1
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Ding M, Nielsen K. Inbred Mouse Models in Cryptococcus neoformans Research. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:426. [PMID: 38921412 PMCID: PMC11204852 DOI: 10.3390/jof10060426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Animal models are frequently used as surrogates to understand human disease. In the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus species complex, several variations of a mouse model of disease were developed that recapitulate different aspects of human disease. These mouse models have been implemented using various inbred and outbred mouse backgrounds, many of which have genetic differences that can influence host response and disease outcome. In this review, we will discuss the most commonly used inbred mouse backgrounds in C. neoformans infection models.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kirsten Nielsen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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2
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Donoghue LJ, McFadden KM, Vargas D, Smith GJ, Immormino RM, Moran TP, Kelada SNP. Collaborative cross strain CC011/UncJ as a novel mouse model of T2-high, severe asthma. Respir Res 2023; 24:153. [PMID: 37296458 PMCID: PMC10251525 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-023-02453-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Among asthmatics, there is significant heterogeneity in the clinical presentation and underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, leading to the recognition of multiple disease endotypes (e.g., T2-high vs. T2-low). This heterogeneity extends to severe asthmatics, who may struggle to control symptoms even with high-dose corticosteroid treatment and other therapies. However, there are limited mouse models available to model the spectrum of severe asthma endotypes. We sought to identify a new mouse model of severe asthma by first examining responses to chronic allergen exposure among strains from the Collaborative Cross (CC) mouse genetics reference population, which contains greater genetic diversity than other inbred strain panels previously used for models of asthma. Mice from five CC strains and the often-used classical inbred strain BALB/cJ were chronically exposed to house dust mite (HDM) allergen for five weeks followed by measurements of airway inflammation. CC strain CC011/UncJ (CC011) exhibited extreme responses to HDM including high levels of airway eosinophilia, elevated lung resistance, and extensive airway wall remodeling, and even fatalities among ~ 50% of mice prior to study completion. Compared to BALB/cJ mice, CC011 mice had stronger Th2-mediated airway responses demonstrated by significantly elevated total and HDM-specific IgE and increased Th2 cytokines during tests of antigen recall, but not enhanced ILC2 activation. Airway eosinophilia in CC011 mice was completely dependent upon CD4+ T-cells. Notably, we also found that airway eosinophilia in CC011 mice was resistant to dexamethasone steroid treatment. Thus, the CC011 strain provides a new mouse model of T2-high, severe asthma driven by natural genetic variation likely acting through CD4+ T-cells. Future studies aimed at determining the genetic basis of this phenotype will provide new insights into mechanisms underlying severe asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren J Donoghue
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Kathryn M McFadden
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Daniel Vargas
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Gregory J Smith
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Robert M Immormino
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Allergy and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for Environmental Medicine, Asthma and Lung Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Timothy P Moran
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Allergy and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Center for Environmental Medicine, Asthma and Lung Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Samir N P Kelada
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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3
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Bucknor MC, Gururajan A, Dale RC, Hofer MJ. A comprehensive approach to modeling maternal immune activation in rodents. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:1071976. [PMID: 36590294 PMCID: PMC9800799 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1071976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Prenatal brain development is a highly orchestrated process, making it a very vulnerable window to perturbations. Maternal stress and subsequent inflammation during pregnancy leads to a state referred to as, maternal immune activation (MIA). If persistent, MIA can pose as a significant risk factor for the manifestation of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) such as autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia. To further elucidate this association between MIA and NDD risk, rodent models have been used extensively across laboratories for many years. However, there are few uniform approaches for rodent MIA models which make not only comparisons between studies difficult, but some established approaches come with limitations that can affect experimental outcomes. Here, we provide researchers with a comprehensive review of common experimental variables and potential limitations that should be considered when designing an MIA study based in a rodent model. Experimental variables discussed include: innate immune stimulation using poly I:C and LPS, environmental gestational stress paradigms, rodent diet composition and sterilization, rodent strain, neonatal handling, and the inclusion of sex-specific MIA offspring analyses. We discuss how some aspects of these variables have potential to make a profound impact on MIA data interpretation and reproducibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan C. Bucknor
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Anand Gururajan
- The Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Russell C. Dale
- The Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Kids Neuroscience Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia,The Children’s Hospital at Westmead Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Markus J. Hofer
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia,*Correspondence: Markus J. Hofer,
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4
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Mostafa DHD, Hemshekhar M, Piyadasa H, Altieri A, Halayko AJ, Pascoe CD, Mookherjee N. Characterization of sex-related differences in allergen house dust mite-challenged airway inflammation, in two different strains of mice. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20837. [PMID: 36460835 PMCID: PMC9718733 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25327-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological sex impacts disease prevalence, severity and response to therapy in asthma, however preclinical studies often use only one sex in murine models. Here, we detail sex-related differences in immune responses using a house dust mite (HDM)-challenge model of acute airway inflammation, in adult mice of two different strains (BALB/c and C57BL/6NJ). Female and male mice were challenged (intranasally) with HDM extract (~ 25 μg) for 2 weeks (N = 10 per group). Increase in serum HDM-specific IgE showed a female bias, which was statistically significant in BALB/c mice. We compared naïve and HDM-challenged mice to define immune responses in the lungs by assessing leukocyte accumulation in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and profiling the abundance of 29 different cytokines in BALF and lung tissue lysates. Our results demonstrate specific sex-related and strain-dependent differences in airway inflammation. For example, HDM-driven accumulation of neutrophils, eosinophils and macrophages were significantly higher in females compared to males, in BALB/c mice. In contrast, HDM-mediated eosinophil accumulation was higher in males compared to females, in C57BL/6NJ mice. Differences in lung cytokine profiles indicated that HDM drives a T-helper (Th)17-biased response with higher IL-17 levels in female BALB/c mice compared to males, whereas female C57BL/6NJ mice elicit a mixed Th1/Th2-skewed response. Male mice of both strains showed higher levels of specific Th2-skewed cytokines, such as IL-21, IL-25 and IL-9, in response to HDM. Overall, this study details sex dimorphism in HDM-mediated airway inflammation in mice, which will be a valuable resource for preclinical studies in allergic airway inflammation and asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina H. D. Mostafa
- grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Department of Immunology, University of Manitoba, 799 JBRC, 715 McDermot Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4 Canada ,grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Manitoba Centre for Proteomics and Systems Biology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada
| | - Mahadevappa Hemshekhar
- grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Manitoba Centre for Proteomics and Systems Biology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada
| | - Hadeesha Piyadasa
- grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Department of Immunology, University of Manitoba, 799 JBRC, 715 McDermot Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4 Canada ,grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Manitoba Centre for Proteomics and Systems Biology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada ,grid.168010.e0000000419368956Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94304 USA
| | - Anthony Altieri
- grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Department of Immunology, University of Manitoba, 799 JBRC, 715 McDermot Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4 Canada ,grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Manitoba Centre for Proteomics and Systems Biology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada
| | - Andrew J. Halayko
- grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada ,grid.460198.20000 0004 4685 0561Biology of Breathing Group, The Children’s Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada
| | - Christopher D. Pascoe
- grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada ,grid.460198.20000 0004 4685 0561Biology of Breathing Group, The Children’s Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada
| | - Neeloffer Mookherjee
- grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Department of Immunology, University of Manitoba, 799 JBRC, 715 McDermot Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3P4 Canada ,grid.21613.370000 0004 1936 9609Manitoba Centre for Proteomics and Systems Biology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada ,grid.460198.20000 0004 4685 0561Biology of Breathing Group, The Children’s Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB Canada
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5
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Ba MA, Aiyuk A, Hernández K, Evasovic JM, Wuebbles RD, Burkin DJ, Singer CA. Transgenic overexpression of α7 integrin in smooth muscle attenuates allergen‐induced airway inflammation in a murine model of asthma. FASEB Bioadv 2022; 4:724-740. [PMID: 36349295 PMCID: PMC9635010 DOI: 10.1096/fba.2022-00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the lower airways characterized by modulation of airway smooth muscle (ASM) function. Infiltration of smooth muscle by inflammatory mediators is partially regulated by transmembrane integrins and the major smooth muscle laminin receptor α7β1 integrin plays a critical role in the maintenance of ASM phenotype. The goal of the current study was to investigate the role of α7 integrin in asthma using smooth muscle‐specific α7 integrin transgenic mice (TgSM‐Itgα7) using both acute and chronic OVA sensitization and challenge protocols that mimic mild to severe asthmatic phenotypes. Transgenic over‐expression of the α7 integrin in smooth muscle resulted in a significant decrease in airway resistance relative to controls, reduced the total number of inflammatory cells and substantially inhibited the production of crucial Th2 and Th17 cytokines in airways. This was accompanied by decreased secretion of various inflammatory chemokines such as eotaxin/CCL11, KC/CXCL3, MCP‐1/CCL2, and MIP‐1β/CCL4. Additionally, α7 integrin overexpression significantly decreased ERK1/2 phosphorylation in the lungs of TgSM‐Itgα7 mice and affected proliferative, contractile, and inflammatory downstream effectors of ERK1/2 that drive smooth muscle phenotype in the lung. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that enhanced expression of α7 integrin in vivo inhibits allergic inflammation and airway resistance. Moreover, we identify ERK1/2 as a potential target by which α7 integrin signals to regulate airway inflammation. We conclude that identification of therapeutics targeting an increase in smooth muscle α7 integrin expression could serve as a potential novel treatment for asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam A. Ba
- Department of Pharmacology University of Nevada School of Medicine Reno Nevada USA
| | - Annemarie Aiyuk
- Department of Pharmacology University of Nevada School of Medicine Reno Nevada USA
| | - Karla Hernández
- Department of Pharmacology University of Nevada School of Medicine Reno Nevada USA
| | - Jon M. Evasovic
- Department of Pharmacology University of Nevada School of Medicine Reno Nevada USA
| | - Ryan D. Wuebbles
- Department of Pharmacology University of Nevada School of Medicine Reno Nevada USA
| | - Dean J. Burkin
- Department of Pharmacology University of Nevada School of Medicine Reno Nevada USA
| | - Cherie A. Singer
- Department of Pharmacology University of Nevada School of Medicine Reno Nevada USA
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6
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Boucher M, Henry C, Dufour-Mailhot A, Khadangi F, Bossé Y. Smooth Muscle Hypocontractility and Airway Normoresponsiveness in a Mouse Model of Pulmonary Allergic Inflammation. Front Physiol 2021; 12:698019. [PMID: 34267677 PMCID: PMC8277197 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.698019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The contractility of airway smooth muscle (ASM) is labile. Although this feature can greatly modulate the degree of airway responsiveness in vivo, the extent by which ASM's contractility is affected by pulmonary allergic inflammation has never been compared between strains of mice exhibiting a different susceptibility to develop airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). Herein, female C57BL/6 and BALB/c mice were treated intranasally with either saline or house dust mite (HDM) once daily for 10 consecutive days to induce pulmonary allergic inflammation. The doses of HDM were twice greater in the less susceptible C57BL/6 strain. All outcomes, including ASM contractility, were measured 24 h after the last HDM exposure. As expected, while BALB/c mice exposed to HDM became hyperresponsive to a nebulized challenge with methacholine in vivo, C57BL/6 mice remained normoresponsive. The lack of AHR in C57BL/6 mice occurred despite exhibiting more than twice as much inflammation than BALB/c mice in bronchoalveolar lavages, as well as similar degrees of inflammatory cell infiltrates within the lung tissue, goblet cell hyperplasia and thickening of the epithelium. There was no enlargement of ASM caused by HDM exposure in either strain. Unexpectedly, however, excised tracheas derived from C57BL/6 mice exposed to HDM demonstrated a decreased contractility in response to both methacholine and potassium chloride, while tracheas from BALB/c mice remained normocontractile following HDM exposure. These results suggest that the lack of AHR in C57BL/6 mice, at least in an acute model of HDM-induced pulmonary allergic inflammation, is due to an acquired ASM hypocontractility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magali Boucher
- Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Cyndi Henry
- Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Alexis Dufour-Mailhot
- Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Fatemeh Khadangi
- Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Ynuk Bossé
- Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada
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7
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Murray BO, Flores C, Williams C, Flusberg DA, Marr EE, Kwiatkowska KM, Charest JL, Isenberg BC, Rohn JL. Recurrent Urinary Tract Infection: A Mystery in Search of Better Model Systems. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:691210. [PMID: 34123879 PMCID: PMC8188986 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.691210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common infectious diseases worldwide but are significantly understudied. Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) accounts for a significant proportion of UTI, but a large number of other species can infect the urinary tract, each of which will have unique host-pathogen interactions with the bladder environment. Given the substantial economic burden of UTI and its increasing antibiotic resistance, there is an urgent need to better understand UTI pathophysiology - especially its tendency to relapse and recur. Most models developed to date use murine infection; few human-relevant models exist. Of these, the majority of in vitro UTI models have utilized cells in static culture, but UTI needs to be studied in the context of the unique aspects of the bladder's biophysical environment (e.g., tissue architecture, urine, fluid flow, and stretch). In this review, we summarize the complexities of recurrent UTI, critically assess current infection models and discuss potential improvements. More advanced human cell-based in vitro models have the potential to enable a better understanding of the etiology of UTI disease and to provide a complementary platform alongside animals for drug screening and the search for better treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin O. Murray
- Centre for Urological Biology, Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Carlos Flores
- Centre for Urological Biology, Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Corin Williams
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Deborah A. Flusberg
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Elizabeth E. Marr
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Karolina M. Kwiatkowska
- Centre for Urological Biology, Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph L. Charest
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Brett C. Isenberg
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Jennifer L. Rohn
- Centre for Urological Biology, Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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8
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Sarlus H, Codita A, Wang X, Cedazo-Minguez A, Schultzberg M, Oprica M. Chronic Airway Allergy Induces Pro-Inflammatory Responses in the Brain of Wildtype Mice but Not 3xTgAD Mice. Neuroscience 2020; 448:14-27. [PMID: 32916195 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The effects of systemic inflammation on the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are not clarified, both beneficial and deleterious effects being reported. Allergy is accompanied by a systemic inflammatory response and some epidemiological studies have reported a positive association between a history of allergy/asthma and dementia. To investigate whether chronic airway allergy influences the inflammatory status in the brain, AD-like pathology, and behaviour in relation to AD, we induced chronic airway allergy in triple transgenic AD (3xTgAD) and wildtype (WT) mice by repeated exposure to ovalbumin (OVA) as allergen. Behavioural tests relevant for hippocampus-dependent behaviour were performed. We found that allergy significantly increased the brain levels of immunoglobulin (Ig) G, IgE. In 3xTgAD mice, allergy increased the levels of decay accelerating factor and decreased the phosphorylation of p38. In contrast, allergy increased the levels of interleukin (IL)-1β and complement component 1q (C1q) in WT mice. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid analysis confirmed eosinophilia in both genotypes, but the basal levels of eosinophils were lower in 3xTgAD mice. In summary, allergy induced predominantly anti-inflammatory effects in 3xTgAD mice, and pro-inflammatory effects in WT mice, thus being another potential factor to be considered when studying AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heela Sarlus
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:04, SE-171 76 Solna, Sweden.
| | - Alina Codita
- Södertälje Hospital, Geriatric Clinic, Södertälje, Sweden.
| | - Xiuzhe Wang
- Department of Neurology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai 200233, China.
| | - Angel Cedazo-Minguez
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neuroceriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research at Karolinska Institutet, BioClinicum J9:20, SE-171 64 Solna, Sweden.
| | - Marianne Schultzberg
- Karolinska Institutet, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neuroceriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research at Karolinska Institutet, BioClinicum J9:20, SE-171 64 Solna, Sweden.
| | - Mircea Oprica
- Department of Neurology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
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9
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Evaluating Antigen-Specific IgE Using the Rat Basophil Leukemia Cell (RBL) Assay. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1803:371-381. [PMID: 29882150 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-8549-4_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Allergic diseases (atopy) include asthma, allergic rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and allergic sinusitis. It is estimated that up to 90% of asthmatics are atopic and have an allergy trigger for asthmatic episodes. In order to assess the risk of allergy induction associated with inhalation exposure, animal models of protein allergy have been developed. These models have been used both to identify proteins as allergens and to assess their relative potency. Often these research situations include allergens that are not well characterized or are unknown. In these situations, specific allergens are not available to be evaluated by more well-known assays (such as ELISAs), and developing a specific assay to evaluate an extract or mixture for an unknown or potential allergen is very time consuming and generally requires purified antigen/allergen. Additionally, when the comparison of the relative potency of multiple extracts is of interest, a common/generic platform is necessary. A more generic method, the rat basophil leukemia cell assay (RBL assay), has been developed which provides insight into the allergenicity of extracts and mixtures as well as providing a common platform for relative potency comparison between/among these complex allergen sources.
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10
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Schwartzer JJ, Careaga M, Coburn MA, Rose DR, Hughes HK, Ashwood P. Behavioral impact of maternal allergic-asthma in two genetically distinct mouse strains. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 63:99-107. [PMID: 27622677 PMCID: PMC5346064 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent population-based studies of expecting mothers identified a unique profile of immune markers that are associated with an increased risk of having a child diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This immune profile, including increased levels of maternal and placental interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-5, is consistent with an immune response found in an allergic-asthma phenotype. Allergies and asthma reflect an imbalance in immune responses including polarization towards T-helper type 2 (TH2) responses, with both genetic susceptibility and environmental factors affecting this T-cell polarization. Mouse strains provide a known and controlled source of genetic diversity to explore the role of genetic predisposition on environmental factors. In particular, the FVB background exhibits a skew towards TH2-mediated allergic-asthma response in traditional models of asthma whereas the C57 strain exhibits a more blunted TH2 polarized phenotype resulting in an attenuated allergic-asthma response. C57BL/6J (C57) and the sighted FVB.129P2-Pde6b(+) Tyr(c-ch)/Ant (FVB/Ant) lines were selected based on their characteristic high sociability and differing sensitivity to TH2-mediated stimuli. Based on the distinct allergy-sensitive immune responses of these two strains, we hypothesized that unique developmental consequences would occur in offspring following maternal allergy-asthma exposure. Female C57 and FVB/Ant dams were primed/sensitized with an exposure to ovalbumin (OVA) before pregnancy, then exposed to either aerosolized OVA or PBS-vehicle throughout gestation. Sera from pregnant dams were analyzed for changes in cytokine profiles using multiplex-arrays and offspring were assessed for changes in autism-like behavioral responses. Analysis of maternal sera revealed elevated IL-4 and IL-5 in OVA-treated dams of both strains but only C57 mice expressed increased levels of IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, and IL-17. Behavioral assessments revealed strain-dependent changes in juvenile reciprocal social interaction in offspring of maternal allergic asthma dams. Moreover, mice of both strains showed decreased repetitive grooming and increased marble burying behavior when born to OVA-exposed dams. Together, these findings support the important role genetic predisposition plays in the effects of maternal immune activation and underscore differences in ASD-like behavioral outcomes across mouse strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared J. Schwartzer
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Department of Psychology and Education, Mount Holyoke College, 50 College Street, South Hadley, MA 01075
| | - Milo Careaga
- The M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California, Davis, 2825 50th Street, Sacramento, CA 95817,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Morgan A. Coburn
- Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Department of Psychology and Education, Mount Holyoke College, 50 College Street, South Hadley, MA 01075
| | - Destanie R. Rose
- The M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California, Davis, 2825 50th Street, Sacramento, CA 95817,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Heather K. Hughes
- The M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California, Davis, 2825 50th Street, Sacramento, CA 95817,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Paul Ashwood
- The M.I.N.D. Institute, University of California, Davis, 2825 50th Street, Sacramento, CA 95817, United States; Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
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11
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Fan C, Meuchel LW, Su Q, Angelini DJ, Zhang A, Cheadle C, Kolosova I, Makarevich OD, Yamaji-Kegan K, Rothenberg ME, Johns RA. Resistin-Like Molecule α in Allergen-Induced Pulmonary Vascular Remodeling. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2015; 53:303-13. [PMID: 25569618 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2014-0322oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistin-like molecule α (RELMα) has mitogenic, angiogenic, vasoconstrictive, and chemokine-like properties and is highly relevant in lung pathology. Here, we used RELMα knockout (Retnla(-/-)) mice to investigate the role of RELMα in pulmonary vascular remodeling after intermittent ovalbumin (OVA) challenge. We compared saline- and OVA-exposed wild-type (WT) mice and found that OVA induced significant increases in right ventricular systolic pressure, cardiac hypertrophy, pulmonary vascular remodeling of intra-alveolar arteries, goblet cell hyperplasia in airway epithelium, and intensive lung inflammation, especially perivascular inflammation. Genetic ablation of Retnla prevented the OVA-induced increase in pulmonary pressure and cardiac hypertrophy seen in WT mice. Histological analysis showed that Retnla(-/-) mice exhibited less vessel muscularization, less perivascular inflammation, reduced medial thickness of intra-alveolar vessels, and fewer goblet cells in upper airway epithelium (250-600 μm) than did WT animals after OVA challenge. Gene expression profiles showed that genes associated with vascular remodeling, including those related to muscle protein, contractile fibers, and actin cytoskeleton, were expressed at a lower level in OVA-challenged Retnla(-/-) mice than in similarly treated WT mice. In addition, bronchoalveolar lavage from OVA-challenged Retnla(-/-) mice had lower levels of cytokines, such as IL-1β, -1 receptor antagonist, and -16, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1, -2, -9, -10, and -13, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, macrophage colony-stimulating factor, TIMP metallopeptidase inhibitor-1, and triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1, than did that from WT mice when analyzed by cytokine array dot blots. Retnla knockout inhibited the OVA-induced T helper 17 response but not the T helper 2 response. Altogether, our results suggest that RELMα is involved in immune response-induced pulmonary vascular remodeling and the associated increase in inflammation typically observed after OVA challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunling Fan
- 1 Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine and
| | - Lucas W Meuchel
- 1 Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine and
| | - Qingning Su
- 2 School of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | | | - Ailan Zhang
- 1 Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine and
| | - Chris Cheadle
- 3 Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Irina Kolosova
- 1 Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine and
| | | | | | - Marc E Rothenberg
- 5 Division of Allergy and Immunology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Roger A Johns
- 1 Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine and
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Allergic fetal priming leads to developmental, behavioral and neurobiological changes in mice. Transl Psychiatry 2015; 5:e543. [PMID: 25849982 PMCID: PMC4462603 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2015.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Revised: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The state of the mother's immune system during pregnancy has an important role in fetal development and disruptions in the balance of this system are associated with a range of neurologic, neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. Epidemiological and clinical reports reveal various clues that suggest a possible association between developmental neuropsychiatric disorders and family history of immune system dysfunction. Over the past three decades, analogous increases have been reported in both the incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders and immune-related disorders, particularly allergy and asthma, raising the question of whether allergic asthma and characteristics of various neurodevelopmental disorders share common causal links. We used a mouse model of maternal allergic asthma to test this novel hypothesis that early fetal priming with an allergenic exposure during gestation produces behavioral deficits in offspring. Mothers were primed with an exposure to ovalbumin (OVA) before pregnancy, then exposed to either aerosolized OVA or vehicle during gestation. Both male and female mice born to mothers exposed to aerosolized OVA during gestation exhibited altered developmental trajectories in weight and length, decreased sociability and increased marble-burying behavior. Moreover, offspring of OVA-exposed mothers were observed to have increased serotonin transporter protein levels in the cortex. These data demonstrate that behavioral and neurobiological effects can be elicited following early fetal priming with maternal allergic asthma and provide support that maternal allergic asthma may, in some cases, be a contributing factor to neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Perinatal bisphenol A exposure beginning before gestation enhances allergen sensitization, but not pulmonary inflammation, in adult mice. J Dev Orig Health Dis 2015; 5:121-31. [PMID: 24847698 DOI: 10.1017/s204017441400004x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA), a monomer of polycarbonate plastics and epoxide resin, is a high-production-volume chemical implicated in asthma pathogenesis when exposure occurs to the developing fetus. However, few studies have directly examined the effect of in utero and early-life BPA exposure on the pathogenesis of asthma in adulthood. This study examines the influence of perinatal BPA exposure through maternal diet on allergen sensitization and pulmonary inflammation in adult offspring. Two weeks before mating, BALB/c dams were randomly assigned to a control diet or diets containing 50 ng, 50 μg or 50 mg BPA/kg of rodent chow. Dams remained on the assigned diet throughout gestation and lactation until postnatal day (PND) 21 when offspring were weaned onto the control diet. Twelve-week-old offspring were sensitized to ovalbumin (OVA) and subsequently challenged with aerosolized OVA. Sera, splenocytes, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and whole lungs were harvested to assess allergen sensitization and pulmonary inflammation after OVA challenge. Serum anti-OVA IgE levels were increased two-fold in offspring exposed to 50 μg and 50 mg BPA/kg diet, compared with control animals. In addition, production of interleukin-13 and interferon-γ were increased in OVA-stimulated splenocytes recovered from BPA-exposed mice. Pulmonary inflammation, as indicated by total and differential leukocyte counts, cytokines, chemokines and pulmonary histopathology inflammatory scores, however, was either not different or was reduced in offspring exposed to BPA. Although these data suggest that perinatal BPA exposure beginning before gestation enhances allergen sensitization by increasing serum IgE and splenocyte cytokine production, a substantial impact of BPA on OVA-induced pulmonary inflammation in adulthood was not observed.
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14
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Ritter M, Straubinger K, Schmidt S, Busch DH, Hagner S, Garn H, Prazeres da Costa C, Layland LE. Functional relevance of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated interleukin (IL)-1β during acute allergic airway inflammation. Clin Exp Immunol 2014; 178:212-23. [PMID: 24943899 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Overall asthmatic symptoms can be controlled with diverse therapeutic agents. However, certain symptomatic individuals remain at risk for serious morbidity and mortality, which prompts the identification of novel therapeutic targets and treatment strategies. Thus, using an adjuvant-free T helper type 2 (Th2) murine model, we have deciphered the role of interleukin (IL)-1 signalling during allergic airway inflammation (AAI). Because functional IL-1β depends on inflammasome activation we first studied asthmatic manifestations in specific inflammasome-deficient [NACHT, LRR and PYD domains-containing protein 3 (NLRP3(-/-) ) and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC(-/-) )] and IL-1 receptor type 1(-/-) (IL-1R1(-/-) ) mice on the BALB/c background. To verify the onset of disease we assessed cellular infiltration in the bronchial regions, lung pathology, airway hyperresponsiveness and ovalbumin (OVA)-specific immune responses. In the absence of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated IL-1β release all symptoms of AAI were reduced, except OVA-specific immunoglobulin levels. To address whether manipulating IL-1 signalling reduced asthmatic development, we administered the IL-1R antagonist anakinra (Kineret®) during critical immunological time-points: sensitization or challenge. Amelioration of asthmatic symptoms was only observed when anakinra was administered during OVA challenge. Our findings indicate that blocking IL-1 signalling could be a potential complementary therapy for allergic airway inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ritter
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), University Clinic Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene (MIH), Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
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15
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Bock F, Maruyama K, Regenfuss B, Hos D, Steven P, Heindl LM, Cursiefen C. Novel anti(lymph)angiogenic treatment strategies for corneal and ocular surface diseases. Prog Retin Eye Res 2013; 34:89-124. [PMID: 23348581 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2013.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2012] [Revised: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The cornea is one of the few tissues which actively maintain an avascular state, i.e. the absence of blood and lymphatic vessels (corneal [lymph]angiogenic privilege). Nonetheless do several diseases interfere with this privilege and cause pathologic corneal hem- and lymphangiogenesis. The ingrowths of pathologic blood and lymphatic vessels into the cornea not only reduce transparency and thereby visual acuity up to blindness, but also significantly increases the rate of graft rejections after subsequent corneal transplantation. Therefore great interest exists in new strategies to target pathologic corneal (lymph)angiogenesis to promote graft survival. This review gives an overview on the vascular anatomy of the normal ocular surface, on the molecular mechanisms contributing to the corneal (lymph)angiogenic privilege and on the cellular and molecular mechanisms occurring during pathological neovascularization of the cornea. In addition we summarize the current preclinical and clinical evidence for three novel treatment strategies against ocular surface diseases based on targeting pathologic (lymph)angiogenesis: (a) modulation of the immune responses after (corneal) transplantation by targeting pathologic (lymph)angiogenesis prior to and after transplantation, (b) novel concepts against metastasis and recurrence of ocular surface tumors such as malignant melanoma of the conjunctiva by anti(lymph)angiogenic therapy and (c) new ideas on how to target ocular surface inflammatory diseases such as dry eye by targeting conjunctival and corneal lymphatic vessels. Based on compelling preclinical evidence and early data from clinical trials the novel therapeutic concepts of promoting graft survival, inhibiting tumor metastasis and dampening ocular surface inflammation and dry eye disease by targeting (lymph)angiogenesis are on their way to translation into the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Bock
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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16
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Abstract
Asthma is a major cause of morbidity and mortality, affecting some 300 million people throughout the world (1). More than 8% of the US population has asthma, with the prevalence increasing (2). As with other diseases, animal models of allergic airway disease greatly facilitate understanding of the underlying pathophysiology, help identify potential therapeutic targets, and allow preclinical testing of possible new therapies. Models of allergic airway disease have been developed in several animal species, but murine models are particularly attractive due to the low cost, ready availability, and well-characterized immune systems of these animals (3). Availability of a variety of transgenic strains further increases the attractiveness of these models (4). Here we describe two murine models of allergic airway disease, both employing ovalbumin as the antigen. Following initial sensitization by intraperitoneal injection, one model delivers the antigen challenge by nebulization, the other by intratracheal delivery. These two models offer complementary advantages, with each mimicking the major features of human asthma (5). The major features of acute asthma include an exaggerated airway response to stimuli such as methacholine (airway hyperresponsiveness; AHR) and eosinophil-rich airway inflammation. These are also prominent effects of allergen challenge in our murine models (5,6), and we describe techniques for measuring them and thus evaluating the effects of experimental manipulation. Specifically, we describe both invasive (7) and non-invasive (8) techniques for measuring airway hyperresponsiveness as well as methods for assessing infiltration of inflammatory cells into the airways and the lung. Airway inflammatory cells are collected by bronchoalveolar lavage while lung histopathology is used to assess markers of inflammation throughout the organ. These techniques provide powerful tools for studying asthma in ways that would not be possible in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aravind T Reddy
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Emory University and Atlanta VA Medical Center, USA
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Church RJ, Jania LA, Koller BH. Prostaglandin E(2) produced by the lung augments the effector phase of allergic inflammation. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 188:4093-102. [PMID: 22412193 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1101873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Elevated PGE(2) is a hallmark of most inflammatory lesions. This lipid mediator can induce the cardinal signs of inflammation, and the beneficial actions of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are attributed to inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and COX-2, enzymes essential in the biosynthesis of PGE(2) from arachidonic acid. However, both clinical studies and rodent models suggest that, in the asthmatic lung, PGE(2) acts to restrain the immune response and limit physiological change secondary to inflammation. To directly address the role of PGE(2) in the lung, we examined the development of disease in mice lacking microsomal PGE(2) synthase-1 (mPGES1), which converts COX-1/COX-2-derived PGH(2) to PGE(2). We show that mPGES1 determines PGE(2) levels in the naive lung and is required for increases in PGE(2) after OVA-induced allergy. Although loss of either COX-1 or COX-2 increases the disease severity, surprisingly, mPGES1(-/-) mice show reduced inflammation. However, an increase in serum IgE is still observed in the mPGES1(-/-) mice, suggesting that loss of PGE(2) does not impair induction of a Th2 response. Furthermore, mPGES1(-/-) mice expressing a transgenic OVA-specific TCR are also protected, indicating that PGE(2) acts primarily after challenge with inhaled Ag. PGE(2) produced by the lung plays the critical role in this response, as loss of lung mPGES1 is sufficient to protect against disease. Together, this supports a model in which mPGES1-dependent PGE(2) produced by populations of cells native to the lung contributes to the effector phase of some allergic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel J Church
- Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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18
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Gordon ED, Sidhu SS, Wang ZE, Woodruff PG, Yuan S, Solon MC, Conway SJ, Huang X, Locksley RM, Fahy JV. A protective role for periostin and TGF-β in IgE-mediated allergy and airway hyperresponsiveness. Clin Exp Allergy 2011; 42:144-55. [PMID: 22093101 PMCID: PMC3271792 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03840.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2010] [Revised: 06/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Background The pathophysiology of asthma involves allergic inflammation and remodelling in the airway and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) to cholinergic stimuli, but many details of the specific underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms remain unknown. Periostin is a matricellular protein with roles in tissue repair following injury in both the skin and heart. It has recently been shown to be up-regulated in the airway epithelium of asthmatics and to increase active TGF-β. Though one might expect periostin to play a deleterious role in asthma pathogenesis, to date its biological role in the airway is unknown. Objective To determine the effect of periostin deficiency on airway responses to inhaled allergen. Methods In vivo measures of airway responsiveness, inflammation, and remodelling were made in periostin deficient mice and wild-type controls following repeated intranasal challenge with Aspergillus fumigatus antigen. In vitro studies of the effects of epithelial cell-derived periostin on murine T cells were also performed. Results Surprisingly, compared with wild-type controls, periostin deficient mice developed increased AHR and serum IgE levels following allergen challenge without differences in two outcomes of airway remodelling (mucus metaplasia and peribronchial fibrosis). These changes were associated with decreased expression of TGF-β1 and Foxp3 in the lungs of periostin deficient mice. Airway epithelial cell-derived periostin-induced conversion of CD4+ CD25− cells into CD25+, Foxp3+ T cells in vitro in a TGF-β dependent manner. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance Allergen-induced increases in serum IgE and bronchial hyperresponsiveness are exaggerated in periostin deficient mice challenged with inhaled aeroallergen. The mechanism of periostin's effect as a brake on allergen-induced responses may involve augmentation of TGF-β-induced T regulatory cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- E D Gordon
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Kallenbach LR, Bianchi DW, Peter I, Stroh H, Johnson KL. Maternal background strain influences fetal-maternal trafficking more than maternal immune competence in mice. J Reprod Immunol 2011; 90:188-94. [PMID: 21733578 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2011.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2010] [Revised: 05/16/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine if fetal-maternal cell trafficking is affected by maternal immune competence and/or parental background strain using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). In our experience the sensitivity of FACS allows for the detection of 5 fetal in 10(7) maternal cells and assessment of cell surface phenotype. Wild-type C57BL/6J (n=18), FVB/NJ (n=15), and immunodeficient B6129S7-Rag1(tm1Mom)/J (n=16) female mice were mated to C57BL/6J males homozygous for the green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene. Single cell suspensions of maternal lung, liver, spleen, bone marrow, and blood were analyzed between late gestation (day e16-18) and 1 day post-partum for the number of GFP-positive fetal cells in relation to 10(7) maternal cells and the percentage of GFP-positive cells that expressed the surface markers CD11b, CD29, CD34, CD44, or CD105. The highest relative proportions of GFP-positive fetal cells were observed in maternal lungs and livers from immunocompetent allogenic females. Among congenic matings, fetal cell microchimerism was higher in immunodeficient compared with immunocompetent females. Maternal strain and strain differences between the mother and father statistically significantly affected both the numbers of fetal cells and the relative distribution of cell types in maternal organs. The highest relative proportion of fetal cells was observed in allogenic matings with immunocompetent females. Since allogenic matings are more similar to those that occur in humans, future studies using animal models of microchimerism should consider incorporating this type of experimental design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa R Kallenbach
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA 02111, USA
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20
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Kim DY, Yang WM. Panax ginseng ameliorates airway inflammation in an ovalbumin-sensitized mouse allergic asthma model. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2011; 136:230-235. [PMID: 21549818 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2011] [Revised: 04/11/2011] [Accepted: 04/20/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Panax ginseng (PG) is a medicinal herb that has been used to treat various immune diseases including asthma and COPD. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory mechanism of PG on asthma parameters in mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS BALB/c mice were sensitized with 20 μg/200 μl OVA adsorbed on 1.0mg/50 μl aluminum hydroxide gel adjuvant by i.p. injection on days 0 and 14. Mice were then challenged with 5% OVA in PBS to the nose for 30 min once a day for 3 days, from day 20 until day 22, using a nebulizer. PG (20mg/kg) or vehicle was administrated by i.p. injection once a day 10 min before every OVA challenge for 3 days. The recruitment of inflammatory cells into bronchoalveolar lavage fluid or lung tissues was measured. The expression of EMBP, Muc5ac, CD40, and CD40 ligand (CD40L) in lung tissues was investigated. In addition, the cytokines and mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinases were measured by RT-PCR and Western blot. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS PG restored the expression of EMBP, Muc5ac, CD40, and CD40L, as well as the mRNA and protein levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, IL-5, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. In addition, PG inhibited the numbers of goblet cells and further small G proteins and MAP kinases in bronchoalveolar lavage cells and lung tissues increased in ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma in mice. These results suggest that PG may be used as a therapeutic agent in asthma, based on reductions of various allergic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dae Yong Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, 300 Chunchun-dong, Jangan-ku, Suwon 440-746, Republic of Korea
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Kim DY, Park BS, Hong GU, Lee BJ, Park JW, Kim SY, Ro JY. Anti-inflammatory effects of the R2 peptide, an inhibitor of transglutaminase 2, in a mouse model of allergic asthma, induced by ovalbumin. Br J Pharmacol 2011; 162:210-25. [PMID: 20840469 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.01033.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Transglutaminase 2 (TGase 2) expression is increased in inflammatory diseases, and TGase 2 inhibitors block these increases. We examined whether the R2 peptide inhibited the expression of TGase 2 in a mouse model of inflammatory allergic asthma. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH C57BL/6 mice were sensitized and challenged by ovalbumin (OVA) to induce asthma. OVA-specific serum IgE and leukotrienes (LTs) levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Recruitment of inflammatory cells into bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid or lung tissues and goblet cell hyperplasia were assessed histologically. Airway hyperresponsiveness was determined in a barometric plethysmographic chamber. Expression of TGase 2, eosinophil major basic protein (EMBP), the adhesion molecule vascular cell adhesion molecule-1, Muc5ac and phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2) ) protein were determined by Western blot. Expression of mRNAs of Muc5ac, cytokines, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs) were measured by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. KEY RESULTS R2 peptide reduced OVA-specific IgE levels; the number of total inflammatory cells, macrophages, neutrophils, lymphocytes and eosinophils in BAL fluid and the number of goblet cells. Airway hyperresponsiveness, TGase 2 and EMBP levels, mRNA levels of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-13, RANTES, tumour necrosis factor-α, and MMP2/9, Muc5ac, NF-κB activity, PLA(2) activity and expressions, and LT levels in BAL cells and lung tissues were all reduced by R2 peptide. R2 peptide also restored expression of TIMP1/2. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS R2 peptide reduced allergic responses by regulating NF-κB/TGase 2 activity in a mouse model of allergic asthma. This peptide may be useful in the treatment of allergic asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dae Yong Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
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Chen CM, Wu MY, Chou HC, Lang YD, Wang LF. Downregulation of caveolin-1 in a murine model of acute allergic airway disease. Pediatr Neonatol 2011; 52:5-10. [PMID: 21385650 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedneo.2010.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2009] [Revised: 04/07/2010] [Accepted: 04/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Airway remodeling refers to the structural changes in the airways of asthma. Caveolin-1 reduces cell growth and negatively regulates smooth muscle cell proliferation. The aim was to investigate lung caveolin-1 status in a murine model of acute allergic airway disease. METHODS Six- to eight-week-old female BALB/c mice were sensitized by intraperitoneal injections of phosphate-buffered saline or ovalbumin (OVA) and aluminium hydroxide on Days 0 and 14, challenged with aerosolized saline or OVA (1%) on Days 21-25, 28-32, and 35. The mice were killed 1 day after the last OVA/saline challenge. Serum OVA-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE) was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Peribronchial inflammation was quantified by morphometric analysis. Lung caveolin-1 and Type I collagen mRNA expression was determined by real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. Total lung collagen was measured using Sircol Assay Kit. RESULTS Serum OVA-specific IgE levels were significantly elevated in OVA-challenged mice when compared with saline-challenged mice. Percentage of inflammatory cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage was significantly higher in the OVA-challenged animals. The animals' lungs that were sensitized and challenged with OVA contained large numbers of inflammatory cells concentrated near the airways and in the perivascular areas. The thickness of the bronchial epithelial layer and smooth muscle layer and the numbers of total inflammatory cells and eosinophils significantly increased in OVA-challenged mice. Caveolin-1 mRNA expression significantly decreased and Type I collagen mRNA expression significantly increased in the lung tissue of OVA-challenged mice. CONCLUSION These results suggest that caveolin-1 seems to be involved in the pathogenesis of airway remodeling of acute allergic airway disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Ming Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Dajia Lee's Hospital, Lee's Medical Corporation, Taichung, Taiwan
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Gershwin LJ, Anderson ML, Wang C, Berghaus LJ, Kenny TP, Gunther RA. Assessment of IgE response and cytokine gene expression in pulmonary efferent lymph collected after ovalbumin inhalation during experimental infection of calves with bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Am J Vet Res 2011; 72:134-45. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.72.1.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine suppresses allergy-induced lung tissue remodeling in mice. Eur J Pharmacol 2010; 651:218-26. [PMID: 21114981 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.10.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2010] [Revised: 10/26/2010] [Accepted: 10/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) suppressed airway hyperresponsiveness and allergy-associated immune responses in ovalbumin-induced allergic mice by inactivating Rac. In the present study, 8-oxo-dG was investigated for its suppression of inflammation and remodeling in lung tissues induced by allergic reaction in mice. Mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin without or with oral administration of 8-oxo-dG. The mice without 8-oxo-dG administration showed the following inflammatory and airway remodeling signs: infiltration of inflammatory cells into peribronchial area, hyperplasia of mucus-secreting goblet cells in bronchial walls, increase of expressions of Muc5ac and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1, collagen deposition and protein expression, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2/-9 expressions. We also observed an increase of various inflammation-mediating proteins, namely IL-4, IL-5, IL-8, IL-13, TNF-α and IFN-γ, and activation of STAT1 and NF-κB. Production of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide (NO(.)) was increased as indicated by a dramatic increase in formation of nitro-tyrosine. Importantly, Rac1 and 2 were also markedly activated. However, 8-oxo-dG suppressed all these inflammatory and tissue remodeling signs as well as activation of Rac1 and 2. These results indicate that 8-oxo-dG can inhibit allergy-induced inflammation and remodeling in airway and lung tissues through Rac inactivation.
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De Vooght V, Vanoirbeek JAJ, Luyts K, Haenen S, Nemery B, Hoet PHM. Choice of mouse strain influences the outcome in a mouse model of chemical-induced asthma. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12581. [PMID: 20830207 PMCID: PMC2935354 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2010] [Accepted: 08/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The development of occupational asthma is the result of interactions between environmental factors and individual susceptibility. We assessed how our model of chemical-induced asthma is influenced by using different mouse strains. Methodology/Principal Findings On days 1 and 8, male mice of 7 different strains (BALB/c, BP/2, A/J, C57Bl/6, DBA/2, CBA and AKR) were dermally treated with toluene-2,4-diisocyanate (TDI) (0.3%) or vehicle (acetone/olive oil, AOO, 2∶3) on each ear (20 µl). On day 15, they received an oropharyngeal instillation of TDI (0.01%) or AOO (1∶4). Airway reactivity to methacholine, total and differential cell counts in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and total serum IgE and IgG2a levels were measured. Lymphocyte subpopulations in auricular lymph nodes and in vitro release of cytokines by ConA stimulated lymphocytes were assessed. In TDI-sensitized and challenged mice, airway hyper-reactivity was only observed in BALB/c, BP/2, A/J and AKR mice; airway inflammation was most pronounced in BALB/c mice; numbers of T-helper (CD4+), T-activated (CD4+CD25+), T-cytotoxic (CD8+) and B- lymphocytes (CD19+) were increased in the auricular lymph nodes of BALB/c, BP/2, A/J and CBA mice; elevated concentrations of IL-4, IL-10, IL-13 and IFN-γ were detected in supernatant of lymphocytes from BALB/c, BP/2, A/J, C57Bl/6 and CBA mice cultured with concanavaline A, along with an increase in total serum IgE. Conclusion The used mouse strain has considerable and variable impacts on different aspects of the asthma phenotype. The human phenotypical characteristics of chemically-induced occupational asthma were best reproduced in Th2-biased mice and in particular in BALB/c mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa De Vooght
- Research Unit Lung Toxicology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Katrien Luyts
- Research Unit Lung Toxicology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Steven Haenen
- Research Unit Lung Toxicology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Benoit Nemery
- Research Unit Lung Toxicology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Peter H. M. Hoet
- Research Unit Lung Toxicology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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D'Souza El-Guindy NB, Kovacs EJ, De Witte P, Spies C, Littleton JM, de Villiers WJS, Lott AJ, Plackett TP, Lanzke N, Meadows GG. Laboratory models available to study alcohol-induced organ damage and immune variations: choosing the appropriate model. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2010; 34:1489-511. [PMID: 20586763 PMCID: PMC2929290 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01234.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The morbidity and mortality resulting from alcohol-related diseases globally impose a substantive cost to society. To minimize the financial burden on society and improve the quality of life for individuals suffering from the ill effects of alcohol abuse, substantial research in the alcohol field is focused on understanding the mechanisms by which alcohol-related diseases develop and progress. Since ethical concerns and inherent difficulties limit the amount of alcohol abuse research that can be performed in humans, most studies are performed in laboratory animals. This article summarizes the various laboratory models of alcohol abuse that are currently available and are used to study the mechanisms by which alcohol abuse induces organ damage and immune defects. The strengths and weaknesses of each of the models are discussed. Integrated into the review are the presentations that were made in the symposium "Methods of Ethanol Application in Alcohol Model-How Long is Long Enough" at the joint 2008 Research Society on Alcoholism (RSA) and International Society for Biomedical Research on Alcoholism (ISBRA) meeting, Washington, DC, emphasizing the importance not only of selecting the most appropriate laboratory alcohol model to address the specific goals of a project but also of ensuring that the findings can be extrapolated to alcohol-induced diseases in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nympha B D'Souza El-Guindy
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of Kentucky and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Lexington, Kentucky, USA.
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Sahu N, Morales JL, Fowell D, August A. Modeling susceptibility versus resistance in allergic airway disease reveals regulation by Tec kinase Itk. PLoS One 2010; 5:e11348. [PMID: 20596543 PMCID: PMC2893210 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2010] [Accepted: 05/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Murine models of allergic asthma have been used to understand the mechanisms of development and pathology in this disease. In addition, knockout mice have contributed significantly to our understanding of the roles of specific molecules and cytokines in these models. However, results can vary significantly depending on the mouse strain used in the model, and in particularly in understanding the effect of specific knockouts. For example, it can be equivocal as to whether specific gene knockouts affect the susceptibility of the mice to developing the disease, or lead to resistance. Here we used a house dust mite model of allergic airway inflammation to examine the response of two strains of mice (C57BL/6 and BALB/c) which differ in their responses in allergic airway inflammation. We demonstrate an algorithm that can facilitate the understanding of the behavior of these models with regards to susceptibility (to allergic airway inflammation) (S(aai)) or resistance (R(aai)) in this model. We verify that both C57BL/6 and BALB/c develop disease, but BALB/c mice have higher S(aai) for development. We then use this approach to show that the absence of the Tec family kinase Itk, which regulates the production of Th2 cytokines, leads to R(aai) in the C57BL/6 background, but decreases S(aai) on the BALB/c background. We suggest that the use of such approaches could clarify the behavior of various knockout mice in modeling allergic asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisebita Sahu
- Center for Molecular Immunology and Infectious Disease and Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - J. Luis Morales
- Center for Molecular Immunology and Infectious Disease and Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Deborah Fowell
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Rochester School of Medicine & Dentistry, Rochester, New York, United States of America
| | - Avery August
- Center for Molecular Immunology and Infectious Disease and Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Regenfuss B, Onderka J, Bock F, Hos D, Maruyama K, Cursiefen C. Genetic heterogeneity of lymphangiogenesis in different mouse strains. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2010; 177:501-10. [PMID: 20489140 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.090794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Lymphangiogenesis plays an important role in tumor metastasis, wound healing, and immune reactions, such as after organ transplantation. Furthermore, novel antilymphangiogenic drugs are moving into clinical medicine, but so far nothing is known about a potential genetic heterogeneity influencing lymphangiogenesis. Using the mouse cornea micropocket assay (VEGF-C) and the suture-induced corneal neovascularization model in different inbred and wild-derived mouse strains (Balb/cAnNCrl, C57BL/6NCrl, 129S1/SvImJ, SJL/JCrl, Cast/EiJ, FVB/NCrl), significant differences in the lymphangiogenic response were detected: the lymphvascularized area varied up to 1.9-fold in the micropocket assay and up to 1.7-fold in the suture-induced neovascularization model between the "low-responder" strain BALB/c and the "high-responder" strain FVB in response to the same stimulus. Furthermore, the number of physiological lymphatic vascular extensions into the marginal zone of the normally alymphatic cornea in untreated eyes again showed a difference of 1.6-fold between low- and high-responders. An anti-inflammatory (prednisolone acetate) and a specific anti(lymph)angiogenic therapy (blocking anti-VEGFR-3 antibody) had different effects on the lymphvascularized area in BALB/c mice and FVB mice, suggesting a different responsiveness to antilymphangiogenic treatments. These data for the first time demonstrate significant differences in the lymphangiogenic response of several mouse strains and suggest underlying genetic factors influencing the lymphangiogenic response. These considerations need to be taken into account when using different mouse strains to study lymphangiogenesis and may also explain different success of antilymphangiogenic treatments in tumor patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Regenfuss
- Department of Ophthalmology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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Chronic allergen challenge induces bronchial mast cell accumulation in BALB/c but not C57BL/6 mice and is independent of IL-9. Immunogenetics 2010; 62:499-506. [PMID: 20480160 PMCID: PMC2910299 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-010-0452-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2010] [Accepted: 04/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
As genetically engineered mutant mice deficient in single genes are usually generated on a C57BL/6 background, to study mast cell trafficking in mutant mice, we initially investigated whether mast cells accumulated in bronchi in C57BL/6 mice challenged with OVA allergen acutely or chronically for 1 to 3 months. The total number of bronchial mast cells were quantitated using toluidine blue staining in airways of different sizes, i.e. , small (<90 µm), medium (90–155 µm), or large (>150 µm) airways. Non-OVA challenged and acute OVA challenged mice (C57BL/6 and BALB/c) had no detectable bronchial mast cells. Chronic OVA challenge in BALB/c mice for 1 or 3 months induced a significant increase in the number of bronchial mast cells in small-, medium-, and large-sized airways but minimal change in the number of bronchial mast cells in C57BL/6 mice. Both BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice developed significant lung eosinophilia following acute or chronic OVA challenge. Studies of IL-9-deficient mice on a BALB/c background demonstrated a significant increase in the number of bronchial mast cells in IL-9-deficient mice suggesting that IL-9 was not required for the bronchial accumulation of mast cells. Overall, these studies demonstrate that the chronic OVA challenge protocol we have utilized in BALB/c mice provides a model to study the mechanism of bronchial mast cell accumulation and that bronchial mast cell accumulation in chronic OVA challenged mice is independent of IL-9 in this model.
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Jaspers I, Sheridan PA, Zhang W, Brighton LE, Chason KD, Hua X, Tilley SL. Exacerbation of allergic inflammation in mice exposed to diesel exhaust particles prior to viral infection. Part Fibre Toxicol 2009; 6:22. [PMID: 19682371 PMCID: PMC2739151 DOI: 10.1186/1743-8977-6-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Accepted: 08/14/2009] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Viral infections and exposure to oxidant air pollutants are two of the most important inducers of asthma exacerbation. Our previous studies have demonstrated that exposure to diesel exhaust increases the susceptibility to influenza virus infections both in epithelial cells in vitro and in mice in vivo. Therefore, we examined whether in the setting of allergic asthma, exposure to oxidant air pollutants enhances the susceptibility to respiratory virus infections, which in turn leads to increased virus-induced exacerbation of asthma. Ovalbumin-sensitized (OVA) male C57BL/6 mice were instilled with diesel exhaust particles (DEP) or saline and 24 hours later infected with influenza A/PR/8. Animals were sacrificed 24 hours post-infection and analyzed for markers of lung injury, allergic inflammation, and pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Results Exposure to DEP or infection with influenza alone had no significant effects on markers of injury or allergic inflammation. However, OVA-sensitized mice that were exposed to DEP and subsequently infected with influenza showed increased levels of eosinophils in lung lavage and tissue. In addition Th2-type cytokines, such as IL-4 and IL-13, and markers of eosinophil chemotaxis, such as CCL11 and CCR3, were increased in OVA-sensitized mice exposed to DEP prior to infection with influenza. These mice also showed increased levels of IL-1α, but not IL-10, RANTES, and MCP-1 in lung homogenates. Conclusion These data suggest that in the setting of allergic asthma, exposure to diesel exhaust could enhance virus-induced exacerbation of allergic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Jaspers
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
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