Ginsenosides: prospective for sustainable biotechnological production

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles - from Laboratory to factory, a landscape of application, challenges and prospects

Recent decades have witnessed substantial interest in extracellular vesicles (EVs) due to their crucial role in intercellular communication across various biological processes. Among these, plant-derived exosome-like Nanoparticles (ELNs) have rapidly gained recognition as highly promising candidates. ELNs, characterized by diverse sources, cost-effective production, and straightforward isolation, present a viable option for preventing and treating numerous diseases. Furthermore, ELNs hold significant potential as carriers for natural or engineered drugs, enhancing their attractiveness and drawing considerable attention in science and medicine. However, translating ELNs into clinical applications poses several challenges. This study explores these challenges and offers critical insights into potential research directions. Additionally, it provides a forward-looking analysis of the industrial prospects for ELNs. With their broad applications and remarkable potential, ELNs stand at the forefront of biomedical innovation, poised to revolutionize disease management and drug delivery paradigms in the coming years.

Bioreactor configurations for adventitious root culture: recent advances toward the commercial production of specialized metabolites

In vitro plant cell and organ cultures are appealing alternatives to traditional methods of producing valuable specialized metabolites for use as: pharmaceuticals, food additives, cosmetics, perfumes, and agricultural chemicals. Cell cultures have been adopted for the production of specialized metabolites in certain plants. However, in certain other systems, adventitious roots are superior to cell suspension cultures as they are organized structures that accumulate high levels of specialized metabolites. The cultivation of adventitious roots has been investigated in various bioreactor systems, including: mechanically agitated, pneumatically agitated, and modified bioreactors. The main relevance and importance of this work are to develop a long-lasting industrial biotechnological technology as well as to improve the synthesis of these metabolites from the plant in vitro systems. These challenges are exacerbated by: the peculiarities of plant cell metabolism, the complexity of specialized metabolite pathways, the proper selection of bioreactor systems, and bioprocess optimization. This review's major objective is to analyze several bioreactor types for the development of adventitious roots, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each type of bioreactor, and to describe the strategies used to increase the synthesis of specialized metabolites. This review also emphasizes current advancements in the field, and successful instances of scaled-up cultures and the generation of specialized metabolites for commercial purposes are also covered.

Panax notoginseng: panoramagram of phytochemical and pharmacological properties, biosynthesis, and regulation and production of ginsenosides

Panax notoginseng is a famous perennial herb widely used as material for medicine and health-care food. Due to its various therapeutic effects, research work on P. notoginseng has rapidly increased in recent years, urging a comprehensive review of research progress on this important medicinal plant. Here, we summarize the latest studies on the representative bioactive constituents of P. notoginseng and their multiple pharmacological effects, like cardiovascular protection, anti-tumor, and immunomodulatory activities. More importantly, we emphasize the biosynthesis and regulation of ginsenosides, which are the main bioactive ingredients of P. notoginseng. Key enzymes and transcription factors (TFs) involved in the biosynthesis of ginsenosides are reviewed, including diverse CYP450s, UGTs, bHLH, and ERF TFs. We also construct a transcriptional regulatory network based on multi-omics data and predicted candidate TFs mediating the biosynthesis of ginsenosides. Finally, the current three major biotechnological approaches for ginsenoside production are highlighted. This review covers advances in the past decades, providing insights into quality evaluation and perspectives for the rational utilization and development of P. notoginseng resources. Modern omics technologies facilitate the exploration of the molecular mechanisms of ginsenoside biosynthesis, which is crucial to the breeding of novel P. notoginseng varieties. The identification of functional enzymes for biosynthesizing ginsenosides will lead to the formulation of potential strategies for the efficient and large-scale production of specific ginsenosides.

Ginsenoside Rc: A potential intervention agent for metabolic syndrome

Ginsenoside Rc, a dammarane-type tetracyclic triterpenoid saponin primarily derived from Panax ginseng, has garnered significant attention due to its diverse pharmacological properties. This review outlined the sources, putative biosynthetic pathways, extraction, and quantification techniques, as well as the pharmacokinetic properties of ginsenoside Rc. Furthermore, this study explored the pharmacological effects of ginsenoside Rc against metabolic syndrome (MetS) across various phenotypes including obesity, diabetes, atherosclerosis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and osteoarthritis. It also highlighted the impact of ginsenoside Rc on multiple associated signaling molecules. In conclusion, the anti-MetS effect of ginsenoside Rc is characterized by its influence on multiple organs, multiple targets, and multiple ways. Although clinical investigations regarding the effects of ginsenoside Rc on MetS are limited, its proven safety and tolerability suggest its potential as an effective treatment option.

Drought Resistance and Ginsenosides Biosynthesis in Response to Abscisic Acid in Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer

Drought stress adversely affects the production of the perennial medicinal herb Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. Phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) regulates many processes in plant growth, development, and response to environments. However, whether drought resistance is regulated by ABA in Panax ginseng remains unknown. In this study, we characterized the response of drought resistance to ABA in Panax ginseng. The results showed that the growth retardation and root shrinking under drought conditions in Panax ginseng were attenuated by exogenous ABA application. Spraying ABA was shown to protect the photosynthesis system, enhance the root activity, improve the performance of the antioxidant protection system, and alleviate the excessive accumulation of soluble sugar in Panax ginseng under drought stress. In addition, ABA treatment leads to the enhanced accumulation of ginsenosides, the pharmaceutically active components, and causes the up-regulation of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase (PgHMGR) in Panax ginseng. Therefore, this study supports that drought resistance and ginsenosides biosynthesis in Panax ginseng were positively regulated by ABA, providing a new direction for mitigating drought stress and improving ginsenosides production in the precious medicinal herb.

Gypenoside biotransformation into ginsenoside F2 by endophytic Aspergillus niger from Gynostemma pentaphyllum

Ginsenoside F2 is a protopanaxadiol saponin compound with various biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. Ginsenoside F2 can be found in ginseng, but in low quantities. Therefore, ginsenoside F2 production predominantly relies on the biotransformation of various ginsenosides, such as ginsenosides Rb1 and Rd. In this study, we reported the production of ginsenoside F2 by gypenoside biotransformation with Aspergillus niger JGL8, isolated from Gynostemma pentaphyllum. Ginsenoside F2 could be produced by two different biotransformation pathways, namely Gyp-V-Rd-F2 and Gyp-XVII-F2. The product exhibited antioxidant activity against free radicals (DPPH) with IC₅₀ value of 29.54 µg/mL. Optimal biotransformation conditions were a pH of 5.0, temperature of 40 °C, and 2 mg/mL of substrate. Enzyme kinetic parameters revealed that the hydrolysis rate of Gyp-V, Rd, and Gyp-XVII was 0.625, 0.588, and 0.417 mM/h, respectively. In conclusion, we demonstrated that gypenoside is a substitutable substrate for ginsenoside F2 biotransformation.

Production of Secondary Metabolites from Cell Cultures of Sageretia thea (Osbeck) M.C. Johnst. Using Balloon-Type Bubble Bioreactors

Sageretia thea is used in the preparation of herbal medicine in China and Korea; this plant is rich in various bioactive compounds, including phenolics and flavonoids. The objective of the current study was to enhance the production of phenolic compounds in plant cell suspension cultures of Sageretia thea. Optimum callus was induced from cotyledon explants on MS medium containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D; 0.5 mg L^-1), naphthalene acetic acid (NAA, 0.5 mg L^-1), kinetin (KN; 0.1 mg L^-1) and sucrose (30 g L^-1). Browning of callus was successfully avoided by using 200 mg L^-1 ascorbic acid in the callus cultures. The elicitor effect of methyl jasmonate (MeJA), salicylic acid (SA), and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) was studied in cell suspension cultures, and the addition of 200 µM MeJA was found suitable for elicitation of phenolic accumulation in the cultured cells. Phenolic and flavonoid content and antioxidant activity were determined using 2,2 Diphenyl 1 picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethybenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays and results showed that cell cultures possessed highest phenolic and flavonoid content as well as highest DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP activities. Cell suspension cultures were established using 5 L capacity balloon-type bubble bioreactors using 2 L of MS medium 30 g L^-1 sucrose and 0.5 mg L^-1 2,4-D, 0.5 mg L^-1 NAA, and 0.1 mg L^-1 KN. The optimum yield of 230.81 g of fresh biomass and 16.48 g of dry biomass was evident after four weeks of cultures. High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed the cell biomass produced in bioreactors possessed higher concentrations of catechin hydrate, chlorogenic acid, naringenin, and other phenolic compounds.

Production of ginsenoside compound K by microbial cell factory using synthetic biology-based strategy: a review

Ginsenoside compound K (CK) is a major intestinal bacterial metabolite of the protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside family that can be absorbed in the systemic circulation. CK possesses diverse and important pharmacological properties. The low production and high cost of traditional manufacturing methods based on the extraction and biotransformation of total ginsenosides from ginseng have limited their medical application. However, considerable progress has been made in the area of de novo CK production via microbial cell factories using synthetic biology-based strategies. By introducing key enzymes responsible for CK biosynthesis into microbial cells, CK was produced via a series of in vivo enzymatic reactions that utilize the inherent precursors in microbial cells. After systematic optimization using various metabolic engineering strategies, the yield of CK increased significantly and exceeded the traditional plant extraction-biotransformation method, implying the commercial feasibility of this approach. This review summarizes recent novel advancements in the production of CK using microbial cell factories.

Anthraquinone Production from Cell and Organ Cultures of Rubia Species: An Overview

The Rubia genus includes major groups of medicinal plants such as Rubia cordifolia, Rubia tinctorum, and Rubia akane. They contain anthraquinones (AQs), particularly alizarin and purpurin, which have pharmacological effects that are anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, hemostatic, antibacterial, and more. Alizarin and purpurin have been utilized as natural dyes for cotton, silk, and wool fabrics since the dawn of time. These substances have been used in the cosmetics and food industries to color products. The amount of AQs in different Rubia species is minimal. In order to produce these compounds, researchers have established cell and organ cultures. Investigations have been conducted into numerous chemical and physical parameters that affect the biomass and accumulation of secondary metabolites in a cell, callus, hairy root, and adventitious root suspension cultures. This article offers numerous techniques and approaches used to produce biomass and secondary metabolites from the Rubia species. Additionally, it has been emphasized that cells can be grown in bioreactor cultures to produce AQs.

Differential Metabolic Profiles of Ginsenosides in Artificial Gastric Juice Using ultra-high-pressure Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Linear ion trap-Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry

Ginsenosides have poor bioavailability of oral administration and undergo rapid biologic transformation in the complex gastrointestinal environment. Most studies on the metabolism of ginsenosides has focused on gut bacteria, yet gastric juice remains as a non-negligible factor. Metabolic profiles of ginsenoside monomers formed in artificial gastric juice were separately investigated and qualitatively identified by UHPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap MSⁿ . A common pattern of their metabolic pathways was established, showing that ginsenosides were transformed via deglycosylation, hydration and dehydration pathways. Two major structure types, PPTs and PPDs, basically shared similar transformation pathways and yielded deglycosylated, hydrated and dehydrated products. Fragmentation patterns of major ginsenosides were also discussed. Consequently, gastric juice, as the primary link in ginsenoside metabolism and as important as the intestinal flora, produces considerable amount of degraded ginsenosides, providing a partial explanation for the low bioavailabilities of primary ginsenosides.

Metabolic engineering of yeasts for green and sustainable production of bioactive ginsenosides F2 and 3β,20S-Di-O-Glc-DM

Both natural ginsenoside F2 and unnatural ginsenoside 3β,20S-Di-O-Glc-DM were reported to exhibit anti-tumor activity. Traditional approaches for producing them rely on direct extraction from Panax ginseng, enzymatic catalysis or chemical synthesis, all of which result in low yield and high cost. Metabolic engineering of microbes has been recognized as a green and sustainable biotechnology to produce natural and unnatural products. Hence we engineered the complete biosynthetic pathways of F2 and 3β,20S-Di-O-Glc-DM in Saccharomyces cerevisiae via the CRISPR/Cas9 system. The titers of F2 and 3β,20S-Di-O-Glc-DM were increased from 1.2 to 21.0 mg/L and from 82.0 to 346.1 mg/L at shake flask level, respectively, by multistep metabolic engineering strategies. Additionally, pharmacological evaluation showed that both F2 and 3β,20S-Di-O-Glc-DM exhibited anti-pancreatic cancer activity and the activity of 3β,20S-Di-O-Glc-DM was even better. Furthermore, the titer of 3β,20S-Di-O-Glc-DM reached 2.6 g/L by fed-batch fermentation in a 3 L bioreactor. To our knowledge, this is the first report on demonstrating the anti-pancreatic cancer activity of F2 and 3β,20S-Di-O-Glc-DM, and achieving their de novo biosynthesis by the engineered yeasts. Our work presents an alternative approach to produce F2 and 3β,20S-Di-O-Glc-DM from renewable biomass, which lays a foundation for drug research and development.

Identification of metabolites in plasma related to different biological activities of Panax ginseng and American ginseng

RATIONALE

Panax ginseng (PG) and American ginseng (AMG) are both medicinal plants of the Panax genus in the Acanthopanax family. Although PG and AMG have similar components of ginsenosides, there are many differences of their bioactivities. In this study, the biochemical mechanisms of different bioactivities of PG and AMG were explored by researching the differential metabolites in plasma after administration of each of PG and AMG.

METHODS

In order to explore the material basis of differential bioactivities, two groups of mice were administrated orally with PG and AMG, and the method of metabolomics was used to identify the differential metabolites in plasma. Then network pharmacology was used based on the differential metabolites. Afterward, the metabolite-target-pathway network of PG and AMG was constructed; thus the pathways related to different bioactivities were analyzed.

RESULTS

Through principal component analysis and orthogonal projections to latent structures discriminant analysis, there were 10 differential metabolites identified in the PG group and 8 differential metabolites identified in the AMG group. Based on network pharmacology, the differential metabolites were classified and related to differential bioactivities of PG and AMG. In the PG group, there were 6 metabolites related to aphrodisiac effect and exciting the nervous system, and 5 metabolites associated with raised blood pressure. In the AMG group, 5 metabolites were classified as having the effect of inhibiting the nervous system, and 6 metabolites were related to antihypertensive effect.

CONCLUSIONS

This study explored the material basis of the differential biological activities between PG and AMG, which is significant for the research of PG and AMG use and to promote human health.

Evaluation of growth and some unexplored bioactivities of bioreactor grown adventitious root culture of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer)

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the growth potential and some rarely reported bioactivities (antioxidant, thrombolytic, anticoagulant, and anthelmintic) of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer adventitious roots. To demonstrate the growth, shake flask and laboratory-scale bioreactor cultures have been employed. The obtained biomass was dried and extracted with water, ethanol, and methanol. The growth ratio (12.62 ± 1.03) observed in the bioreactor was significantly higher than in the shake flask culture. The presence of 10 different phytochemical classes, including carbohydrates, saponins, glycosides, and terpenoids were detected in qualitative estimation. Significant quantities of phenolics, flavonoids, proteins, and tannins were determined. Dose-dependent antioxidant activities were observed, and the IC₅₀ values of methanolic and ethanolic extracts were very similar to the standard. The highest (29.26 ± 5.31%) thrombolytic potential was shown by the methanolic extract. The ethanolic extract significantly extended the coagulation times up to 2.5 fold. The highest anthelmintic properties in terms of paralyzing (2.21 ± 0.31 min) and killing (3.69 ± 0.41 min) of the parasitic worms were displayed by the aqueous extract. The in vitro root growth implies the commercial feasibility of ginseng production in Bangladesh and the demonstration of potential bioactivities strengthens medicinal implications and also offering new research areas.

Production of bioactive plant secondary metabolites through in vitro technologies-status and outlook

Medicinal plants have been used by mankind since ancient times, and many bioactive plant secondary metabolites are applied nowadays both directly as drugs, and as raw materials for semi-synthetic modifications. However, the structural complexity often thwarts cost-efficient chemical synthesis, and the usually low content in the native plant necessitates the processing of large amounts of field-cultivated raw material. The biotechnological manufacturing of such compounds offers a number of advantages like predictable, stable, and year-round sustainable production, scalability, and easier extraction and purification. Plant cell and tissue culture represents one possible alternative to the extraction of phytochemicals from plant material. Although a broad commercialization of such processes has not yet occurred, ongoing research indicates that plant in vitro systems such as cell suspension cultures, organ cultures, and transgenic hairy roots hold a promising potential as sources for bioactive compounds. Progress in the areas of biosynthetic pathway elucidation and genetic manipulation has expanded the possibilities to utilize plant metabolic engineering and heterologous production in microorganisms. This review aims to summarize recent advances in the in vitro production of high-value plant secondary metabolites of medicinal importance.

Key points

• Bioactive plant secondary metabolites are important for current and future use in medicine

• In vitro production is a sustainable alternative to extraction from plants or costly chemical synthesis

• Current research addresses plant cell and tissue culture, metabolic engineering, and heterologous production

Ginsenosides in Panax genus and their biosynthesis

Ginsenosides are a series of glycosylated triterpenoids which belong to protopanaxadiol (PPD)-, protopanaxatriol (PPT)-, ocotillol (OCT)- and oleanane (OA)-type saponins known as active compounds of Panax genus. They are accumulated in plant roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. The content and composition of ginsenosides are varied in different ginseng species, and in different parts of a certain plant. In this review, we summarized the representative saponins structures, their distributions and the contents in nearly 20 Panax species, and updated the biosynthetic pathways of ginsenosides focusing on enzymes responsible for structural diversified ginsenoside biosynthesis. We also emphasized the transcription factors in ginsenoside biosynthesis and non-coding RNAs in the growth of Panax genus plants, and highlighted the current three major biotechnological applications for ginsenosides production. This review covered advances in the past four decades, providing more clues for chemical discrimination and assessment on certain ginseng plants, new perspectives for rational evaluation and utilization of ginseng resource, and potential strategies for production of specific ginsenosides.

Global Trends in Research on Wild-Simulated Ginseng: Quo Vadis?

To the best of our knowledge, no study has systematically reviewed and analyzed the research trends of wild-simulated ginseng (WSG) used for food or medicinal purposes in many countries. WSG, a non-timber forest product, has been traditionally produced using agroforestry practices, and it has been consumed in various ways for a long time. WSG has a great demand in the market due to its medicinal effects, particularly in improving forest livelihoods and human health. Due to the significance of WSG, we conducted this research to explore the global research trends on WSG using systematic review methodology and keyword analysis. We used two international academic databases, the Web of Science and SCOPUS, to extract 115 peer-reviewed articles published from 1982 to 2020. The research subjects, target countries, and keywords were analyzed. Our results indicate four categories of WSG research subjects, namely growth conditions, components, effects on humans/animals, and the environment of WSG, and the case studies were mainly from the Republic of Korea, China, and the USA. Through topic modelling, research keywords were classified into five groups, namely medicinal effects, metabolite analysis, genetic diversity, cultivation conditions, and bioactive compounds. We observed that the research focus on WSG changed from the biological properties and cultivation conditions of WSG to the precise identification and characterization of bioactive metabolites of WSG. This change indicates an increased academic interest in the value-added utilization of WSG.

Cellular Agriculture: Opportunities and Challenges

Cellular agriculture is the controlled and sustainable manufacture of agricultural products with cells and tissues without plant or animal involvement. Today, microorganisms cultivated in bioreactors already produce egg and milk proteins, sweeteners, and flavors for human nutrition as well as leather and fibers for shoes, bags, and textiles. Furthermore, plant cell and tissue cultures provide ingredients that stimulate the immune system and improve skin texture, with another precommercial cellular agriculture product, in vitro meat, currently receiving a great deal of attention. All these approaches could assist traditional agriculture in continuing to provide for the dietary requirements of a growing world population while freeing up important resources such as arable land. Despite early successes, challenges remain and are discussed in this review, with a focus on production processes involving plant and animal cell and tissue cultures.

Biotransformation of Ginsenoside Rb1 to Ginsenoside CK by Strain XD101: a Safe Bioconversion Strategy

Ginsenoside Rb1 is the main predominant component in Panax species. In this study, an eco-friendly and convenient preparation method for ginsenoside CK has been established, and five strains of β-glucosidase-producing microorganisms were screened out from the soil of a Panax notoginseng planting field using Esculin-R2A agar. Aspergillus niger XD101 showed that it has excellent biocatalytic activity for ginsenosides; one of the isolates can convert ginsenoside Rb1 to CK using extracellular enzyme from the mycelium. Mycelia of A. niger were cultivated in wheat bran media at 30 °C for 11 days. By the removal of mycelia from cultured broth, enzyme salt fractionation by ammonium sulfate (70%, v/v) precipitation, and dialysis, sequentially, crude enzyme preparations from fermentation liquid supernatant were obtained. The enzymatic transformed Rb1 as the following pathways: Rb1→Rd→F2→CK. The optimized reaction conditions are at reaction time of 72 h, in the range of pH 4-5, and temperature of 50-60 °C. Active minor ginsenosides can be obtained by a specific bioconversion via A. niger XD101 producing the ginsenoside-hydrolyzing β-glucosidase. In addition, the crude enzyme can be resulted in producing ginsenoside CK via conversion of ginsenoside Rb1 at high conversion yield (94.4%). FDA generally regarded, A.niger as safe microorganism. Therefore, these results indicate that A. niger XD10 may provide an alternative method to prepare ginsenoside CK without food safety issues in the pharmaceutical industry.

Panax ginseng-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Facilitate Anti-Senescence Effects in Human Skin Cells: An Eco-Friendly and Sustainable Way to Use Ginseng Substances

Ginseng is a traditional herbal medicine in eastern Asian countries. Most active constituents in ginseng are prepared via fermentation or organic acid pretreatment. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released by most organisms from prokaryotes to eukaryotes and play central roles in intra- and inter-species communications. Plants produce EVs upon exposure to microbes; however, their direct functions and utility for human health are barely known, except for being proposed as delivery vehicles. In this study, we isolated EVs from ginseng roots (GrEVs) or the culture supernatants of ginseng cells (GcEVs) derived from Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer and investigated their biological effects on human skin cells. GrEV or GcEV treatments improved the replicative senescent or senescence-associated pigmented phenotypes of human dermal fibroblasts or ultraviolet B radiation-treated human melanocytes, respectively, by downregulating senescence-associated molecules and/or melanogenesis-related proteins. Based on comprehensive lipidomic analysis using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, the lipidomic profile of GrEVs differed from that of the parental root extracts, showing significant increases in 70 of 188 identified lipid species and prominent increases in diacylglycerols, some phospholipids (phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, lysophosphatidylcholine), and sphingomyelin, revealing their unique vesicular properties. Therefore, our results imply that GEVs represent a novel type of bioactive and sustainable nanomaterials that can be applied to human tissues for improving tissue conditions and targeted delivery of active constituents.

Recent Advances in the Tissue Culture of American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius)

The in vitro tissue culture of medicinal plants is considered as a potential source for plant-derived bioactive secondary metabolites. The in vitro tissue culture of American ginseng has wide commercial applications in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, food, and cosmetic fields with regard to the production of bioactive compounds such as ginsenosides and polysaccharides. This review highlights the recent progress made on different types of tissue culture practices with American ginseng, including callus culture, somatic embryo culture, cell suspension culture, hairy root culture, and adventitious root culture. The tissue culture conditions for inducing ginseng callus, somatic embryos, cell suspension, hairy roots, and adventitious roots were analyzed. In addition, the optimized conditions for increasing the production of ginsenosides and polysaccharides were discussed. This review provides references for the use of modern biotechnology to improve the production of bioactive compounds from American ginseng, as well as references for the development and sustainable utilization of American ginseng resources.

Effective Production of Phenolic Compounds with Health Benefits in Pigeon Pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] Hairy Root Cultures

Phenolic compounds in pigeon pea possess various biological properties beneficial to human health. In this study, pigeon pea hairy root cultures (PPHRCs) were developed as an effective in vitro platform for the production of phenolic compounds. A high-productive hairy root line was screened and characterized, and its culture conditions were optimized in terms of biomass productivity and phenolic yield. The comparative profiling of 10 phenolic compounds in PPHRCs and pigeon pea natural resources (seeds, leaves, and roots) was achieved by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The total phenolic yield in PPHRCs (3278.44 μg/g) was much higher than those in seeds (68.86 μg/g) and roots (846.03 μg/g), and comparable to leaves (3379.49 μg/g). Notably, PPHRCs exhibited superiority in the yield of the most important health-promoting compound cajaninstilbene acid (2996.23 μg/g) against natural resources (4.42-2293.31 μg/g). Overall, PPHRCs could serve as promising potential alternative sources for the production of phenolic compounds with nutraceutical/medicinal values.

Colchicine Mutagenesis from Long-term Cultured Adventitious Roots Increases Biomass and Ginsenoside Production in Wild Ginseng (Panax ginseng Mayer)

Panax ginseng Mayer is a perennial herb that has been used as a medicinal plant in Eastern Asia for thousands of years. The aim of this study was to enhance root biomass and ginsenoside content in cultured adventitious roots by colchicine mutagenesis. Adventitious P. ginseng roots were treated with colchicine at different concentrations (100, 200, and 300 mg·L−1) and for different durations (1, 2, and 3 days). Genetic variability of mutant lines was assessed using random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. Ginsenoside biosynthesis gene expression, ginsenoside content, enzyme activities, and performance in bioreactor culture were assessed in four mutant lines (100–1-2, 100–1-18, 300–1-16, and 300–2-8). The results showed that ginsenoside productivity was enhanced in all mutant lines, with mutant 100–1-18 exhibiting the most pronounced increase (4.8-fold higher than the control). Expression of some ginsenoside biosynthetic enzymes was elevated in mutant lines. Enzyme activities varied among lines, and lipid peroxidation activity correlated with root biomass. All four lines were suitable for bioreactor cultivation, with mutant 100–1-18 exhibiting the highest biomass after culture scale-up. The results indicated that colchicine mutagenesis of P. ginseng roots increased biomass and ginsenosides production. This technique, and the root lines produced in this study, may be used to increase industrial yields of P. ginseng biomass and ginsenosides.

TrMYB4 transcription factor regulates the rutin biosynthesis in hairy roots of F. cymosum

Fagopyrum cymosum has been considered as a traditional medicinal plant that belongs to Fagopyrum, which has exhibited great pharmaceutical potential due to its abundant flavonoid accumulation. The hairy roots induced by Agrobacterium rhizogenes has been utilized to produce valuable specialized metabolites or reveals plant metabolic processes, whereas the underlying regulatory networks of flavonoid biosynthesis in hairy roots of F. cymosum remained unexplored. Here, the regulatory transcription factor TrMYB4 cloned from Trifolium repens with purple striped leaves was considered to investigate the mechanism of flavonoids biosynthesis in hairy roots of F. cymosum. Results showed that the expression of key genes involved in rutin biosynthesis pathway from TrMYB4 hairy roots were significantly up-regulated compared with non-transgenic hairy roots, while the content of total flavonoids and rutin in TrMYB4 hairy roots also increased consistently. It revealed the TrMYB4 transcription factor could regulate the rutin biosynthesis in F. cymosum. Meanwhile, our research provided a theoretical reference for the industrial production of rutin using F. cymosum hairy roots.

Highly efficient production of diverse rare ginsenosides using combinatorial biotechnology

The rare ginsenosides are recognized as the functionalized molecules after the oral administration of Panax ginseng and its products. The sources of rare ginsenosides are extremely limited because of low ginsenoside contents in wild plants, hindering their application in functional foods and drugs. We developed an effective combinatorial biotechnology approach including tissue culture, immobilization, and hydrolyzation methods. Rh2 and nine other rare ginsenosides were produced by methyl jasmonate-induced culture of adventitious roots in a 10 L bioreactor associated with enzymatic hydrolysis using six β-glycosidases and their combination with yields ranging from 5.54 to 32.66 mg L^-1 . The yield of Rh2 was furthermore increased by 7% by using immobilized BglPm and Bgp1 in optimized pH and temperature conditions, with the highest yield reaching 51.17 mg L^-1 (17.06% of protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides mixture). Our combinatorial biotechnology method provides a highly efficient approach to acquiring diverse rare ginsenosides, replacing direct extraction from Panax plants, and can also be used to supplement yeast cell factories.

Recent Advances in the Metabolic Engineering of Yeasts for Ginsenoside Biosynthesis

Ginsenosides are a group of glycosylated triterpenes isolated from Panax species. Ginsenosides are promising candidates for the prevention and treatment of cancer as well as food additives. However, owing to a lack of efficient approaches for ginsenoside production from plants and chemical synthesis, ginsenosides may not yet have reached their full potential as medicinal resources. In recent years, an alternative approach for ginsenoside production has been developed using the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and non-conventional yeasts such as Yarrowia lipolytica and Pichia pastoris. In this review, various metabolic engineering strategies, including heterologous gene expression, balancing, and increasing metabolic flux, and enzyme engineering, have been described as recent advanced engineering techniques for improving ginsenoside production. Furthermore, the usefulness of a systems approach and fermentation strategy has been presented. Finally, the present challenges and future research direction for industrial cell factories have been discussed.

Methyl Jasmonate Induced Oxidative Stress and Accumulation of Secondary Metabolites in Plant Cell and Organ Cultures

Recently, plant secondary metabolites are considered as important sources of pharmaceuticals, food additives, flavours, cosmetics, and other industrial products. The accumulation of secondary metabolites in plant cell and organ cultures often occurs when cultures are subjected to varied kinds of stresses including elicitors or signal molecules. Application of exogenous jasmonic acid (JA) and methyl jasmonate (MJ) is responsible for the induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and subsequent defence mechanisms in cultured cells and organs. It is also responsible for the induction of signal transduction, the expression of many defence genes followed by the accumulation of secondary metabolites. In this review, the application of exogenous MJ elicitation strategies on the induction of defence mechanism and secondary metabolite accumulation in cell and organ cultures is introduced and discussed. The information presented here is useful for efficient large-scale production of plant secondary metabolites by the plant cell and organ cultures.

Innovative Approaches for Recovery of Phytoconstituents from Medicinal/Aromatic Plants and Biotechnological Production

Continuously growing demand for plant derived therapeutic molecules obtained in a sustainable and eco-friendly manner favors biotechnological production and development of innovative extraction techniques to obtain phytoconstituents. What is more, improving and optimization of alternative techniques for the isolation of high value natural compounds are issues having both social and economic importance. In this critical review, the aspects regarding plant biotechnology and green downstream processing, leading to the production and extraction of increased levels of fine chemicals from both plant cell, tissue, and organ culture or fresh plant materials and the remaining by-products, are discussed.

Plant triterpenoid saponins: biosynthesis, in vitro production, and pharmacological relevance

The saponins are a diverse class of natural products, with a broad scale distribution across different plant species. Chemically characterized as triterpenoid glycosides, they posses a 30C oxidosqualene precursor-based aglycone moiety (sapogenin), to which glycosyl residues are subsequently attached to yield the corresponding saponin. Based on the chemically distinct aglycone moieties, broadly, they are divided into triterpenoid saponins (dammaranes, ursanes, oleananes, lupanes, hopanes, etc.) and the sterol glycosides. This review aims to present in detail the biosynthesis patterns of the different aglycones from a common precursor and their glycosylation patterns to yield the functionally active glycoside. The review also presents recent advances in the pharmacological activities of these saponins, particularly as potent anti-neoplastic pharmacophores, antioxidants, or anti-viral/antibacterial agents. Since alternate production pedestals for these pharmacologically important triterpenes via cell and tissue cultures are an attractive option for their sustainable production, recent trends in the variety and scale of in vitro production of plant triterpenoids have also been discussed.

Complete Biotransformation of Protopanaxadiol-Type Ginsenosides into 20-O-β-Glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol by Permeabilized Recombinant Escherichia coli Cells Coexpressing β-Glucosidase and Chaperone Genes

The ginsenoside 20-O-β-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol or compound K is an essential ingredient in functional food, cosmetics, and traditional medicines. However, no study has reported the complete conversion of all protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenosides from ginseng extract into compound K using whole-cell conversion. To increase the production of compound K from ginseng extract using whole recombinant cells, the β-glucosidase enzyme from Caldicellulosiruptor bescii was coexpressed with a chaperone expression system (pGro7), and the cells expressing the coexpression system were permeabilized with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. The permeabilized cells carrying the chaperone coexpression system showed a 2.6-fold increase in productivity and yield as compared with nontreated cells, and completely converted all PPD-type ginsenosides from ginseng root extract into compound K with the highest productivity among the results reported so far. Our results will contribute to the industrial biological production of compound K.

Characterization of ginsenoside extracts by delayed luminescence, high-performance liquid chromatography, and bioactivity tests

Ginsenoside extracts are often used as raw materials for various pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food supplement products. Development of a direct, rapid, cheap, and comprehensive measurement tool for the quality assessment of ginsenoside extracts, and indeed all herbal extracts, is urgently needed. In addition, a bioactivity-based assessment should be linked with quality control. In this report, we try to develop a novel quality control tool using ginsenoside extracts as an example. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to detect nine principal ginsenosides in 11 batches of ginsenoside extracts. Delayed luminescence (DL) was used to analyze the same ginsenoside extract samples. DL measurements showed the same results in terms of differentiating 11 ginsenoside extract samples compared with chemical analysis, and DL properties could be closely linked to index ginsenosides in the quality control of ginsenoside extracts. Next, a zebrafish tail-fin amputation model was used to study differences in anti-inflammatory effect between the ginsenoside extract batches. The results indicate that both chemical analysis and DL measurements could partially reflect biological activity. Thus, DL may serve as a rapid, direct, sensitive, and systemic tool for studying the overall properties of ginsenoside extracts. Our proposal for linking bioactivities as a tool for evaluation of the quality of ginsenoside extracts opens a new direction for quality control.

Ginseng: A Qualitative Review of Benefits for Palliative Clinicians

Ginseng has been used for centuries to treat various diseases and has been commercially developed and cultivated in the past 300 years. Ginseng products may be fresh, dried (white), or dried and steamed (red). Extracts may be made using water or alcohol. There are over 50 different ginsenosides identified by chromatography. We did an informal systematic qualitative review that centered on fatigue, cancer, dementia, respiratory diseases, and heart failure, and we review 113 studies in 6 tables. There are multiple potential benefits to ginseng in cancer. Ginseng, in certain circumstances, has been shown to improve dementia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and heart failure through randomized trials. Most trials had biases or unknown biases and so most evidence is of low quality. We review the gaps in the evidence and make some recommendations regarding future studies.

Triterpenoids

Covering 2014. Previous review: Nat. Prod. Rep., 2017, 34, 90-122 This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids reported during 2014 including squalene derivatives, lanostanes, holostanes, cycloartanes, cucurbitanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, quassinoids, lupanes, oleananes, friedelanes, ursanes, hopanes, serratanes, isomalabaricanes and saponins; 374 references are cited.

Therapeutic potential of Panax ginseng and its constituents, ginsenosides and gintonin, in neurological and neurodegenerative disorders: a patent review

INTRODUCTION

Ginseng, Panax ginseng, has been used for various diseases and proven its great efficacy in managing central nervous system diseases.

AREAS COVERED

This article covers the therapeutic potential of patents on ginseng and its active constituents to develop therapies for neurodegenerative and neurological disorders, since 2010. The literature review was provided using multiple search engines including Google Patent, Espacenet and US Patent in the field of neurodegenerative diseases, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, cognitive, and neurological disorders.

EXPERT OPINION

The gathered data represented outstanding merits of ginseng in treatment of neurodegenerative and neurological disorders. These effects have been mediated by neurogenesis, anti-apoptotic and antioxidant properties, inhibition of mitochondrial dysfunction, receptor-operated Ca²⁺ channels, amyloid beta aggregation, and microglial activation as well as neurotransmitters modulation. However, these compounds have limited clinical application of for the prevention or treatment of neurodegenerative and neurological disorders. This might be due to incomplete data on their clinical pharmacokinetic and toxicity properties, and limited economic investments. There is an increasing trend in use of herbal medicines instead of chemical drugs, so it is time to make more attention to the application of ginseng, the grandfather of medicinal plants, from basic sciences to patients' bed.

Combined Use of Emodin and Ginsenoside Rb1 Exerts Synergistic Neuroprotection in Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Rats

Acute ischemic stroke (AIS) generally causes neurological dysfunction and poses a serious threat to public health. Here, we aimed to assess the independent and combined effects of ginsenoside Rb1 (GRb1) and Emodin on neuroprotection through regulating Connexin 43 (Cx43) and Aquaporin 4 (AQP4) expression in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) model rats. Adult male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into five groups: sham group, I/R group, Emodin group, GRb1 group and Emodin+GRb1 group. They were further allocated to four subgroups according to the 6h, 1d, 3d, and 7d time points except the sham group. Based on the modified Longa suture method, the focal cerebral I/R model was established by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). The neurological deficit scores (NDS), blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability and cerebral infarction area were assessed at each corresponding time point. Cx43 and AQP4 levels were assessed by Real-time PCR and Immunofluorescence. Compared with I/R group, both the independent and combined use of GRb1 and Emodin could alleviate NDS, reduce the BBB permeability, reduce the infarction area and down-regulate Cx43 and AQP4 expression at 6h, 1d, 3d, and 7d after I/R (P < 0.05). The Emodin+GRb1 group had more significant effects than Emodin group and GRb1 group (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the combination of Emodin and GRb1 exerts synergistically neuroprotective functions through regulating AQP4 and Cx43 after I/R.

Panax ginseng Adventitious Root Suspension Culture: Protocol for Biomass Production and Analysis of Ginsenosides by High Pressure Liquid Chromatography

Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer (Korean ginseng) is a popular herbal medicine. It has been used in Chinese and Oriental medicines since thousands of years. Ginseng products are generally used as a tonic and an adaptogen to resist the adverse influence of a wide range of physical, chemical and biological factors, and to restore homeostasis. Ginsenosides or ginseng saponins are the principal active ingredients of ginseng. Since ginseng cultivation process is very slow and needs specific environment for field cultivation, cell and tissue cultures are sought as alternatives for the production of ginseng biomass and bioactive compounds. In this chapter, we focus on methods of induction of adventitious roots from ginseng roots, establishment of adventitious root suspension cultures using bioreactors, procedures for processing of adventitious roots, and analysis of ginsenosides by high pressure liquid chromatography.

Molecular Cloning and Characterization of PnbHLH1 Transcription Factor in Panax notoginseng

Panax notoginseng has been extensively used as a traditional Chinese medicine. In the current study, molecular cloning and characterization of PnbHLH1 transcription factor were explored in Panax notoginseng. The full length of the PnbHLH1 gene obtained by splicing was 1430 bp, encoding 321 amino acids. Prokaryotic expression vector pET-28a-PnbHLH1 was constructed and transferred into the BL21 prokaryotic expression strain. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay of PnbHLH1 protein binding to E-box cis-acting elements verified that PnbHLH1 belonged to the bHLH class transcription factor which could interact with the promoter region of the E-box core sequence. The expression levels of key genes involved in the biosynthesis of triterpenoid saponins in PnbHLH1 transgenic cells were higher than those in the wild cells. Similarly, the total saponin contents were increased in the PnbHLH1 transgenic cell lines compared with the wild cell lines. Such results suggest that the PnbHLH1 transcription factor is a positive regulator in the biosynthesis of triterpenoid saponins in Panax notoginseng.

A literature update elucidating production of Panax ginsenosides with a special focus on strategies enriching the anti-neoplastic minor ginsenosides in ginseng preparations

Ginseng, an oriental gift to the world of healthcare and preventive medicine, is among the top ten medicinal herbs globally. The constitutive triterpene saponins, ginsenosides, or panaxosides are attributed to ginseng's miraculous efficacy towards anti-aging, rejuvenating, and immune-potentiating benefits. The major ginsenosides such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd., Re, and Rg1, formed after extensive glycosylations of the aglycone "dammaranediol," dominate the chemical profile of this genus in vivo and in vitro. Elicitations have successfully led to appreciable enhancements in the production of these major ginsenosides. However, current research on ginseng biotechnology has been focusing on the enrichment or production of the minor ginsenosides (the less glycosylated precursors of the major ginsenosides) in ginseng preparations, which are either absent or are produced in very low amounts in nature or via cell cultures. The minor ginsenosides under current scientific scrutiny include diol ginsenosides such as Rg3, Rh2, compound K, and triol ginsenosides Rg2 and Rh1, which are being touted as the next "anti-neoplastic pharmacophores," with better bioavailability and potency as compared to the major ginsenosides. This review aims at describing the strategies for ginsenoside production with special attention towards production of the minor ginsenosides from the major ginsenosides via microbial biotransformation, elicitations, and from heterologous expression systems.

Establishing Natural Nootropics: Recent Molecular Enhancement Influenced by Natural Nootropic

Nootropics or smart drugs are well-known compounds or supplements that enhance the cognitive performance. They work by increasing the mental function such as memory, creativity, motivation, and attention. Recent researches were focused on establishing a new potential nootropic derived from synthetic and natural products. The influence of nootropic in the brain has been studied widely. The nootropic affects the brain performances through number of mechanisms or pathways, for example, dopaminergic pathway. Previous researches have reported the influence of nootropics on treating memory disorders, such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases. Those disorders are observed to impair the same pathways of the nootropics. Thus, recent established nootropics are designed sensitively and effectively towards the pathways. Natural nootropics such as Ginkgo biloba have been widely studied to support the beneficial effects of the compounds. Present review is concentrated on the main pathways, namely, dopaminergic and cholinergic system, and the involvement of amyloid precursor protein and secondary messenger in improving the cognitive performance.

Medicinal Bioprospecting of the Amazon Rainforest: A Modern Eldorado?

Ignorant of the New World, Europeans believed in El Dorado, a hidden city of immense wealth in gold. Many consider the Amazonian forest to be a medicinal treasure chest and potentially the largest drug dispensary in the world. Yet, the quest to obtain drugs from indigenous tropical plants remains elusive. Here, we assess the potential of new technologies to tap into the metabolic diversity of tropical plants. We also consider how regulations affect access to plant resources. We conclude that, although the road to this medicinal El Dorado may be long and arduous, many other smaller but still valuable finds are hidden along the way.

RNA-seq Transcriptome Analysis of Panax japonicus, and Its Comparison with Other Panax Species to Identify Potential Genes Involved in the Saponins Biosynthesis

The Panax genus has been a source of natural medicine, benefitting human health over the ages, among which the Panax japonicus represents an important species. Our understanding of several key pathways and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of ginsenosides, a pharmacologically active class of metabolites and a major chemical constituents of the rhizome extracts from the Panax species, are limited. Limited genomic information, and lack of studies on comparative transcriptomics across the Panax species have restricted our understanding of the biosynthetic mechanisms of these and many other important classes of phytochemicals. Herein, we describe Illumina based RNA sequencing analysis to characterize the transcriptome and expression profiles of genes expressed in the five tissues of P. japonicus, and its comparison with other Panax species. RNA sequencing and de novo transcriptome assembly for P. japonicus resulted in a total of 135,235 unigenes with 78,794 (58.24%) unigenes being annotated using NCBI-nr database. Transcriptome profiling, and gene ontology enrichment analysis for five tissues of P. japonicus showed that although overall processes were evenly conserved across all tissues. However, each tissue was characterized by several unique unigenes with the leaves showing the most unique unigenes among the tissues studied. A comparative analysis of the P. japonicus transcriptome assembly with publically available transcripts from other Panax species, namely, P. ginseng, P. notoginseng, and P. quinquefolius also displayed high sequence similarity across all Panax species, with P. japonicus showing highest similarity with P. ginseng. Annotation of P. japonicus transcriptome resulted in the identification of putative genes encoding all enzymes from the triterpene backbone biosynthetic pathways, and identified 24 and 48 unigenes annotated as cytochrome P450 (CYP) and glycosyltransferases (GT), respectively. These CYPs and GTs annotated unigenes were conserved across all Panax species and co-expressed with other the transcripts involved in the triterpenoid backbone biosynthesis pathways. Unigenes identified in this study represent strong candidates for being involved in the triterpenoid saponins biosynthesis, and can serve as a basis for future validation studies.

Neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides on neural progenitor cells against oxidative injury

Ginsenosides exhibit various neuroprotective effects against oxidative stress. However, which ginsenoside provides optimal effects for the treatment of neurological disorders as a potent antioxidant remains to be elucidated. Therefore, the present study investigated and compared the neuroprotective effects of the Rb1, Rd, Rg1 and Re ginsenosides on neural progenitor cells (NPCs) following tert-Butylhydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced oxidative injury. Primary rat embryonic cortical NPCs were prepared from E14.5 embryos of Sprague-Dawley rats. The oxidative injury model was established with t-BHP. A lactate dehydrogenase assay and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling staining were used to measure the viability of the NPCs pre-treated with ginsenosides under oxidative stress. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis was used to determine the activation of intracellular signaling pathways triggered by the pretreatment of ginsenosides. Among the four ginsenosides, only Rb1 attenuated t-BHP toxicity in the NPCs, and the nuclear factor (erythroizd-derived 2)-like 2/heme oxygenase-1 pathway was found to be key in the intracellular defense against oxidative stress. The present study demonstrated the anti-oxidative effects of ginsenoside Rb1 on NPCs, and suggested that Rb1 may offer potential as a potent antioxidant for the treatment of neurological disorders.

Natural compound-derived epigenetic regulators targeting epigenetic readers, writers and erasers

Post-translational modifications can affect gene expression in a long-term manner without changes in the primary nucleotide sequence of the DNA. These epigenetic alterations involve dynamic processes that occur in histones, chromatin-associated proteins and DNA. In response to environmental stimuli, abnormal epigenetic alterations cause disorders in the cell cycle, apoptosis and other cellular processes and thus contribute to the incidence of diverse diseases, including cancers. In this review, we will summarize recent studies focusing on certain epigenetic readers, writers, and erasers associated with cancer development and how newly discovered natural compounds and their derivatives could interact with these targets. These advances provide insights into epigenetic alterations in cancers and the potential utility of these alterations as therapeutic targets for the future development of chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic drugs.

Upregulation of heme oxygenase-1 by ginsenoside Ro attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in macrophage cells

BACKGROUND

The beneficial effects of ginsenoside species have been well demonstrated in a number of studies. However, the function of ginsenoside Ro (GRo), an oleanane-type saponin, has not been sufficiently investigated. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of GRo in vitro using the Raw 264.7 mouse macrophage cell line treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and to clarify the possible mechanism of GRo involving heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), which itself plays a critical role in self-defense in the presence of inflammatory stress.

METHODS

Raw 264.7 cells were pretreated with GRo (up to 200μM) for 1 h before treatment with 1 μg/mL LPS, and both cell viability and inflammatory markers involving HO-1 were evaluated.

RESULTS

GRo significantly increased cell viability in a dose dependent manner following treatment with LPS, and decreased levels of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide. GRo decreased inflammatory cytokines such as nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 induced by LPS. Moreover, GRo increased the expression of HO-1 in a dose dependent manner. Cotreatment of GRo with tin protoporphyrin IX, a selective inhibitor of HO-1, not only inhibited upregulation of HO-1 induced by GRo, but also reversed the anti-inflammatory effect of GRo in LPS treated Raw 264.7 cells.

CONCLUSION

GRo induces anti-inflammatory effects following treatment with LPS via upregulation of HO-1.

Classification of glycosidases that hydrolyze the specific positions and types of sugar moieties in ginsenosides

Ginsenosides are the main compounds with pharmacological activities in ginseng. Deglycosylated ginsenosides, which are more pharmacologically active than glycosylated ginsenosides, can be produced by the specific or nonspecific hydrolysis of the sugar moieties in glycosylated ginsenosides using glycosidases. The enzymes that hydrolyze specifically ginsenosides with different types can be classified according to the enzymatic activity on the positions, inner and outer residues and types of sugar moieties in ginsenosides. Glycosylated ginsenosides are also hydrolyzed to deglycosylated ginsenosides with different hydrolytic pathways by cell conversion or fermentation. The biochemical properties of glycosidases involved in ginsenoside hydrolysis - ginsenosidases - were newly arranged and reviewed in accordance with different types. The combination of different-type ginsenosidases is suggested herein as an efficient tool to produce industrially important ginsenosides.