Alternative Fuel Implementation in a Cement Plant: Human Health Risks and Economical Valuation

Air concentrations of trace elements in a municipality under the influence of Tarragona petrochemical complex: Human health risks

One of the largest petrochemical complexes of southern Europe is located in Tarragona County (Catalonia, Spain). Despite environmental monitoring is routinely conducted in the area, the long-term occurrence of airborne trace elements has been poorly investigated. In the present study, the concentrations of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and vanadium (V) were analysed in air samples collected in El Morell, a town potentially impacted by the petrochemical. Air samples were simultaneously collected in the town of Cambrils, as a background site. Meteorological data and retro trajectories analysis were used to evaluate the impact of the petrochemical industry on the levels of trace elements in air. Subsequently, human health risks due to inhalation exposure to the trace elements were also assessed. Except for V, air concentrations were significantly higher near the oil refinery than the background levels. Human health risks were also estimated to be higher in the vicinity of the petrochemical complex. In turn, air inhalation of Pb and V was higher than their dietary intakes. The present data should be considered only as preliminary, since the sampling was taken during only three weeks, which is an insufficient period to extract reliable conclusions. Further long-term studies should be focused on assessing the influence of temporary variables, such as meteorological conditions and fugitive or sporadic emissions.

Exposure and Risk Assessment to Airborne dl-PCBs and Dioxins in the Population Living in the Neighborhood of a Cement Plant: A Pilot Study in the Valencian Region of Spain

Emissions from cement manufacturing facilities may increase health risks in nearby populations. For this reason, dioxin-like PCB (dl-PCB), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (PCDD), and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDF) concentrations in PM₁₀ samples were assessed in the vicinity of a cement manufacturing plant located in the Valencian Region (eastern Spain). The total concentrations of the sum of dl-PCBs, PCDDs, and PCDFs ranged between 1.85 and 42.53 fg TEQ/m³ at the assessed stations. The average daily inhalation dose (DID) for the sum in adults ranged from 8.93 · 10^-4 to 3.75 · 10^-3 pg WHO TEQ kg^-1 b.w. d^-1, and, for children, the DID ranged from 2.01 · 10^-3 to 8.44 · 10^-3 pg WHO TEQ kg^-1 b.w. d^-1. Risk assessment for adults and children was performed using both daily and chronic exposure. The hazard quotient (HQ) was calculated considering 0.025 pg WHO TEQ kg^-1 b.w. d^-1 to be the acceptable maximum permitted inhalation exposure. The HQ obtained was slightly higher than 1 for PCDD/Fs at one of the stations (Chiva), indicating a possible health risk for the population under study due to inhalation exposure. In the case of chronic exposure, cancer risk (>10^-6) was observed for some samples in one of the assessed sampling sites (Chiva).

Scaling up resource recovery of plastics in the emergent circular economy to prevent plastic pollution: Assessment of risks to health and safety in the Global South

Over the coming decades, a large additional mass of plastic waste will become available for recycling, as efforts increase to reduce plastic pollution and facilitate a circular economy. New infrastructure will need to be developed, yet the processes and systems chosen should not result in adverse effects on human health and the environment. Here, we present a rapid review and critical semi-quantitative assessment of the potential risks posed by eight approaches to recovering value during the resource recovery phase from post-consumer plastic packaging waste collected and separated with the purported intention of recycling. The focus is on the Global South, where there are more chances that high risk processes could be run below standards of safe operation. Results indicate that under non-idealised operational conditions, mechanical reprocessing is the least impactful on the environment and therefore most appropriate for implementation in developing countries. Processes known as 'chemical recycling' are hard to assess due to lack of real-world process data. Given their lack of maturity and potential for risk to human health and the environment (handling of potentially hazardous substances under pressure and heat), it is unlikely they will make a useful addition to the circular economy in the Global South in the near future. Inevitably, increasing circular economy activity will require expansion towards targeting flexible, multi-material and multilayer products, for which mechanical recycling has well-established limitations. Our comparative risk overview indicates major barriers to changing resource recovery mode from the already dominant mechanical recycling mode towards other nascent or energetic recovery approaches.

Environmental levels and human health risks of metals and PCDD/Fs near cement plants co-processing alternative fuels in Catalonia, NE Spain: a mini-review

This paper was aimed at reviewing recent studies related with the impact on environment and human health of metals and PCDD/Fs near cement plants. It has been particularly focused on the impact of cement plants located in Catalonia, Spain, which have been monitored by our research for more than ten years. Environmental monitoring studies were performed under different cement plant conditions. While some of our studies examined temporal trends of the levels of the above indicated pollutants, the main goal of other surveys was to assess the impact of implementing alternative fuels in the facilities. Even one of the studies was performed before and after the cement plant temporally ceased its industrial activity. The impact of cement plants burning alternative fuels on the emissions of metals and PCDD/Fs elsewhere was also reviewed. Regarding the cement plants in Catalonia, no significant differences were found, neither in the long-term follow-up studies, nor when alternative fuels are used, nor when a cement plant temporally stopped its activity. These results are in agreement with those reported for several stack emissions of other cement plants working under different conditions. We conclude that emissions of metals and PCDD/Fs by cement plants working with the best available techniques (BAT), should not cause a significant negative impact neither on the surrounding environment, nor on the human health of the population living in the neighborhood.

Contamination identification, source apportionment and health risk assessment of trace elements at different fractions of atmospheric particles at iron and steelmaking areas in China

China has the largest share of global iron and steel production, which is considered to play a significant contribution to air pollution. This study aims to investigate trace element contamination at different fractions of particulate matter (PM) at industrial areas in China. Three PM fractions, PM2.1-9.0, PM1.1-2.1 and PM1.1, were collected from areas surrounding iron and steelmaking plants at Kunming, Wuhan, Nanjing and Ningbo in China. Multiple trace elements and their bioavailability, as well as Pb isotopic compositions, were analysed for identification of contaminants, health risk assessment and source apportionment. Results showed that PM particles in the sites near industrial areas were associated with a range of toxic trace elements, specifically As, Cr(VI), Cd and Mn, and posed significant health risks to humans. The isotopic Pb compositions identified that coal and high temperature metallurgical processes in the steelmaking process were the dominant contributors to local air pollution in these sites. In addition to iron and steelmaking activities, traffic emissions and remote pollution also played a contributing role in PM contamination, confirmed by the differences of Pb isotopic compositions at each PM fraction and statistical results from Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment Evaluations (PROMETHEE) and Geometrical Analysis for Interactive Aid (GAIA). The results presented in this study provide a comprehensive understanding of PM emissions at iron and steelmaking areas, which helps to guide subsequent updates of air pollution control guidelines to efficiently minimise environmental footprint and ensure long term sustainability of the industries.

Metals risk assessment for children's health in water and particulate matter in a southeastern Brazilian city

Ribeirão Preto City is supplied by the Guarani Aquifer System and suffers with intense environmental degradation due to growth of the vehicle fleet, burning of cane fields and also with water contamination by agricultural products, such as pesticides and fertilizers. The aim of the present study was to assess the human health risk derived from the exposure to metals through water and air (PM₁₀) for two population groups (adults and children) of the municipality of Ribeirão Preto during the dry and wet seasons. Seasonal and spatial assessments of the metal concentrations in supply wells and household waters and the concentrations of PM₁₀ and its metals were also performed. Element concentrations were determined by inductively coupled plasma spectrometry. Environmental exposure to metals were assessed under a residential scenario and estimated considering the three main routes of exposure: ingestion, dermal contact and inhalation. The results showed a higher concentration of PM₁₀ during the dry season, which may be due to the lower precipitation and higher number of burns in this period. Copper in household waters presented a great increase when compared with the concentrations of the supply wells, probably related to the contamination during the route from its source until the residences supply. Although presenting levels in accordance with the national legislation, household waters in the municipality of Ribeirão Preto may be a concern for human exposure to metals for children during the wet season as well as the levels found for the carcinogenic risk (ELCR).

Partial replacement of fossil fuels in a cement plant: Assessment of human health risks by metals, metalloids and PCDD/Fs

In 2009, a cement plant located in Alcanar (South Catalonia, Spain) started co-processing a special kind of refuse-derived fuel (RDF) called ENERFUEL™. In April 2014 and 2017, 5 and 8 years after RDF co-processing, the concentrations of metals and metalloids (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Tl, V and Zn) and PCDD/Fs were measured in samples of soils, herbage and air collected in the vicinity of the facility. The comparison of the current concentrations with those obtained in a baseline study (2008), when fossil fuels were used solely, has shown that the environmental concentrations of metals, metalloids and PCDD/Fs were not significantly modified. The concentrations of metals, metalloids and PCDD/Fs in soil, vegetation and air of Alcanar are in the low part of the ranges found around other cement plants in Catalonia (in general, below 50th percentile). Non-carcinogenic risks due to exposure to metals, metalloids and PCDD/Fs were lower than the safety value (HQ<1). In turn, carcinogenic risks were below the 10^-5 Spanish threshold. The present results corroborate that, from an environmental point of view, the use of wastes as alternative fuels (AF) in a cement plant, which is operating with suitable technical conditions, is a good option for waste management. It contributes towards overcoming challenges such as climate change and fossil fuel depletion, while utilizing principles of circular economy.

Main components of PM10 in an area influenced by a cement plant in Catalonia, Spain: Seasonal and daily variations

Particulate matter (PM) composition has a key role in a wide range of health outcomes, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, and death, among others. Montcada i Reixac, a municipality located in the Barcelona metropolitan area (Catalonia, Spain), for its location and orography, is an interesting case- study to investigate air pollution. The area is also characterized by the presence of different industrial emission sources, including a cement factory and a large waste management plant, as well as an intense traffic. In this study, PM₁₀ levels, trace elements, ions, and carbonaceous particles were determined for a long time period (2013-2016) in this highly polluted area. PM₁₀ samples were collected during six consecutive days in two campaigns (cold and warm) per year. A number of elements (As, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, Hf, Hg, Ho, K, La, Li, Hg, Mg, Mn, Mo, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pr, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Sr, Tb, Th, Ti, Tl, U, V, W, Y, Yb, and Zr), ions (Cl^-, SO₄^2-, NO₃^-, and NH₄⁺), and carbonaceous content (total carbon, organic plus elemental carbon, and CO₃^2-), were analysed. These data were used to identify the PM₁₀ main components: mineral matter, sea spray, secondary inorganic aerosols, organic matter plus elemental carbon, trace elements or indeterminate fraction. Although a clear seasonality (cold vs. warm periods) was found, there were no differences between working days and weekends. Obviously, the cement plant influences the surrounding environment. However, no differences in trace elements related with the cement plant activity (Al, Ca, Ni and V) between weekdays and weekends were noted. However, some traffic-related elements (i.e., Co, Cr, Mn, and Sb) showed significantly higher concentrations in weekdays.

Distribution of Arsenic and Risk Assessment of Activities on Soccer Pitches Irrigated with Arsenic-Contaminated Water

The aim of this research was to estimate the risk of human exposure to arsenic due to sporting activities in a private soccer club in Mexico, where arsenic-contaminated water was regularly used for irrigation. For this purpose, the total concentration in the topsoil was considered for risk assessment. This was accomplished through three main objectives: (1) measuring arsenic concentrations in irrigation water and irrigated soils, (2) determining arsenic spatial distribution in shallow soils with Geographical Information Systems (GIS) using geostatistical analysis, and (3) collecting field and survey data to develop a risk assessment calculation for soccer activities in the soccer club. The results showed that the average arsenic concentrations in shallow soils (138.1 mg/kg) were 6.2 times higher than the Mexican threshold for domestic soils (22 mg/kg). Furthermore, dermal contact between exposed users and contaminated soils accounted for a maximum carcinogenic risk value of 1.8 × 10⁻⁵, which is one order of magnitude higher than the recommended risk value, while arsenic concentrations in the irrigation water were higher (6 mg/L) than the WHO’s permissible threshold in drinking water, explaining the contamination of soils after irrigation. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first risk study regarding dermal contact with arsenic following regular grass irrigation with contaminated water in soccer pitches.

Temporal trend in the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emitted in a big tire landfill fire in Spain: Risk assessment for human health

In May 2016, a big fire occurred in an illegal landfill placed in Seseña (Toledo, Spain), where between 70,000 and 90,000 tons of tires had been accumulated during years. Just after the fire, and because of the increase of airborne PAHs, we found that cancer risks for the population living in the neighborhood of the landfill were 3-5 times higher than for the rest of inhabitants of Seseña. Some months after our initial (June 2016) study, two sampling campaigns (December 2016 and May 2017) were performed to assess the temporal trends of the environmental levels of PAHs, as well as to reassure that these chemicals did not pose any risk for the human health of Seseña inhabitants. In soils, the total concentrations of the 16 PAHs (December 2016), as well as the sum of the seven carcinogenic PAHs, showed values between 8.5 and 94.7 ng g^-1 and between 1.0 and 42.3 ng g^-1, respectively. In May 2017, a significant decrease (between 4 and 38 times) in the levels of PAHs in air was observed, with total concentrations ranging between 3.49 and 5.06 ng m^-3. One year after the fire, the cancer risk at different zones of Seseña was similar, being lower than that found in June 2016, and negligible according to national and international agencies.

Environmental trends of metals and PCDD/Fs around a cement plant after alternative fuel implementation: human health risk assessment

This study aimed at evaluating the potential impact of a cement plant after 4 years of the employment of alternative fuel. In June 2015, concentrations of PCDD/Fs and metals were determined in soils, vegetation and air in order to measure potential changes with respect to previous surveys before (July 2011) and after (June 2013) the employment of alternative fuel. Risks to human health were also assessed. In soils, metal levels were similar to those observed in June 2013 (p > 0.05). In comparison with July 2011, the increment was only statistically significant for As and Cd (p < 0.05). A notable increase in levels of PCDD/Fs was noted when current levels in soils (1.14 ng WHO-TEQ per kg) were compared with those observed in July 2011 (0.37 ng WHO-TEQ per kg) (p > 0.05) and June 2013 (0.41 ng WHO-TEQ per kg) (p < 0.05). This increase was mainly caused by the increase in PCDD/F levels at one sampling site, which showed the heterogeneity of PCDD/F levels in soils, possibly as a result of different point emissions over the years. On the other hand, temporal trends in levels of metals and PCDD/Fs in vegetation showed a clear decrease, which indicated that the particle fraction of these pollutants would potentially be removed from leaf surfaces by wash-off. In air, levels were similar to those found in previous surveys. The results of PCA showed that the change in fuel had not affected the environmental profiles of metals and PCDD/Fs around the cement plant. The exposure of the population living in the surroundings of the plant was measured and it was shown that diet was the major contributor for both metals and PCDD/Fs, with percentages of over 97%, the only exceptions being As and Pb, for which dietary intake accounted for 43% and 71% of the total exposure, respectively. Environmental non-cancer and cancer risks were within the limits considered as acceptable by international standards.

Human exposure to environmental pollutants after a tire landfill fire in Spain: Health risks

In May 2016, a fire occurred in one of the largest landfills in Europe (Seseña, Toledo, Spain), where 70,000-90,000tons of tires had been illegally accumulated for >15years. Because of the proximity of population nuclei and the duration of the episode (>20days), we conducted a preliminary human health risk assessment study just after the tire fire. Samples of air and soil were collected in 3 areas surrounding the landfill (El Quiñón, at only 500m, and Seseña Nuevo and Seseña Viejo, both at 4km), as well as in background sites. In addition, samples of crops (barley, wheat, cabbage and lettuce) were also obtained from local farmers. The concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and a number of trace elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sn, Tl, and V) were analyzed in all the samples. The concentrations of all the target pollutants, excepting PAHs, were relatively similar at the different sampling zones, irrespective of the distance to the landfill. In turn, a significant increase of PAHs was noted near the tire landfill, with air levels up to 6-times higher than those found at 4km (134 vs. 19.5-22.7ng/m³). Similarly, PAH concentrations in lettuce were relatively higher than those typically found in monitoring programs of food safety. Because of the increase of airborne PAHs, cancer risks due to exposure to environmental pollutants for the population living at El Quiñón, near the landfill, were between 3- and 5-times higher than those estimated for the inhabitants of Seseña. After this preliminary study, further investigations, focused only on PAHs, but more extensive in terms of number of samples, should be conducted to assure that PAHs have been progressively degraded through time.