Medicinal mushroom modulators of molecular targets as cancer therapeutics

Advances on anticancer fungal metabolites: sources, chemical and biological activities in the last decade (2012-2023)

Among microorganisms, fungi are the ones that have the most imagination in producing secondary metabolites with the most varied structural differences, which are produced through different biosynthetic pathways. Therefore, they synthesize secondary metabolites classifiable into numerous families of natural compounds such as amino acids, alkaloids, anthraquinones, aromatic compounds, cyclohexene epoxides, furanones, macrolides, naphthoquinones, polyketides, pyrones, terpenes, etc. They also produced metabolites with very complex structures that can not be classified in the known families of natural compounds. Many fungal metabolites show different biological activities with potential applications in agriculture, food chemistry, cosmetics, pharmacology and medicine. This review is focused on the fungal secondary metabolites with anticancer activity isolated in the last ten years. For some metabolites, when described, their biosynthetic origin, the mode of action and the results of structure activity relationships studies are also reported.

Effects of Medium Additives on the Mycelial Growth and Polysaccharide Biosynthesis in Submerged Culture of Bjerkandera fumosa

Medium additives have been shown to affect the synthesis of active products in fungi. This study investigated the effects of corn stalk, poplar sawdust, Tween-80, and oleic acid on mycelial biomass and physicochemical properties, as well as the bioactivity of polysaccharides, including exopolysaccharides (EPS) and intracellular polysaccharides (IPS), in the submerged culture of Bjerkandera fumosa. Results showed that the addition of corn stalk or poplar sawdust increased the production of EPS but decreased the production of IPS; Tween-80 had less effect on the production of EPS and IPS; and oleic acid stimulated polysaccharide production significantly. Polysaccharide property analysis showed that the addition of corn stalk or poplar sawdust promoted the production of high-molecular-weight components in polysaccharides and changed the monosaccharide composition of polysaccharides, as well as increased the mannose, glucuronic acid, and xylose contents of IPS. Tween-80 and oleic acid also changed the molecular weight distribution of polysaccharides but only slightly affected the composition of monosaccharides. The bioactivity assay indicated that the polysaccharides obtained by adding corn stalk possessed high hydroxyl radical scavenging and antitumor activities. The effect of poplar sawdust was slightly weaker than that of corn stalk. EPS and IPS obtained from a culture with Tween-80 and oleic acid possessed low antioxidant activity. Moreover, their antitumor activity was improved and lost, respectively. The results obtained in this work are useful for improving the understanding of the optimization and regulation of bioactive polysaccharide production in the submerged culture of B. fumosa.

Nature's Own Pharmacy: Mushroom-Based Chemical Scaffolds and Their Therapeutic Implications

Mushrooms are new potential sources of valuable medicines, long neglected because of difficulties experienced in their cultivation. There is a large variety of medicinal mushrooms which possess significant therapeutic properties and are used as medications for various diseases because they contain several novel highly bioactive components. Medicinal mushrooms can be identified based on their morphology, size, mass, and the color of the stalk, cap and spore, and attachment to the stalk. Medicinal mushrooms possess a variety of important biological activities and are used as antioxidants, hepatoprotectors, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antiaging, antiviral, antiparasitic, and antimicrobial agents, among others. This review provides a basic overview of the chemical scaffolds present in mushrooms and their therapeutic implications in the human body.

Combined Deep Learning and Molecular Modeling Techniques on the Virtual Screening of New mTOR Inhibitors from the Thai Mushroom Database

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a protein kinase of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway that regulates cell growth and division and is an attractive target for cancer therapy. Many reports on finding alternative mTOR inhibitors available in a database contain a mixture of active compound data with different mechanisms, which results in an increased complexity for training the machine learning models based on the chemical features of active compounds. In this study, a deep learning model supported by principal component analysis (PCA) and structural methods was used to search for an alternative mTOR inhibitor from mushrooms. The mTORC1 active compound data set from the PubChem database was first filtered for only the compounds resided near the first-generation inhibitors (rapalogs) within the first two PCA coordinates of chemical features. A deep learning model trained by the filtered data set captured the main characteristics of rapalogs and displayed the importance of steroid cores. After that, another layer of virtual screening by molecular docking calculations was performed on ternary complexes of FKBP12-FRB domains and six compound candidates with high "active" probability scores predicted by the deep learning models. Finally, all-atom molecular dynamics simulations and MMPBSA binding energy analysis were performed on two selected candidates in comparison to rapamycin, which confirmed the importance of ring groups and steroid cores for interaction networks. Trihydroxysterol from Lentinus polychrous Lev. was predicted as an interesting candidate due to the small but effective interaction network that facilitated FKBP12-FRB interactions and further stabilized the ternary complex.

Analysis of the Ibotenic Acid, Muscimol, and Ergosterol Content of an Amanita Muscaria Hydroalcoholic Extract with an Evaluation of Its Cytotoxic Effect against a Panel of Lung Cell Lines In Vitro

The fungus Amanita muscaria is universally recognizable for its iconic appearance; it is also widely regarded as poisonous, inedible, and even deadly. In spite of that, there have been documented cases of use of A. muscaria-containing preparations against various diseases, including cancer, to no apparent ill effect. The search for compounds that can be used to treat cancer among various plants and fungi has been intensifying in recent years. In light of this, we describe an HPLC HILIC analytical method for the evaluation of the content of the anticancer compound ergosterol (ERG) and the neuroactive alkaloids ibotenic acid (IBO) and muscimol (MUS) that contribute significantly to the unpleasant physiological syndrome associated with A. muscaria consumption. A 'homemade' A. muscaria tincture made using 80-proof rye vodka as the solvent, an A. muscaria extract made with a standardized water-ethanol solution as the solvent, and fractions obtained from the second extract via liquid-liquid extraction with nonpolar solvents were analyzed. The study also presents the results of capillary zone electrophoresis with contactless conductivity detection and UHPLC-MS/MS analyses of the IBO and MUS content of the two native A. muscaria extracts and an evaluation of the standardized extract's cytotoxic effect against a small panel of lung cell cultures in vitro. Our results show that the standardized extract has a significant cytotoxic effect and does not contain the compounds of interest in any significant quantity.

COVID-19 and Cancer Diseases-The Potential of Coriolus versicolor Mushroom to Combat Global Health Challenges

Coriolus versicolor (CV) is a common species from the Polyporaceae family that has been used in traditional Chinese herbal medicine for over 2000 years. Among well-described and most active compounds identified in CV are polysaccharopeptides, such as polysaccharide peptide (PSP) and Polysaccharide-K (PSK, krestin), which, in some countries, are already used as an adjuvant agent in cancer therapy. In this paper, research advances in the field of anti-cancer and anti-viral action of CV are analyzed. The results of data obtained in in vitro and in vivo studies using animal models as well as in clinical research trials have been discussed. The present update provides a brief overview regarding the immunomodulatory effects of CV. A particular focus has been given to the mechanisms of direct effects of CV on cancer cells and angiogenesis. A potential use of CV compounds in anti-viral treatment, including therapy against COVID-19 disease, has also been analyzed based on the most recent literature. Additionally, the significance of fever in viral infection and cancer has been debated, providing evidence that CV affects this phenomenon.

Compounds originating from the edible mushroom Auricularia auricula-judae inhibit tropomyosin receptor kinase B activity

Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) serves as a pivotal factor in various cancers. To identify novel natural compounds with TrkB-inhibiting properties, a screening approach was applied using extracts from a collection of wild and cultivated mushroom fruiting bodies, and Ba/F3 cells that ectopically express TrkB (TPR-TrkB). We selected mushroom extracts that selectively inhibited proliferation of the TPR-TrkB cells. We then evaluated the ability of exogenous interleukin 3 to rescue growth inhibition by the selected TrkB-positive extracts. An ethyl acetate extract of Auricularia auricula-judae actively inhibited auto-phosphorylation of TrkB. LC-MS/MS analysis of this extract revealed substances that might be responsible for the observed activity. This screening approach demonstrates, for the first time, that extracts originating from the mushroom A. auricula-judae exhibit TrkB-inhibition properties that might hold therapeutic potential for TrkB-positive cancers.

Natural Products/Bioactive Compounds as a Source of Anticancer Drugs

Cancer is one of the major deadly diseases globally. The alarming rise in the mortality rate due to this disease attracks attention towards discovering potent anticancer agents to overcome its mortality rate. The discovery of novel and effective anticancer agents from natural sources has been the main point of interest in pharmaceutical research because of attractive natural therapeutic agents with an immense chemical diversity in species of animals, plants, and microorganisms. More than 60% of contemporary anticancer drugs, in one form or another, have originated from natural sources. Plants and microbial species are chosen based on their composition, ecology, phytochemical, and ethnopharmacological properties. Plants and their derivatives have played a significant role in producing effective anticancer agents. Some plant derivatives include vincristine, vinblastine, irinotecan, topotecan, etoposide, podophyllotoxin, and paclitaxel. Based on their particular activity, a number of other plant-derived bioactive compounds are in the clinical development phase against cancer, such as gimatecan, elomotecan, etc. Additionally, the conjugation of natural compounds with anti-cancerous drugs, or some polymeric carriers particularly targeted to epitopes on the site of interest to tumors, can generate effective targeted treatment therapies. Cognizance from such pharmaceutical research studies would yield alternative drug development strategies through natural sources which could be economical, more reliable, and safe to use.

Nutritional Composition and Bioactive Properties of Wild Edible Mushrooms from Native Nothofagus Patagonian Forests

Nothofagus forests of the Andean Patagonian region are home to numerous wild edible mushroom (WEM) species with interesting organoleptic characteristics, although many of them have unknown nutritional and nutraceutical profiles. The proximal composition, fatty and organic acids, soluble sugars, phenolic compounds, ergosterol, as well as antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of 17 WEMs were analyzed. Carbohydrates, the most abundant macronutrients, varied between 49.00 g/100 g dw (C. magellanicus) and 89.70 g/100 g dw (F. antarctica). Significantly higher values were found for total fat in G. gargal (5.90 g/100 g dw) followed by A. vitellinus (4.70 g/100 g dw); for crude protein in L. perlatum (36.60 g/100 g dw) followed by L. nuda (30.30 g/100 g dw); and for energy in G. gargal (398 Kcal/100g) and C. hariotii (392 Kcal/100g). The most effective extracts regarding the TBARS antioxidant capacity were those of Ramaria. This is the first time that a study was carried out on the chemical composition of G. sordulenta, C. xiphidipus, F. pumiliae, and L. perlatum. The promotion of sustainable use of WEMs, including their incorporation in functional diets that choose WEMs as nutritious, safe, and healthy foods, and their use in an identity mycogastronomy linked to tourism development, requires the detailed and precise nutritional and nutraceutical information of each species.

Current Uses of Mushrooms in Cancer Treatment and Their Anticancer Mechanisms

Cancer is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Various chemotherapeutic drugs have been extensively used for cancer treatment. However, current anticancer drugs cause severe side effects and induce resistance. Therefore, the development of novel and effective anticancer agents with minimal or no side effects is important. Notably, natural compounds have been highlighted as anticancer drugs. Among them, many researchers have focused on mushrooms that have biological activities, including antitumor activity. The aim of this review is to discuss the anticancer potential of different mushrooms and the underlying molecular mechanisms. We provide information regarding the current clinical status and possible modes of molecular actions of various mushrooms and mushroom-derived compounds. This review will help researchers and clinicians in designing evidence-based preclinical and clinical studies to test the anticancer potential of mushrooms and their active compounds in different types of cancers.

Ganoderma lucidum: Unutilized natural medicine and promising future solution to emerging diseases in Africa

Ganoderma lucidum is a well-known medicinal mushroom that has been used for the prevention and treatment of different ailments to enhance longevity and health specifically in China, Japan, and Korea. It was known as “God’s herb” in ancient China as it was believed to prolong life, enhance the youthful spirit and sustain/preserve vitality. G. lucidum is seldom collected from nature and is substantially cultivated on wood logs and sawdust in plastic bags or bottles to meet the international market demand. Both in vitro and in vivo studies on the copious metabolic activities of G. lucidum have been carried out. Varied groups of chemical compounds including triterpenoids, polysaccharides, proteins, amino acids, nucleosides, alkaloids, steroids, lactones, lectins, fatty acids, and enzymes with potent pharmacological activities have been isolated from the mycelia and fruiting bodies of G. lucidum. Several researchers have reported the abundance and diversification of its biological actions triggered by these chemical compounds. Triterpenoids and polysaccharides of G. lucidum have been reported to possess cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, antihypertensive, hypocholesterolemic, antihistaminic effects, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic antiallergic, neuroprotective, antitumor, immunomodulatory and antiangiogenic activities. Various formulations have been developed, patented, and utilized as nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and pharmaceuticals from G. lucidum extracts and active compounds. Thus, this review presents current updates on emerging infectious diseases and highlights the scope, dynamics, and advances in infectious disease management with a particular focus on Ganoderma lucidum, an unutilized natural medicine as a promising future solution to emerging diseases in Africa. However, details such as the chemical compound and mode of action of each bioactive against different emerging diseases were not discussed in this study.

Fungal Mushrooms: A Natural Compound With Therapeutic Applications

Fungi are extremely diverse in terms of morphology, ecology, metabolism, and phylogeny. Approximately, 130 medicinal activities like antitumor, immunomodulation, antioxidant, radical scavenging, cardioprotective and antiviral actions are assumed to be produced by the various varieties of medicinal mushrooms. The polysaccharides, present in mushrooms like β-glucans, micronutrients, antioxidants like glycoproteins, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and ergosterols can help establish natural resistance against infections and toxins.. Clinical trials have been performed on mushrooms like Agaricus blazei Murrill Kyowa for their anticancer effect, A. blazei Murrill for its antihypertensive and cardioprotective effects, and some other mushrooms had also been evaluated for their neurological effects. The human evaluation dose studies had been also performed and the toxicity dose was evaluated from the literature for number of mushrooms. All the mushrooms were found to be safe at a dose of 2000 mg/kg but some with mild side effects. The safety and therapeutic effectiveness of the fungal mushrooms had shifted the interest of biotechnologists toward fungal nanobiotechnology as the drug delivery system due to the vast advantages of nanotechnology systems. In complement to the vital nutritional significance of medicinal mushrooms, numerous species have been identified as sources of bioactive chemicals. Moreover, there are unanswered queries regarding its safety, efficacy, critical issues that affect the future mushroom medicine development, that could jeopardize its usage in the twenty-first century.

Suillin: A mixed-type acetylcholinesterase inhibitor from Suillus luteus which is used by Saraguros indigenous, southern Ecuador

Suillus luteus (L.) Roussel is an edible mushroom commonly known as slippery jack or “Kallampa” by indigenous people from Loja province. It is used in traditional medicine to manage gastrointestinal disorders and headaches. In addition, edible mushrooms have been used for neurodegenerative diseases; however, there is no report about the anticholinesterase effect produced by this species. The aim of this work was to isolate the main secondary metabolite of Suillus luteus and characterize its inhibitory potential against acetylcholinesterase. Fruiting bodies were extracted with ethanol (EtOH) and ethyl acetate (EtOAc). From the EtOAc, suillin, is reported as the major compound. The cholinesterase inhibitory potential of extracts and the major isolated compound was assessed by Ellman´s method and progression curves were recorded at 405 nm for 60 min. Donepezil hydroclhoride was used as a positive control. The samples were dissolved in methanol at 10 mg/mL and two more 10× dilutions were included to obtain final concentrations of 1, 0.1 and 0.01 mg/mL at the mix of reaction. IC₅₀, K_m, V_max, and K_i were calculated for suillin. Suillin (200 mg) along with linoleic acid, ergosterol peroxide and ergosterol were isolated. The EtOH and EtOAc extracts exerted a moderate inhibitory effect (IC₅₀ > 200 μg/mL. In adittion, suillin exerted a non-competitive mixed mechanism. against AChE with an IC₅₀ value of 31.50 μM and Ki of 17.25 μM. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the anticholinesterase effect of Suillus luteus and suillin. The kinetic parameters and the moderate potency of the compound determined in this study, encourage us to propose suillin as a promising chemopreventing agent for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer.

Mushrooms as Potential Sources of Active Metabolites and Medicines

Background

Mushrooms exist as an integral and vital component of the ecosystem and are very precious fungi. Mushrooms have been traditionally used in herbal medicines for many centuries.

Scope and Approach

There are a variety of medicinal mushrooms mentioned in the current work such as Agaricus, Amanita, Calocybe, Cantharellus, Cordyceps, Coprinus, Cortinarius, Ganoderma, Grifola, Huitlacoche, Hydnum, Lentinus, Morchella, Pleurotus, Rigidoporus, Tremella, Trametes sp., etc., which play a vital role in various diseases because of several metabolic components and nutritional values. Medicinal mushrooms can be identified morphologically on the basis of their size, color (white, black, yellow, brown, cream, pink and purple-brown, etc.), chemical reactions, consistency of the stalk and cap, mode of attachment of the gills to the stalk, and spore color and mass, and further identified at a molecular level by Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) regions of gene sequencing. There are also other methods that have recently begun to be used for the identification of mushrooms such as high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), microscopy, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), DNA sequencing, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), chemical finger printing, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LCMS-TOF) and high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC). Lately, the matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) technique is also used for the identification of fungi.

Key Finding and Conclusion

Medicinal mushrooms possess various biological activities like anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, anti-tumor, anti-viral, anti-parasitic, anti-microbial, hepatoprotective, anti-HIV, anti-diabetic, and many others that will be mentioned in this article. This manuscript will provide future direction, action mechanisms, applications, and the recent collective information of medicinal mushrooms. In addition to many unknown metabolites and patented active metabolites are also included.

Striatal Isolated from Cyathus striatus Extracts Induces Apoptosis in Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells

The aim of the present study was to identify the structure of active compounds in Cyathus stratus that previously demonstrated anti-pancreatic cancer activity. The active compounds were purified from a crude extract by a series of RP-18 preparative chromatography using homemade octadecyl silica gel column. HPLC injection of the crude extract revealed a chromatogram with three main peaks with retention times (RT) 15.6, 18.2, and 22.5 min. Each fraction that exhibited promising activity in vitro was further separated using various available chromatographic techniques. The purified compound with the ultimate anti-cancer activity appeared at RT of 15.8 in the HPLC chromatogram with more than 90% purity. The main peak at the mass spectra appeared at m/z = 446.2304 with the calculated molecular formula of C25H34O7. One- and two-dimensional NMR analyses indicated that the structure of the active molecule (peak 15.8 min in HPLC) was identified as striatal C. Exposure of human pancreatic cancer cells to purified striatal C resulted in induction of apoptosis. Further studies are needed in order to develop a method for the synthesis of striatal in order to use it in clinical studies for treatment of cancer.

Nutritional Profile and Health Benefits of Ganoderma lucidum “Lingzhi, Reishi, or Mannentake” as Functional Foods: Current Scenario and Future Perspectives

Ganoderma lucidum has a long history of medicinal uses in the Far East countries of more than 2000 years due to its healing properties. Recently, G. lucidum has come under scientific scrutiny to evaluate its content of bioactive components that affect human physiology, and has been exploited for potent components in the pharmacology, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics industries. For instance, evidence is accumulating on the potential of this mushroom species as a promising antiviral medicine for treating many viral diseases, such as dengue virus, enterovirus 71, and recently coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19). Still, more research studies on the biotherapeutic components of G. lucidum are needed to ensure the safety and efficiency of G. lucidum and promote the development of commercial functional foods. This paper provides an extensive overview of the nutraceutical value of Ganoderma lucidum and the development of commercial functional food. Moreover, the geo-origin tracing strategies of this mushroom and its products are discussed, a highly important parameter to ensure product quality and safety. The discussed features will open new avenues and reveal more secrets to widely utilizing this mushroom in many industrial fields; i.e., pharmaceutical and nutritional ones, which will positively reflect the global economy.

Anticancer Activities of Mushrooms: A Neglected Source for Drug Discovery

Approximately 270 species of mushrooms have been reported as potentially useful for human health. However, few mushrooms have been studied for bioactive compounds that can be helpful in treating various diseases. Like other natural regimens, the mushroom treatment appears safe, as could be expected from their long culinary and medicinal use. This review aims to provide a critical discussion on clinical trial evidence for mushrooms to treat patients with diverse types of cancer. In addition, the review also highlights the identified bioactive compounds and corresponding mechanisms of action among the explored mushrooms. Furthermore, it also discusses mushrooms with anticancer properties, demonstrated either in vitro and/or in vivo models, which have never been tested in clinical studies. Several mushrooms have been tested in phase I or II clinical trials, mostly for treating breast cancer (18.6%), followed by colorectal (14%) and prostate cancer (11.6%). The majority of clinical studies were carried out with just 3 species: Lentinula edodes (22.2%), Coriolus versicolor, and Ganoderma lucidum (both 13.9%); followed by two other species: Agaricus bisporus and Grifola frondosa (both 11.1%). Most in vitro cell studies use breast cancer cell lines (43.9%), followed by lung (14%) and colorectal cancer cell lines (13.1%), while most in vivo animal studies are performed in mice tumor models (58.7%). Although 32 species of mushrooms at least show some promise for the treatment of cancer, only 11 species have been tested clinically thus far. Moreover, most clinical studies have investigated fewer numbers of patients, and have been limited to phase III or IV. Therefore, despite the promising preclinical and clinical data publication, more solid scientific efforts are required to clarify the therapeutic value of mushrooms in oncology.

An Updated Review of Bioactive Peptides from Mushrooms in a Well-Defined Molecular Weight Range

Here, we report the current status of the bioactive peptides isolated and characterized from mushrooms during the last 20 years, considering ‘peptide’ a succession from to 2 to 100 amino acid residues. According to this accepted biochemical definition, we adopt ~10 kDa as the upper limit of molecular weight for a peptide. In light of this, a careful revision of data reported in the literature was carried out. The search revealed that in the works describing the characterization of bioactive peptides from mushrooms, not all the peptides have been correctly classified according to their molecular weight, considering that some fungal proteins (>10 kDa MW) have been improperly classified as ‘peptides’. Moreover, the biological action of each of these peptides, the principles of their isolation as well as the source/mushroom species were summarized. Finally, this review highlighted that these peptides possess antihypertensive, antifungal, antibiotic and antimicrobial, anticancer, antiviral, antioxidant and ACE inhibitory properties.

Proteins and polysaccharides from vegetative mycelium of medicinal basidiomycete Lentinus edodes display cytotoxicity towards human and animal cancer cell lines

Detection and study of biologically active compounds seems a promising area of research in cancer diagnostics and therapies. The glycoprotein and polysaccharide fractions showing high cytotoxicity towards several human and animal cancer cell lines: A549, Hep-2, HeLa, С6 and SPEV-2 were isolated from basidiomycete Lentinus edodes vegetative mycelium and fruiting body and further characterized. It was found that water-soluble glycoprotein fractions caused the most significant, 70-100% inhibition of metabolic activity of SPЕV-2, А549 and С6 cell lines. The effective concentrations of glycoprotein fractions reducing the viability of cancer cell lines were determined. The protein and subunit composition of fractions was studied; the highly active galactose-specific lectins were found to be present in these fractions. Comparative analysis of transcriptomes of L. edodes vegetative mycelium, fruiting body and primordium revealed the presence of carbohydrate-binding glycoproteins (lectins) specific for each stage of basidiomycete morphogenesis. Histological examination revealed some morphological indicators of immune system activation and the absence of toxic effect on gastro-intestinal mucosa of animals at peroral administration of fungal glycoprotein fractions. Fungal protein and, in particular, lectin preparations derived from L. еdodes vegetative mycelium might be considered as novel prospective tools in cancer diagnostics and therapies.

Inonotus obliquus aqueous extract prevents histopathological alterations in liver induced by environmental toxicant Microcystin

Environmental toxicants like microcystins are known to adversely impact liver physiology and lead to the increased risk for abnormal liver function and even liver carcinoma. Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) is reported for various properties mainly antibacterial, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties. This study was aimed to assess the effect microcystin (MC-LR) on histopathology of liver in mice and a preventive measure by using aqueous extract of Inonotus obliquus (IOAE). Adult Balb/c mice were administered with MC-LR at 20 ​μg/kg body weight, per day, intraperitoneal (i.p.) for 4 weeks. IOAE was treated to one group of MC-LR mice at 200 ​mg/kg body weight, per oral, for 4 weeks. Histological staining for liver structural details and biochemical assays for functions were assessed. The results of the study showed that MC-LR drastically reduced the body weight of mice which were restored close to the range of control by IOAE treatment. MC-LR exposed mice showed 1.9, 1.7 and 2.2-fold increase in the levels of SGOT, SGPT and LDH which were restored by IOAE treatment as compared to control (one-fold). MC-LR exposed mice showed reduced level of GSH (19.83 ​± ​3.3 ​μM) which were regained by IOAE treatment (50.83 ​± ​3.0 ​μM). Similar observations were noted for catalase activity. Histological examinations show that MC-LR exposed degenerative changes in the liver sections which were restored by IOAE supplementation. The immunofluorescence analysis of caspase-3 counterstained with DAPI showed that MC-LR led to the increased expression of caspase-3 which were comparatively reduced by IOAE treatment. The cell viability decreased on increasing the concentration of MC-LR with 5% cell viability at concentration of 10 ​μg MC-LR/mL as that of control 100% Cell viability. The IC₅₀ was calculated to be 3.6 ​μg/ml, indicating that MC-LR is chronic toxic to AML12 mouse hepatocytes. The molecular docking interaction of NF-κB-NIK with ergosterol peroxidase showed binding interaction between the two and showed the plausible molecular basis for the effects of IOAE in MC-LR induced liver injury. Collectively, this study revealed the deleterious effects of MC-LR on liver through generation of oxidative stress and activation of caspase-3, which were prevented by treatment with IOAE.

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Microcystin-LR is a potent hepatotoxic agent acting by inducing lipid peroxidation and oxidative damages.

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MC-LR exhibited significant deleterious alteration in liver by histopathological and biochemical signatures.

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Inonotus obliquus aqueous extract (IOAE) suppressed inflammation and oxidative damage in the liver induced by microcystin-LR.

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IOAE suppressed caspase-3 and p53 expression in MC-LR-induced liver.

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Chaga mushroom is suggested for using as a supplement in prevention of liver toxicity and inflammation.

Bioactives from Mushroom: Health Attributes and Food Industry Applications

It is well-known that the utilization of mushrooms as therapeutic agents is not new. Over the past years, they have been used by local individuals as food, as well as medicines, throughout the world. Nowadays, mushrooms are excessively used in the medicine, pharmacy, food, and fermentation fields as well. Wild mushrooms are of particular interest, especially Trametes versicolor (commonly known as turkey mushrooms) due to their various uses in the food and pharmaceutical industries. They represent not only a huge storehouse of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber, but they are also an important source of bioactive polysaccharides. They are widely used in traditional oriental therapies. The fruiting bodies are used in the preparation of health tonics and tea. The present review is necessary to explore more about this mushroom-like classical taxonomy, morphology, nutritional value, bioactivity, various health attributes, mechanism of bioactive components against various diseases, and food applications. The influence of processing processes on the nutritional properties and bioactivity of the fungus is discussed. Potential bioactive components promising health attributes of Trametes versicolor are extensively described. Additionally, several in vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of polysaccharopeptides (PSP) and Polysaccharide-K (PSK) on the aspects related to immune function and inflammation, also presenting an anticancerous effect. Moreover, PSP and PSK were successfully described to decrease several life-threatening diseases. The potential food applications of Trametes versicolor were detailed to signify the effective utilization of the mushroom in functional food formulation.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction of polysaccharide from spent Lentinus edodes substrate: Process optimization, precipitation, structural characterization and antioxidant activity

Lentinus edodes is the second-most popular and cultivated mushroom worldwide due to its nutritional and health-promoting benefit. However, the mushroom production generates vast amounts of spent L. edodes substrate (SLS) that is generally discharged into the environment, posing a great challenge within mushroom by-product valorization. In this work, SLS polysaccharide (SP) was ultrasonically extracted by optimizing the process conditions with response surface methodology. Using gradient ethanol precipitation, SP was separated into SP40, SP60 and SP80, and their monosaccharide composition, structural properties, and antioxidant potential were further characterized and compared. The results showed the total polysaccharide content reached up to 37.05 ± 0.31 mg/g under the optimal conditions including an extraction temperature of 50 °C, a liquid-solid ratio of 30 mL/g and an ultrasonic power of 120 W. SP and its fractional precipitations were heteropolysaccharides sharing a similar monosaccharide composition including L-rhamnose, D-glucuronic acid, D-galacturonic acid, d-glucose and D-xylose, and a typical infrared spectrum for polysaccharide. These fractions also varied in the surface morphology, where SP80 was looser and more porous than SP40 and SP60. Furthermore, SP and SP80 displayed the strongest antioxidant activities in vitro. This study identified a novel and practical strategy to valorize SLS for valuable polysaccharide.

Anti-cancer effect of astrakurkurol from a folklore tribal mushroom on human hepatocellular carcinoma cells via mediating cell cycle inhibition, apoptosis, and migration

Astraeus hygrometricus extensively been utilized by tribal people for long time. A triterpene, astrakurkurol has been isolated from A. hygrometricus but anticancer effect of this novel triterpene has imperceptibly been investigated. Motive of this research was to scrutinize its underlying apoptotic mechanism in HepG2 cells. Cytotoxicity studies demonstrated a selective effect of astrakurkurol with towering influence in HepG2 than Thle2 cells. The exposure of these triterpene-induced marked apoptotic morphological changes enhanced the rate of cell apoptosis and arrest cell cycle at G0/G1. Furthermore, these results are aided by decline in the expression of Bcl-2, Bcl-xL with an increase in the expression of p53, Bax, Fas, FADD together with the activation of caspase cascade. Astrakurkurol also displayed a remarkable anti-migratory capacity at a lower concentration. Altogether, studies explained anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, and anti-migratory efficacy of astrakurkurol on HepG2, composing a gripping challenge in the advancement of novel treatments against hepatocellular carcinoma. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Mushrooms, the minuscule pharmaceutical factory, bear hundreds of novel elements with incredible biological attributes. Triterpenoids from mushrooms has been proven to bear potentials of curing cancer. This study highlights the cytotoxic and anti-migratory effects of novel triterpene in vitro in HepG2 cell, an HCC cell line. Astrakurkurol mediated cell death via both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic signaling. Utilization of astrakurkurol will provide a non-toxic substitute of chemotherapy and also uplift the value of forsaken taxon, Astraeus and boost the rural acceptance.

Free Radical Scavenging Capacities and Alleviating Actions of Polysaccharides Extract of Termitomyces le-testui on Methylprednisolone-Induced Immunodepression in Rats

Background

Natural products have been said to show immunomodulatory and antioxidant activities. The research study was aimed to assess the immunomodulatory and free radical scavenging activities of crude polysaccharide from dry mushroom fruiting bodies of Termitomyces le-testui.

Materials and Methods

Hot water extract of polysaccharide extract of T. le-testui was prepared and tested in white albino Wister rats for its immunomodulatory activities effect on methylprednisolone-immunosuppressed animals. In addition, the radical scavenging activity of the polysaccharide was evaluated using nitrite and hydrogen peroxide.

Results

The result of the study showed that the polysaccharide T. le-testui increases the phagocytic index, energy metabolism of macrophages, spleen index, and nitric oxide in a concentration-dependent manner in immunosuppressed animals. Also, it was observed that the extract increased dose-dependent total oxidative stress and thymus index. Finally, the crude polysaccharide-rich extract showed nitrite and hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity in a concentration-dependent manner.

Conclusion

Polysaccharide-rich extract possesses immunomodulatory and antioxidant properties.

Proteomic Research on the Antitumor Properties of Medicinal Mushrooms

Medicinal mushrooms are increasingly being recognized as an important therapeutic modality in complementary oncology. Until now, more than 800 mushroom species have been known to possess significant pharmacological properties, of which antitumor and immunomodulatory properties have been the most researched. Besides a number of medicinal mushroom preparations being used as dietary supplements and nutraceuticals, several isolates from mushrooms have been used as official antitumor drugs in clinical settings for several decades. Various proteomic approaches allow for the identification of a large number of differentially regulated proteins serendipitously, thereby providing an important platform for a discovery of new potential therapeutic targets and approaches as well as biomarkers of malignant disease. This review is focused on the current state of proteomic research into antitumor mechanisms of some of the most researched medicinal mushroom species, including Phellinus linteus, Ganoderma lucidum, Auricularia auricula, Agrocybe aegerita, Grifola frondosa, and Lentinus edodes, as whole body extracts or various isolates, as well as of complex extract mixtures.

The Effect of the Nutraceutical "MICODIGEST 2.0" on the Colorectal Cancer Surgery With Curative Intent Complications Rate: A Study Protocol for a Placebo-Controlled Double-blind Randomized Clinical Trial (Preprint)

Background

Most colorectal cancer patients diagnosed are candidates for surgical resection with curative intent, although colorectal surgery is associated with some complications that could be life-threatening. Antibiotic prophylaxis is commonly used for the prevention of infectious postoperative complications. However, this intervention can change the composition of intestinal microbiota and promote adverse inflammatory outcomes in colorectal cancer patients. The combination of different fungal extracts could be beneficial because of their role in gut microbiota modulation and their anti-inflammatory activity.

Objective

Based on this hypothesis, we have designed a double-bind, randomized clinical trial to evaluate the effect of the nutraceutical fungal extract Micodigest 2.0 on complications of surgery for colorectal cancer resection.

Methods

Colorectal cancer candidates for surgery will be considered for inclusion in the study. After evaluation by the multidisciplinary tumor board, patients who meet selection criteria will be screened, stratified according to tumor location, and randomly allocated to be treated with Micodigest 2.0 or placebo. Treatment will be continued until admission for surgery (4-6 weeks). Participants will undergo a medical and clinical evaluation including baseline and preadmission quality of life, microbiome composition, inflammatory and nutritional status, adverse events, and adherence assessments. The main end point of the study is the surgery complication rate. We will evaluate complications using the Clavien-Dindo classification. It will be necessary to recruit 144 patients to find a relevant clinical difference. We will also evaluate the effect of the nutraceutical on microbiome composition, inflammatory response, nutritional status, and quality of life, as well as the effect of these variables on surgical complications.

Results

This study was funded in 2020 by the Center for Industrial Technology Development. Recruitment began in September 2021 and is expected to be completed in September 2022. Data will be analyzed and the results will be disseminated in 2023.

Conclusions

The results of this protocol study could help to reduce surgery complications in patients with colorectal cancer using the new treatment Micodigest. This study could also identify new features associated with colorectal surgery complications. In summary, this study trial could improve the management of colorectal cancer patients.

Trial Registration

Clinical Trials.gov NCT04821258; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04821258

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/34292

Comparison of the chemical composition and biological effects of Clitocybe nebularis and Infundibulicybe geotropa

Clitocybe mushrooms have long been recognized for their various therapeutic potential and medicinal properties. A few members of the genus are considered edible and many others are poisonous. This study investigated the ethanolic extracts obtained from C. nebularis (CN) and I. geotropa (IG) mushrooms for phenolic content and antioxidant, antiproliferative, antimicrobial, and antibiofilm activities. The data from ultra-performance liquid chromatography and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis of the mushrooms were presented for the first time. According to the results, both ethanolic extracts contain high levels of phenolic (catechin, myricetin, quercetin, rutin, gallic acid, vanillic acid) compounds. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results may suggest the presence of clitopycin in CN extract. The ethanol extract of CN scavenged about 79% and the IG 78% of the free 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radicals. Additionally, the CN and IG extracts inhibited glutathione-S-transferase by 10%-18% at all concentrations. The CN extract effectively inhibited aldose reductase by 30%-80% at all concentrations. Besides, the CN extract showed promising antiproliferative activity on HT-29 and MCF-7 cell lines. On the other hand, CN and IG extracts displayed inhibitory effects on some multidrug-resistant Gram-positive bacteria and effectively inhibited biofilm production. The obtained results showed that C. nebularis and I. geotropa extracts presented inhibition of biofilm production. Therefore, C. nebularis was demonstrated to be a potential source of natural medicine.

Reconstitution of biosynthetic pathway for mushroom-derived cyathane diterpenes in yeast and generation of new "non-natural" analogues

Mushroom-derived cyathane-type diterpenes possess unusual chemical skeleton and diverse bioactivities. To efficiently supply bioactive cyathanes for deep studies and explore their structural diversity, de novo synthesis of cyathane diterpenes in a geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae is investigated. Aided by homologous analyses, one new unclustered FAD-dependent oxidase EriM accounting for the formation of allyl aldehyde and three new NADP(H)-dependent reductases in the biosynthesis of cyathanes are identified and elucidated. By combinatorial biosynthetic strategy, S. cerevisiae strains generating twenty-two cyathane-type diterpenes, including seven "unnatural" cyathane xylosides (12, 13, 14a, 14b, 19, 20, and 22) are established. Compounds 12-14, 19, and 20 show significant neurotrophic effects on PC12 cells in the dose of 6.3-25.0 μmol/L. These studies provide new insights into the divergent biosynthesis of mushroom-originated cyathanes and a straightforward approach to produce bioactive cyathane-type diterpenes.

Promising Anti-cancer Therapeutics From Mushrooms: Current Findings and Future Perceptions

BACKGROUND

Nowadays, medicines derived from natural sources have drawn much attention as potential therapeutic agents in the suppression and treatment of cancer because of their low toxicity and fewer side effects.

OBJECTIVE

The present review aims to assess the currently available knowledge on the ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological activities of bioactive compounds obtained from medicinal mushrooms towards cancer treatment.

METHODS

A literature search has been conducted for the collection of research papers from universally accepted scientific databases. These research papers and published book chapters were scrutinized to retrieve information on ethnomedicinal uses of mushrooms, different factors involved in cancer cell proliferation, clinical and in silico pharmaceutical studies made for possible treatments of cancer using mushroom derived compounds. Overall, 241 articles were retrieved and reviewed from the year 1970 to 2020, out of which 98 relevant articles were finally considered for the preparation of this review.

RESULTS

This review presents an update on the natural bioactive substances derived from medicinal mushrooms and their role in inhibiting the factors responsible for cancer cell proliferation. Along with it, the present review also provides information on the ethnomedicinal uses, solvents used for extraction of anti-cancer metabolites, clinical trials, and in silico studies that were undertaken towards anticancer drug development from medicinal mushrooms.

CONCLUSION

The present review provides extensive knowledge on various anti-cancer substances obtained from medicinal mushrooms, their biological actions, and in silico drug designing approaches, which could form a basis for the development of natural anti-cancer therapeutics.

Antiviral, Cytotoxic, and Antioxidant Activities of Three Edible Agaricomycetes Mushrooms: Pleurotus columbinus, Pleurotus sajor-caju, and Agaricus bisporus

In this study, we investigated aqueous extracts of three edible mushrooms: Agaricus bisporus (white button mushroom), Pleurotus columbinus (oyster mushroom), and Pleurotus sajor-caju (grey oyster mushroom). The extracts were biochemically characterized for total carbohydrate, phenolic, flavonoid, vitamin, and protein contents besides amino acid analysis. Triple TOF proteome analysis showed 30.1% similarity between proteomes of the two Pleurotus spp. All three extracts showed promising antiviral activities. While Pleurotus columbinus extract showed potent activity against adenovirus (Ad7, selectivity index (SI) = 4.2), Agaricus bisporus showed strong activity against herpes simplex II (HSV-2; SI = 3.7). The extracts showed low cytotoxicity against normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and moderate cytotoxicity against prostate (PC3, DU-145); colorectal (Colo-205); cecum carcinoma (LS-513); liver carcinoma (HepG2); cervical cancer (HeLa); breast adenocarcinoma (MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7) as well as leukemia (CCRF-CEM); acute monocytic leukemia (THP1); acute promyelocytic leukemia (NB4); and lymphoma (U937) cell lines. Antioxidant activity was evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) radical scavenging, 2,2′-Azinobis-(3-Ethylbenzthiazolin-6-Sulfonic Acid) ABTS radical cation scavenging, and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assays. The three extracts showed potential antioxidant activities with the maximum activity recorded for Pleurotus columbinus (IC₅₀ µg/mL) = 35.13 ± 3.27 for DPPH, 13.97 ± 4.91 for ABTS, and 29.42 ± 3.21 for ORAC assays.

Anti-Oxidant and Anticancerous Effect of Fomitopsis officinalis (Vill. ex Fr. Bond. et Sing) Mushroom on Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells In Vitro through NF-kB Pathway

BACKGROUND

Fomitopsis officinalis (Vill. ex Fr. Bond. et Sing) is a medicinal mushroom, commonly called 'Agarikon', traditionally used to treat cough and asthma in the Mongolian population.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to examine the significance of biological activity of F. officinalis, and evaluate the antioxidant and anticancer activity of six fractions of F. officinalis residues (Fo1-powder form dissolved in ethanol, Fo2-petroleum ether residue, Fo3-chloroformic, Fo4-ethylacetate, Fo5-buthanolic, and Fo6-water-ethanolic) against hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

METHODS

We performed in vitro studies of cell proliferation and viability assay, annexin V-FITC/Propidium Iodide assay, and NF-kB signaling pathway by immunoblot analysis.

RESULTS

Our findings revealed that all six fractions/extracts have antioxidant activity, and somehow, they exert anticancerous effects against cancer cells. In cancerous cell lines (HepG2 and LO2), Fo3 chloroformic extract promoted the cancer cell apoptosis, cell viability, activated G2/M-phase cell cycle, and selectively induced NF-kB proteins, revealing itself as a novel antitumor extract.

CONCLUSION

This study reports that Fo3-chloroformic extract is rich in antitumor activity; it was previously not investigated in cancer. To study the impact of F. officinalis among natural products to treat/prevent oxidative stress disorders or cancers, further examinations are needed. However, this study assessed only one extract, Fo3-chloroformic, which has a significant impact on cancer cell lines.

137Cs and 40K activities and total K distribution in the sclerotia of the Wolfiporia cocos fungus from China

The activity concentration of ¹³⁷Cs and ⁴⁰K and total K content in the sclerotia of the Chinese medicinal fungus Wolfiporia cocos collected mainly from Yunnan province of China during the period 2013-2015 were investigated. W. cocos in Yunnan is collected from the wild and is cultivated in field conditions and the wood substrate used is derived from the local pine (Pinus yunnanensis Franch.) logs from neighborhood forests. The outer part of sclerotia was found to be richer than the inner one in both ¹³⁷Cs and ⁴⁰K with median values of 7.3 and 3.2 Bq kg^-1 dry weight (dw) for ¹³⁷Cs, 220 and 140 Bq kg^-1 dw for ⁴⁰K. The median K concentrations were 6800 mg kg^-1 dw in the outer and 3700 mg kg^-1 dw in the inter parts. No statistically significant correlation was found for activity concentrations between the inner and outer parts, both for ¹³⁷Cs and ⁴⁰K (p > 0.05). Using the median activities of ¹³⁷Cs, the nominal values of effective dose (mSv) for exposed adults annually consuming 50 g of sclerotia, were estimated at 0.0035 mSv and 0.084 mSv (outer part), and 0.0020 mSv and 0.040 mSv (inner part) per capita, respectively. Sclerotia of W. cocos seemed to be a relatively good source of K.

In vitro cytotoxic effect of a chitin-like polysaccharide produced by Mortierella alpina on adrenocortical carcinoma cells H295R, and its use as mitotane adjuvant

This study presents an in vitro evaluation of the antitumor potential of a chitin-like exopolysaccharide (EPS, produced by Mortierella alpina) on Adrenocortical carcinoma cells (ACC) compared to mitotane, a commercial drug commonly used in ACC treatment, and known for its side effects. Techniques of cellular viability determination such as MTT and fluorescence were used to measure the cytotoxic effects of the EPS and mitotane in tumoral cells (H295R) and non-tumoral cells (VERO), observing high cytotoxicity of mitotane and a 10% superior pro-apoptotic effect of the EPS compared to mitotane (p < 0.05). The cytotoxic effect of the EPS was similar to the effect of 50 μM mitotane on tumoral cells (p < 0.05). A decrement of the lysosomal volume was also noted in tumoral cells treated with the EPS. To enhance the antitumor effect, a combination of mitotane at a lower dosage and the EPS (as adjuvant) was also tested, showing a slight improvement of the cytotoxicity effect on tumoral cells. Therefore, the results indicate a cytotoxic effect of the EPS produced by Mortierella alpina on adrenocortical carcinoma, and a possible application in biomedical formulations or additional treatments.

Cyathus striatus Extract Induces Apoptosis in Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells and Inhibits Xenograft Tumor Growth In Vivo

Simple Summary

The main aim of the present study is to test the effect of Cyathus striatus extract on the cell growth of human pancreatic cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the effect of the extract on the gene expression was detected. The results indicated that Cyathus striatus extract significantly inhibited the cell viability and induced apoptosis. The treatment of xenograft mice harboring human pancreatic cancer cells significantly inhibited tumor growth through the induction of apoptosis. RNAseq experiments revealed the involvement of the MAPK and P53 signaling pathways and pointed toward endoplasmic reticulum stress induced apoptosis. These results may suggest that Cyathus striatus extract may contain pro-apoptotic factors that can be identified and used for the treatment of human cancer.

Abstract

Pancreatic cancer is a highly lethal disease with limited options for effective therapy and the lowest survival rate of all cancer forms. Therefore, a new, effective strategy for cancer treatment is in need. Previously, we found that a culture liquid extract of Cyathus striatus (CS) has a potent antitumor activity. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of Cyathus striatus extract (CSE) on the growth of pancreatic cancer cells, both in vitro and in vivo. The proliferation assay (XTT), cell cycle analysis, Annexin/PI staining and TUNEL assay confirmed the inhibition of cell growth and induction of apoptosis by CSE. A Western blot analysis demonstrated the involvement of both the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis pathways. In addition, a RNAseq analysis revealed the involvement of the MAPK and P53 signaling pathways and pointed toward endoplasmic reticulum stress induced apoptosis. The anticancer activity of the CSE was also demonstrated in mice harboring pancreatic cancer cell line-derived tumor xenografts when CSE was given for 5 weeks by weekly IV injections. Our findings suggest that CSE could potentially be useful as a new strategy for treating pancreatic cancer.

Effects of Medicinal Fungi-Derived β-Glucan on Tumor Progression

β-Glucans have been studied in animal species, from earthworms to humans. They form a heterogenous group of glucose polymers found in fungi, plants, bacteria, and seaweed. β-Glucans have slowly emerged as an important target for the recognition of pathogens. In the current review, we highlight the major roles of mushroom-derived β-glucans on cancer progression.

Morel mushroom, Morchella from Kashmir Himalaya: a potential source of therapeutically useful bioactives that possess free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory, and arthritic edema-inhibiting activities

Morel mushrooms, Morchella species are highly nutritious and excellently edible wild mushrooms abundantly growing in Kashmir Himalayas. The free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory, and arthritis edema-inhibiting properties of bioactive extract of Morchella elata (EAE) were evaluated. EAE inhibited 53.2% formalin-induced paw edema at a dose of 500 mg/kg b.wt and 75.0% croton oil-induced skin inflammation at a dose of 50 mg topical application. EAE exhibited 51.8% COX inhibiting activity at a concentration of 100 µg/ml when assayed using LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells exposed to the extract. NF-kB inhibiting activity of EAE was assayed using Lentix-293T P65 Ds Red stable cell line. High-throughput fluorescent imaging and flow cytometry showed profound ability of EAE to inhibit NF-kB activity. HPTLC analysis revealed that EAE is composed of several chemical components. The mushroom is a source of therapeutically useful functional food that can provide relief in arthritis.

MeFSAT: a curated natural product database specific to secondary metabolites of medicinal fungi

Fungi are a rich source of secondary metabolites which constitutes a valuable and diverse chemical space of natural products. Medicinal fungi have been used in traditional medicine to treat human ailments for centuries. To date, there is no devoted resource on secondary metabolites and therapeutic uses of medicinal fungi. Such a dedicated resource compiling dispersed information on medicinal fungi across published literature will facilitate ongoing efforts towards natural product based drug discovery. Here, we present the first comprehensive manually curated database on Medicinal Fungi Secondary metabolites And Therapeutics (MeFSAT) that compiles information on 184 medicinal fungi, 1830 secondary metabolites and 149 therapeutics uses. Importantly, MeFSAT contains a non-redundant in silico natural product library of 1830 secondary metabolites along with information on their chemical structures, computed physicochemical properties, drug-likeness properties, predicted ADMET properties, molecular descriptors and predicted human target proteins. By comparing the physicochemical properties of secondary metabolites in MeFSAT with other small molecules collections, we find that fungal secondary metabolites have high stereochemical complexity and shape complexity similar to other natural product libraries. Based on multiple scoring schemes, we have filtered a subset of 228 drug-like secondary metabolites in MeFSAT database. By constructing and analyzing chemical similarity networks, we show that the chemical space of secondary metabolites in MeFSAT is highly diverse. The compiled information in MeFSAT database is openly accessible at: https://cb.imsc.res.in/mefsat/.

Advances allowing feasible pyrG gene editing by a CRISPR-Cas9 system for the edible mushroom Pleurotus eryngii

For decades, the edible mushroom Pleurotus eryngii (P. eryngii) has been cultivated as important raw materials for food and pharmaceutical industries in most of Asian countries, especially in China. Unfortunately, the generation and improvement of new cultivars are very difficult since there are many barriers which have not been solved thoroughly by gene editing tools, even though the CRISPR-Cas9 technique has been widely applied in other species. In this study, we identified the point-mutated variant of the endogenous sdhB gene (cbx^r) as a more stable selection marker than hygromycin B resistance gene (hph) in P. eryngii. Furthermore, using a codon-optimized Cas9, a predicted native U6 promoter-guided sgRNA, as well as an optimized protoplast transformation system, a highly efficient pyrG gene editing system was established in P. eryngii, that incorporated varied insertions and deletions (indels) by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and homology-directed repair (HDR). Findings for a successful targeted gene editing strategy in the edible mushroom P. eryngii may open a new chapter for the improvement of edible mushroom cultivars.

Inhibition of Jurkat T Cell Proliferation by Active Components of Rumex japonicus Roots Via Induced Mitochondrial Damage and Apoptosis Promotion

Rumex japonicus Houtt (RJH) is a valuable plant used in traditional medicine to treat several diseases, such as scabies and jaundice. In this study, Jurkat cell growth inhibitory extracts of R. japonicus roots were subjected to bioassay-guided fractionation, resulting in the isolation of three naphthalene derivatives (3-5) along with one anthraquinone (6) and two phenolic compounds (1 and 2). Among these compounds, 2-methoxystypandrone (5) exhibited potent anti-proliferative effects on Jurkat cells. Analysis by flow cytometry confirmed that 2-methoxystypandrone (5) could significantly reduce mitochondrial membrane potential and promote increased levels of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS), suggesting a strong mitochondrial depolarization effect. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis was also performed, and the results revealed that the accumulation of ROS was caused by reduced mRNA expression levels of heme oxygenase (HO-1), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD). In addition, 2-methoxystypandrone (5) triggered strong apoptosis that was mediated by the arrest of the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle. Furthermore, 2-methoxystypandrone (5) downregulated p-IκB-α, p-NF-κB p65, Bcl2, and Bcl-xl and upregulated BAX proteins. Taken together, these findings revealed that 2-methoxystypandrone (5) isolated from RJH could potentially serve as an early lead compound for leukemia treatment involving intracellular signaling by increasing mitochondrial ROS and exerting anti-proliferative effects.

Mercury in traditionally foraged species of fungi (macromycetes) from the karst area across Yunnan province in China

The objective of this study is to better quantify the occurrence, intake, and potential risk from Hg in fungi traditionally foraged in SW China. The concentrations and intakes of Hg were measured from 42 species including a "hard" flesh type polypore fungi and a" soft" flesh type edible species that are used in traditional herbal medicine, collected during the period 2011-2017. Three profiles of forest topsoil from the Zhenyuan site in 2015 and Changning and Dulong sites in 2016 were also investigated. The concentrations of Hg in composite samples of polypore fungi were usually below 0.1 mg kg-1 dry weight (dw) but higher levels, 0.11 ± 0.01 and 0.24 ± 0.00 mg kg-1 dw, were noted in Ganoderma applanatum and Amauroderma niger respectively, both from the Nujiang site near the town of Lanping in NW Yunnan. Hg concentrations in Boletaceae species were usually well above 1.0 mg kg-1 dw and as high as 10 mg kg-1 dw. The quality of the mushrooms in this study in view of contamination with Hg showed a complex picture. The "worst case" estimations showed probable intake of Hg from 0.006 μg kg-1 body mass (bm) ("hard" type flesh) to 0.25 μg kg-1 bm ("soft" flesh) on a daily basis for capsulated products, from 17 to 83 μg kg-1 bm ("soft" flesh) in a meal ("hard" type flesh mushrooms are not cooked while used in traditional herbal medicine after processing), and from 0.042 to 1.7 and 120 to 580 μg kg-1 bm on a weekly basis, respectively. KEY POINTS: • Polypore species were slightly contaminated with Hg. • Hg maximal content in the polypore was < 0.25 mg kg-1 dry weight. • Many species from Boletaceae family in Yunnan showed elevated Hg. • Locals who often eat Boletus may take Hg at a dose above the daily reference dose.

Antitumor, Immunomodulatory and Antiangiogenic Efficacy of Medicinal Mushroom Extract Mixtures in Advanced Colorectal Cancer Animal Model

Due to frequent drug resistance and/or unwanted side-effects during conventional and targeted cancer treatments, development of multi-target therapies is an important research field. Medicinal mushrooms’ isolated specific compounds and mushroom extracts have been already proven as non-toxic multi-target inhibitors of specific oncogenic pathways, as well as potent immunomodulators. However, research on antitumor effects of multiple-species extract mixtures was limited so far. The aim of this study was therefore, a study of medicinal mushroom preparations AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS on colorectal cell lines in vitro and colorectal mice model in vivo. We found a significant antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effect of tested medicinal mushroom preparations on colorectal (HCT-116, SW620) tumor cell lines, while the effect on human fibroblast cell line (WI-38) was proliferative emphasizing a specificity towards tumor cell lines. We further investigated the effect of the medicinal mushroom preparations AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS in various combinations with conventional cytostatic drug 5-fluorouracil in the advanced metastatic colorectal cancer mouse model CT26.WT. AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS exhibited immunostimulatory and antiangiogenic properties in vivo which resulted in significantly increased survival and reduction in tumor volume. The antitumor effects of AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS, with or without 5-fluorouracil, are based on M1 macrophage polarization enhancement, inhibition of M2 and tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) polarization, effects on T helper cell Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokine profiles, direct inhibition of CT26.WT tumor growth, inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF) and metalloproteinases 2 and 9 (MMP-2 and MMP-9) modulation. The administration of AGARIKON.1 and AGARIKON PLUS did not show genotoxic effect. This data provides good basis for an expanded translational study.

Treatment With Medicinal Mushroom Extract Mixture Inhibits Translation and Reprograms Metabolism in Advanced Colorectal Cancer Animal Model as Evidenced by Tandem Mass Tags Proteomics Analysis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most frequent cancer type in both males and females, with about 35% of patients being diagnosed in stage IV metastatic disease. Despite advancements in treatment, life expectancy in patients with metastatic disease is still not satisfying. Due to frequent drug resistance during conventional and targeted cancer treatments, the development and testing of multi-target therapies is an important research field. Medicinal mushrooms specific isolated compounds as well as complex extract mixtures have been studied in depth, and many mushroom species have been proven to be non-toxic multi-target inhibitors of specific oncogenic pathways, as well as potent immunomodulators. In this study, we have performed a tandem mass tags qualitative and quantitative proteomic analyses of CT26.WT colon cancer tumor tissues from Balb/c mice treated with the studied medicinal mushroom extract mixture, with or without 5-fluorouracil. Besides significantly improved survival, obtained results reveal that Agarikon.1 alone, and in combination with 5-fluorouracil exert their anticancer effects by affecting several fundamental processes important in CRC progression. Bioinformatic analysis of up- and downregulated proteins revealed that ribosomal biogenesis and translation is downregulated in treatment groups, while the unfolded protein response (UPR), lipid metabolism and tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA) are upregulated. Moreover, we found that many known clinical biomarkers and protein clusters important in CRC progression and prognosis are affected, which are a good basis for an expanded translational study of the herein presented treatment.

Anticancer Activity of Solvent Extracts of Hexogonia glabra against Cervical Cancer Cell Lines

Objective:

In this study, we aimed to harness some solvent extracts of one wild mushroom Hexagonia glabra and test their anti-cancer activity against cervical human cell lines, namelyHeLa, SiHa, and CaSki.

Methods:

It includes cell morphological study by microscope, nuclear morphology by DAPI staining under fluorescence microscopy, apoptosis assay by fluorescence technique, anti-proliferation by MTT assay and expression of apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes by Western blotting and cell cycle analysis was done.

Results:

The selected cervical cancer cells were treated separately with 150 µg/mL of three extracts, namely of ethanolic (EE), ethyl acetate (EAE), and water extract (WE) and exhibited features like round, shrink and dead. All extracts caused apoptosis in cell lines and EE had the highest effect in this regard. The percentages of apoptotic cells in HeLa, SiHa and CaSki, at the same concentration of EE were 79.23, 75.42, and 76.36% respectively. Cytotoxicity assay showed that all three extracts (50 – 250 μg/mL) were potent for inhibition of cell growth of three cell lines and again EE had the highest effect. The percentages of cell growth inhibition in HeLa, SiHa, and CaSki cells treated with EE at 24 h at 50 µg/mL were 45.79±4.11, 41.66±4.03, and 36.72±2.67, while they were 74.23±7.45, 62.31±5.97, and 54.23±5.04 at 150 µg/mL concentration. At 250 µg/mL concentration, the percentages of cell growth inhibition were 94.25 ±8.11, 90.02 ±8.67, and 85.43±6.21, respectively. The expression of apoptotic gene (Caspase 3, 9) and tumor guard gene (p53), as their proteins in Western blotting increased . However, anti-apoptotic BcL2 gene of all cell lines was decreased following treatment with extracts. In addition, the cell cycle analysis (CaSki cell) showed that treatment (EE) arrested at G2/M check point cell cycle.

Conclusion:

All extracts of this mushroom were active in arresting growth of three cell lines and EE had the highest effect, indicating that this mushroom can be a valuable source of anticancer agents.

Purification, characterization and anti-tumor activities of polysaccharides from Ecklonia kurome obtained by three different extraction methods

To investigate and compare the effects of different extraction methods on the structure and anti-tumor activity of Ecklonia kurome polysaccharides (EP), three techniques, namely hot water extraction (HW), ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UA) and enzyme-assisted extraction (EA), were used to extract EP, and three crude EPs were purified by DEAE-cellulose and gel filtration chromatography. The significant antitumor active components in each method were screened by MTT assay and named as HW-EP5, UA-EP4 and EA-EP3, respectively. The molecular weight, FT-IR assay and NMR showed that HW-EP5, UA-EP4 and EA-EP3 were pyran polysaccharides with a molecular weight of 14,466, 15,922 and 16,947 Da, respectively. HW-EP5 contained the most monosaccharides and the highest content of sulfate and uronic acid. HW-EP5 had an even and smooth sheet-like appearance, while UA-EP4 and EA-EP3 exhibited irregular and rough fragments. All three polysaccharides can inhibit the migration of human breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and promote its apoptosis. All three polysaccharides promoted caspase activity during apoptosis. HW-EP5 and UA-EP4 up-regulated the expression of proapoptotic proteins Bax and p53, while EA-EP3 only up-regulated the expression of p53. These experimental results indicate that Ecklonia kurome polysaccharides, especially HW-EP5, have great potential as a natural medicine for the treatment of breast cancer.

Purification, Structural Characterization, and Biological Activity of Polysaccharides from Lentinus velutinus

A polysaccharide (LVP) was purified from fruiting body of Lentinus velutinus by ethanol precipitation fractionation and DEAE and Sephadex G-100 column chromatography. The yield of purified polysaccharide was 0.025%. Molecular characteristics of LVP were determined by gel permeation chromatography, FT-IR spectroscopy, and thin-layer chromatography. Our results revealed that LVP is a polysaccharide composed of only glucose units, and has a molecular weight of 336 kDa. Biological activity assays indicated that LVP exhibits both cytotoxic and antioxidant activity. LVP showed specific cytotoxicity against cancer cells (HeLa and HepG2 cells), and alterations in cancer cell morphology were found after LVP treatment.

Combined Effect of Lentinan and Cisplatin on Cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, and TGF-β in Tumor Therapy

Lentinan is a biologically active ingredient isolated from the fruiting body of Lentinula edodes (shiitake) and has antitumor properties. Cytokines, at the same time, are a key factor in regulating immune responses in physiological and pathological states. Many cytokines have shown positive effect on different malignancies in clinical trials. Studies have shown that such cytokines as IL6, TNF-α, and TGF-β play a quite important role in the formation of tumor microenvironment. In this study, we investigated the antitumor effect of combined medication of lentinan and cisplatin, another antitumor drug, and its impact on cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, and TGF-β in the treatment of tumor. The results showed that lentinan enhanced the cytotoxic effect of cisplatin on tumor cells. Furthermore, it was proved that the combined treatment of lentinan and cisplatin enhanced the inhibitory effect of cisplatin on the expression of IL-6, TNF- α, TGF-β and tumor growth in mice bearing human ovarian cancer xenograft, human prostate tumor xenograft, and human non-small cell lung cancer xenograft.