerful approach to biomarker discovery during the various stages of immune reactions mounted against transplanted tissues including pancreatic islets. It also supports proteomics-assisted drug discovery and development efforts aimed at preventing rejection through efficacy assessment of new agents by noninvasive and longitudinal graft monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Alcazar
- University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Diabetes Research Institute, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Luis F Hernandez
- University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Diabetes Research Institute, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Ernesto S Nakayasu
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Paul D Piehowski
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Charles Ansong
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Midhat H Abdulreda
- University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Diabetes Research Institute, Miami, FL, USA; University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Department of Surgery, Miami, FL, USA; University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Miami, FL, USA; University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, Miami, FL, USA.
| | - Peter Buchwald
- University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Diabetes Research Institute, Miami, FL, USA; University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, Miami, FL, USA.
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8
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Nilsson J, Fardoos R, Hansen L, Lövkvist H, Pietras K, Holmberg D, Schmidt-Christensen A. Recruited fibroblasts reconstitute the peri-islet membrane: a longitudinal imaging study of human islet grafting and revascularisation. Diabetologia 2020; 63:137-148. [PMID: 31701200 PMCID: PMC6890581 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-019-05018-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Rapid and adequate islet revascularisation and restoration of the islet-extracellular matrix (ECM) interaction are significant factors influencing islet survival and function of the transplanted islets in individuals with type 1 diabetes. Because the ECM encapsulating the islets is degraded during islet isolation, understanding the process of revascularisation and engraftment after transplantation is essential and needs further investigation. METHODS Here we apply a longitudinal and high-resolution imaging approach to investigate the dynamics of the pancreatic islet engraftment process up to 11 months after transplantation. Human and mouse islet grafts were inserted into the anterior chamber of the mouse eye, using a NOD.ROSA-tomato.Rag2-/- or B6.ROSA-tomato host allowing the investigation of the expansion of host vs donor cells and the contribution of host cells to aspects such as promoting the encapsulation and vascularisation of the graft. RESULTS A fibroblast-like stromal cell population of host origin rapidly migrates to ensheath the transplanted islet and aid in the formation of a basement membrane-like structure. Moreover, we show that the vessel network, while reconstituted by host endothelial cells, still retains the overall architecture of the donor islets. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION In this transplantation situation the fibroblast-like stromal cells appear to take over as main producers of ECM or act as a scaffold for other ECM-producing cells to reconstitute a peri-islet-like basement membrane. This may have implications for our understanding of long-term graft rejection and for the design of novel strategies to interfere with this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Nilsson
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 221 84, Lund, Sweden
- Lund University Diabetes Centre, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Rabiah Fardoos
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 221 84, Lund, Sweden
| | - Lisbeth Hansen
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 221 84, Lund, Sweden
| | - Håkan Lövkvist
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund, Neurology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Clinical Studies Sweden - Forum South, Unit for Medical Statistics and Epidemiology, Skåne University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
| | - Kristian Pietras
- Division of Translational Cancer Research, Department of Laboratory Medicine, BioCARE, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Dan Holmberg
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 221 84, Lund, Sweden
- Lund University Diabetes Centre, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Anja Schmidt-Christensen
- Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, 221 84, Lund, Sweden.
- Lund University Diabetes Centre, Malmö, Sweden.
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9
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Noninvasive intravital high-resolution imaging of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Sci Rep 2019; 9:14636. [PMID: 31601958 PMCID: PMC6787246 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51093-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Preclinical trials of cancer drugs in animal models are important for drug development. The Rip1Tag2 (RT2) transgenic mouse, a model of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumours (PNET), has provided immense knowledge about PNET biology, although tumour progression occurs in a location inaccessible for real-time monitoring. To overcome this hurdle we have developed a novel platform for intravital 3D imaging of RT2 tumours to facilitate real-time studies of cancer progression. Pre-oncogenic islets retrieved from RT2 mice were implanted into the anterior chamber of the eye (ACE) of host mice, where they engrafted on the iris, recruited blood vessels and showed continuous growth. Noninvasive confocal and two-photon laser-scanning microscopy through the transparent cornea facilitated high-resolution imaging of tumour growth and angiogenesis. RT2 tumours in the ACE expanded up to 8-fold in size and shared hallmarks with tumours developing in situ in the pancreas. Genetically encoded fluorescent reporters enabled high-resolution imaging of stromal cells and tumour cell migration. Sunitinib treatment impaired RT2 tumour angiogenesis and growth, while overexpression of the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-B increased tumour angiogenesis though tumour growth was impaired. In conclusion, we present a novel platform for intravital high-resolution and 3D imaging of PNET biology and cancer drug assessment.
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Abdulreda MH, Molano RD, Faleo G, Lopez-Cabezas M, Shishido A, Ulissi U, Fotino C, Hernandez LF, Tschiggfrie A, Aldrich VR, Tamayo-Garcia A, Bayer AS, Ricordi C, Caicedo A, Buchwald P, Pileggi A, Berggren PO. In vivo imaging of type 1 diabetes immunopathology using eye-transplanted islets in NOD mice. Diabetologia 2019; 62:1237-1250. [PMID: 31087105 PMCID: PMC6561836 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-019-4879-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Autoimmune attack against the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreatic islets results in type 1 diabetes. However, despite considerable research, details of the type 1 diabetes immunopathology in situ are not fully understood mainly because of difficult access to the pancreatic islets in vivo. METHODS Here, we used direct non-invasive confocal imaging of islets transplanted in the anterior chamber of the eye (ACE) to investigate the anti-islet autoimmunity in NOD mice before, during and after diabetes onset. ACE-transplanted islets allowed longitudinal studies of the autoimmune attack against islets and revealed the infiltration kinetics and in situ motility dynamics of fluorescence-labelled autoreactive T cells during diabetes development. Ex vivo immunostaining was also used to compare immune cell infiltrations into islet grafts in the eye and kidney as well as in pancreatic islets of the same diabetic NOD mice. RESULTS We found similar immune infiltration in native pancreatic and ACE-transplanted islets, which established the ACE-transplanted islets as reliable reporters of the autoimmune response. Longitudinal studies in ACE-transplanted islets identified in vivo hallmarks of islet inflammation that concurred with early immune infiltration of the islets and preceded their collapse and hyperglycaemia onset. A model incorporating data on ACE-transplanted islet degranulation and swelling allowed early prediction of the autoimmune attack in the pancreas and prompted treatments to intercept type 1 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION The current findings highlight the value of ACE-transplanted islets in studying early type 1 diabetes pathogenesis in vivo and underscore the need for timely intervention to halt disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Midhat H Abdulreda
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
| | - R Damaris Molano
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Gaetano Faleo
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Maite Lopez-Cabezas
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Alexander Shishido
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Ulisse Ulissi
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Carmen Fotino
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Luis F Hernandez
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Ashley Tschiggfrie
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Virginia R Aldrich
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Alejandro Tamayo-Garcia
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Allison S Bayer
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Camillo Ricordi
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
- Diabetes Research Institute Federation, Hollywood, FL, USA
| | - Alejandro Caicedo
- Department of Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Peter Buchwald
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
| | - Antonello Pileggi
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA.
- Center for Scientific Review, National Institutes of Health, 6701 Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA.
| | - Per-Olof Berggren
- Diabetes Research Institute and Cell Transplant Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
- Diabetes Research Institute Federation, Hollywood, FL, USA.
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital L1, SE-17176, Stockholm, Sweden.
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11
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Abstract
Diabetes develops due to deficient functional β cell mass, insulin resistance, or both. Yet, various challenges in understanding the mechanisms underlying diabetes development in vivo remain to be overcome owing to the lack of appropriate intravital imaging technologies. To meet these challenges, we have exploited the anterior chamber of the eye (ACE) as a novel imaging site to understand diabetes basics and clinics in vivo. We have developed a technology platform transplanting pancreatic islets into the ACE where they later on can be imaged non-invasively for long time. It turns out that the ACE serves as an optimal imaging site and provides implanted islets with an oxygen-rich milieu and an immune-privileged niche where they undergo optimal engraftment, rich vascularization and dense innervation, preserve organotypic features and live with satisfactory viability and functionality. The ACE technology has led to a series of significant observations. It enables in vivo microscopy of islet cytoarchitecture, function and viability in the physiological context and intravital imaging of a variety of pathological events such as autoimmune insulitis, defects in β cell function and mass and insulin resistance during diabetes development in a real-time manner. Furthermore, application of the ACE technology in humanized mice and non-human primates verifies translational and clinical values of the technology. In this article, we describe the ACE technology in detail, review accumulated knowledge gained by means of the ACE technology and delineate prospective avenues for the ACE technology.
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12
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Benson RA, Garcon F, Recino A, Ferdinand JR, Clatworthy MR, Waldmann H, Brewer JM, Okkenhaug K, Cooke A, Garside P, Wållberg M. Non-Invasive Multiphoton Imaging of Islets Transplanted Into the Pinna of the NOD Mouse Ear Reveals the Immediate Effect of Anti-CD3 Treatment in Autoimmune Diabetes. Front Immunol 2018; 9:1006. [PMID: 29867981 PMCID: PMC5968092 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a novel and readily accessible method facilitating cellular time-resolved imaging of transplanted pancreatic islets. Grafting of islets to the mouse ear pinna allows non-invasive, in vivo longitudinal imaging of events in the islets and enables improved acquisition of experimental data and use of fewer experimental animals than is possible using invasive techniques, as the same mouse can be assessed for the presence of islet infiltrating cells before and after immune intervention. We have applied this method to investigating therapeutic protection of beta cells through the well-established use of anti-CD3 injection, and have acquired unprecedented data on the nature and rapidity of the effect on the islet infiltrating T cells. We demonstrate that infusion of anti-CD3 antibody leads to immediate effects on islet infiltrating T cells in islet grafts in the pinna of the ear, and causes them to increase their speed and displacement within 20 min of infusion. This technique overcomes several technical challenges associated with intravital imaging of pancreatic immune responses and facilitates routine study of beta islet cell development, differentiation, and function in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. Benson
- College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Fabien Garcon
- Laboratory of Lymphocyte Signalling and Development, Babraham Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Asha Recino
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - John R. Ferdinand
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Menna R. Clatworthy
- Molecular Immunity Unit, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Herman Waldmann
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - James M. Brewer
- College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Klaus Okkenhaug
- Laboratory of Lymphocyte Signalling and Development, Babraham Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Anne Cooke
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Garside
- College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Maja Wållberg
- Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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13
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Chen C, Cohrs CM, Stertmann J, Bozsak R, Speier S. Human beta cell mass and function in diabetes: Recent advances in knowledge and technologies to understand disease pathogenesis. Mol Metab 2017; 6:943-957. [PMID: 28951820 PMCID: PMC5605733 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2017.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 293] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Plasma insulin levels are predominantly the product of the morphological mass of insulin producing beta cells in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans and the functional status of each of these beta cells. Thus, deficiency in either beta cell mass or function, or both, can lead to insufficient levels of insulin, resulting in hyperglycemia and diabetes. Nonetheless, the precise contribution of beta cell mass and function to the pathogenesis of diabetes as well as the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. In the past, this was largely due to the restricted number of technologies suitable for studying the scarcely accessible human beta cells. However, in recent years, a number of new platforms have been established to expand the available techniques and to facilitate deeper insight into the role of human beta cell mass and function as cause for diabetes and as potential treatment targets. SCOPE OF REVIEW This review discusses the current knowledge about contribution of human beta cell mass and function to different stages of type 1 and type 2 diabetes pathogenesis. Furthermore, it highlights standard and newly developed technological platforms for the study of human beta cell biology, which can be used to increase our understanding of beta cell mass and function in human glucose homeostasis. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS In contrast to early disease models, recent studies suggest that in type 1 and type 2 diabetes impairment of beta cell function is an early feature of disease pathogenesis while a substantial decrease in beta cell mass occurs more closely to clinical manifestation. This suggests that, in addition to beta cell mass replacement for late stage therapies, the development of novel strategies for protection and recovery of beta cell function could be most promising for successful diabetes treatment and prevention. The use of today's developing and wide range of technologies and platforms for the study of human beta cells will allow for a more detailed investigation of the underlying mechanisms and will facilitate development of treatment approaches to specifically target human beta cell mass and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunguang Chen
- Paul Langerhans Institute Dresden (PLID) of Helmholtz Zentrum München at the University Clinic Carl Gustav Carus of Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München-Neuherberg, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Christian M. Cohrs
- Paul Langerhans Institute Dresden (PLID) of Helmholtz Zentrum München at the University Clinic Carl Gustav Carus of Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München-Neuherberg, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Julia Stertmann
- Paul Langerhans Institute Dresden (PLID) of Helmholtz Zentrum München at the University Clinic Carl Gustav Carus of Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München-Neuherberg, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Robert Bozsak
- Paul Langerhans Institute Dresden (PLID) of Helmholtz Zentrum München at the University Clinic Carl Gustav Carus of Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München-Neuherberg, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Stephan Speier
- Paul Langerhans Institute Dresden (PLID) of Helmholtz Zentrum München at the University Clinic Carl Gustav Carus of Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtz Zentrum München, München-Neuherberg, Germany
- German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), München-Neuherberg, Germany
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14
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Nord C, Eriksson M, Dicker A, Eriksson A, Grong E, Ilegems E, Mårvik R, Kulseng B, Berggren PO, Gorzsás A, Ahlgren U. Biochemical profiling of diabetes disease progression by multivariate vibrational microspectroscopy of the pancreas. Sci Rep 2017; 7:6646. [PMID: 28751653 PMCID: PMC5532280 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07015-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the dramatic increase in the prevalence of diabetes, techniques for in situ studies of the underlying pancreatic biochemistry are lacking. Such methods would facilitate obtaining mechanistic understanding of diabetes pathophysiology and aid in prognostic and/or diagnostic assessments. In this report we demonstrate how a multivariate imaging approach (orthogonal projections to latent structures - discriminant analysis) can be applied to generate full vibrational microspectroscopic profiles of pancreatic tissues. These profiles enable extraction of known and previously unrecorded biochemical alterations in models of diabetes, and allow for classification of the investigated tissue with regards to tissue type, strain and stage of disease progression. Most significantly, the approach provided evidence for dramatic alterations of the pancreatic biochemistry at the initial onset of immune-infiltration in the Non Obese Diabetic model for type 1 diabetes. Further, it enabled detection of a previously undocumented accumulation of collagen fibrils in the leptin deficient ob/ob mouse islets. By generating high quality spectral profiles through the tissue capsule of hydrated human pancreata and by in vivo Raman imaging of pancreatic islets transplanted to the anterior chamber of the eye, we provide critical feasibility studies for the translation of this technique to diagnostic assessments of pancreatic biochemistry in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoffer Nord
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Maria Eriksson
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Andrea Dicker
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Eriksson
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Eivind Grong
- Centre for Obesity, Department of Surgery, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.,Obesity Research Group, Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Erwin Ilegems
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ronald Mårvik
- Centre for Obesity, Department of Surgery, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.,Obesity Research Group, Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Bård Kulseng
- Centre for Obesity, Department of Surgery, St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway.,Obesity Research Group, Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Per-Olof Berggren
- The Rolf Luft Research Center for Diabetes and Endocrinology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Ulf Ahlgren
- Umeå Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
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15
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Marchand PJ, Bouwens A, Szlag D, Nguyen D, Descloux A, Sison M, Coquoz S, Extermann J, Lasser T. Visible spectrum extended-focus optical coherence microscopy for label-free sub-cellular tomography. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 8:3343-3359. [PMID: 28717571 PMCID: PMC5508832 DOI: 10.1364/boe.8.003343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
We present a novel extended-focus optical coherence microscope (OCM) attaining 0.7 μm axial and 0.4 μm lateral resolution maintained over a depth of 40 μm, while preserving the advantages of Fourier domain OCM. Our system uses an ultra-broad spectrum from a supercontinuum laser source. As the spectrum spans from near-infrared to visible wavelengths (240 nm in bandwidth), we call the system visOCM. The combination of such a broad spectrum with a high-NA objective creates an almost isotropic 3D submicron resolution. We analyze the imaging performance of visOCM on microbead samples and demonstrate its image quality on cell cultures and ex-vivo brain tissue of both healthy and alzheimeric mice. In addition to neuronal cell bodies, fibers and plaques, visOCM imaging of brain tissue reveals fine vascular structures and sub-cellular features through its high spatial resolution. Sub-cellular structures were also observed in live cells and were further revealed through a protocol traditionally used for OCT angiography.
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16
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Optical Coherence Microscopy. Methods Mol Biol 2017. [PMID: 28324609 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6810-7_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
The present chapter aims at demonstrating the capabilities of optical coherence microscopy (OCM) for applications in biomedical imaging. We furthermore review the functional imaging capabilities of OCM focusing on lable-free optical angiography. We conclude with a section on digital wavefront control and a short outlook on future developments, in particular for contrast enhancement techniques.
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17
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Berclaz C, Szlag D, Nguyen D, Extermann J, Bouwens A, Marchand PJ, Nilsson J, Schmidt-Christensen A, Holmberg D, Grapin-Botton A, Lasser T. Label-free fast 3D coherent imaging reveals pancreatic islet micro-vascularization and dynamic blood flow. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2016; 7:4569-4580. [PMID: 27895996 PMCID: PMC5119596 DOI: 10.1364/boe.7.004569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 09/16/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
In diabetes, pancreatic β-cells play a key role. These cells are clustered within structures called islets of Langerhans inside the pancreas and produce insulin, which is directly secreted into the blood stream. The dense vascularization of islets of Langerhans is critical for maintaining a proper regulation of blood glucose homeostasis and is known to be affected from the early stage of diabetes. The deep localization of these islets inside the pancreas in the abdominal cavity renders their in vivo visualization a challenging task. A fast label-free imaging method with high spatial resolution is required to study the vascular network of islets of Langerhans. Based on these requirements, we developed a label-free and three-dimensional imaging method for observing islets of Langerhans using extended-focus Fourier domain Optical Coherence Microscopy (xfOCM). In addition to structural imaging, this system provides three-dimensional vascular network imaging and dynamic blood flow information within islets of Langerhans. We propose our method to deepen the understanding of the interconnection between diabetes and the evolution of the islet vascular network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne Berclaz
- Laboratoire d’Optique Biomédicale, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland
| | - Daniel Szlag
- Laboratoire d’Optique Biomédicale, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland
| | - David Nguyen
- Laboratoire d’Optique Biomédicale, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland
| | - Jérôme Extermann
- Laboratoire d’Optique Biomédicale, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland
- Hepia, University of Applied Science of Western Switzerland, 1202 Genève,
Switzerland
| | - Arno Bouwens
- Laboratoire d’Optique Biomédicale, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland
| | - Paul J. Marchand
- Laboratoire d’Optique Biomédicale, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland
| | | | | | - Dan Holmberg
- EMV Immunology, Lund University, 22100 Lund,
Sweden
| | | | - Theo Lasser
- Laboratoire d’Optique Biomédicale, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL),1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland
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