Cortical thickness and surface area in neonates at high risk for schizophrenia

Non-linear development of brain morphometry in child and adolescent offspring of individuals with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia

Offspring of parents with severe mental illness (e.g., bipolar disorder or schizophrenia) are at increased risk of developing psychopathology. Structural brain alterations have been found in child and adolescent offspring of patients with bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, but the developmental trajectories of brain anatomy in this high-familial-risk population are still unclear. 300 T1-weighted scans were obtained of 187 offspring of at least one parent diagnosed with bipolar disorder (n=80) or schizophrenia (n=53) and offspring of parents without severe mental illness (n=54). The age range was 8 to 23 years old; 113 offspring underwent two scans. Global brain measures and regional cortical thickness and surface area were computed. A generalized additive mixed model was used to capture non-linear age trajectories. Offspring of parents with schizophrenia had smaller total brain volume than offspring of parents with bipolar disorder (d=-0.20, p=0.004) and control offspring (d=-0.22, p=0.005) and lower mean cortical thickness than control offspring (d=-0.23, p<0.001). Offspring of parents with schizophrenia showed differential age trajectories of mean cortical thickness and cerebral white matter volume compared with control offspring (both p's=0.003). Regionally, offspring of parents with schizophrenia had a significantly different trajectory of cortical thickness in the middle temporal gyrus versus control offspring (p<0.001) and bipolar disorder offspring (p=0.001), which was no longer significant after correcting for mean cortical thickness. These findings suggest that particularly familial high risk of schizophrenia is related to reductions and deviating developmental trajectories of global brain structure measures, which were not driven by specific regions.

Early cognitive development and psychopathology in children at familial high risk for schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder associated with deficits in cognitive development and childhood psychopathology. Previous studies have focused on older children and the few studies of early childhood have yielded inconsistent findings. We studied cognitive development and psychopathology in children at familial high risk (FHR) of schizophrenia and matched controls from 1 to 6 years and hypothesized that FHR children would show consistent deficits across cognitive and behavioral measures in early childhood.

STUDY DESIGN

Cognitive development in children at high familial risk for schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder (n = 33) and matched healthy controls (n = 66) was assessed at 1 and 2 years with the Mullen Scales of Early Learning, and at 4 and 6 years with the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scales, BRIEF-P/BRIEF and CANTAB. Psychopathology was assessed at 4 and 6 years with the BASC-2. General linear models were used to examine differences on outcome scores, and chi-square analyses were used to explore differences in the proportion of "at risk" or "below average" score profiles.

STUDY RESULTS

FHR children scored significantly lower than controls on Mullen Composite at age 2, and demonstrated broad deficits in IQ, executive function and working memory and 4 and 6 years. FHR children were also rated as significantly worse on most items of the BASC-2 at ages 4 and 6.

CONCLUSIONS

Children at FHR for schizophrenia demonstrate abnormal cognitive development and psychopathology at younger ages than previously detected, suggesting that early detection and intervention needs to be targeted to very early childhood.

Mapping Genetic Topography of Cortical Thickness and Surface Area in Neonatal Brains

Adult twin neuroimaging studies have revealed that cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA) are differentially influenced by genetic information, leading to their spatially distinct genetic patterning and topography. However, the postnatal origins of the genetic topography of CT and SA remain unclear, given the dramatic cortical development from neonates to adults. To fill this critical gap, this study unprecedentedly explored how genetic information differentially regulates the spatial topography of CT and SA in the neonatal brain by leveraging brain magnetic resonance (MR) images from 202 twin neonates with minimal influence by the complicated postnatal environmental factors. We capitalized on infant-dedicated computational tools and a data-driven spectral clustering method to parcellate the cerebral cortex into a set of distinct regions purely according to the genetic correlation of cortical vertices in terms of CT and SA, respectively, and accordingly created the first genetically informed cortical parcellation maps of neonatal brains. Both genetic parcellation maps exhibit bilaterally symmetric and hierarchical patterns, but distinct spatial layouts. For CT, regions with closer genetic relationships demonstrate an anterior-posterior (A-P) division, while for SA, regions with greater genetic proximity are typically within the same lobe. Certain genetically informed regions exhibit strong similarities between neonates and adults, with the most striking similarities in the medial surface in terms of SA, despite their overall substantial differences in genetic parcellation maps. These results greatly advance our understanding of the development of genetic influences on the spatial patterning of cortical morphology.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Genetic influences on cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA) are complex and could evolve throughout the lifespan. However, studies revealing distinct genetic topography of CT and SA have been limited to adults. Using brain structural magnetic resonance (MR) images of twins, we unprecedentedly discovered the distinct genetically-informed parcellation maps of CT and SA in neonatal brains, respectively. Each genetic parcellation map comprises a distinct spatial layout of cortical regions, where vertices within the same region share high genetic correlation. These genetic parcellation maps of CT and SA of neonates largely differ from those of adults, despite their highly remarkable similarities in the medial cortex of SA. These discoveries provide important insights into the genetic organization of the early cerebral cortex development.

Mapping developmental regionalization and patterns of cortical surface area from 29 post-menstrual weeks to 2 years of age

Surface area of the human cerebral cortex expands extremely dynamically and regionally heterogeneously from the third trimester of pregnancy to 2 y of age, reflecting the spatial heterogeneity of the underlying microstructural and functional development of the cerebral cortex. However, little is known about the developmental patterns and regionalization of cortical surface area during this critical stage, due to the lack of high-quality imaging data and accurate computational tools for pediatric brain MRI data. To fill this critical knowledge gap, by leveraging 1,037 high-quality MRI scans with the age between 29 post-menstrual weeks and 24 mo from 735 pediatric subjects in two complementary datasets, i.e., the Baby Connectome Project (BCP) and the developing Human Connectome Project (dHCP), and state-of-the-art dedicated image-processing tools, we unprecedentedly parcellate the cerebral cortex into a set of distinct subdivisions purely according to the developmental patterns of the cortical surface. Our discovered developmentally distinct subdivisions correspond well to structurally and functionally meaningful regions and reveal spatially contiguous, hierarchical, and bilaterally symmetric patterns of early cortical surface expansion. We also show that high-order association subdivisions, where cortical folds emerge later during prenatal stages, undergo more dramatic cortical surface expansion during infancy, compared with the central regions, especially the sensorimotor and insula cortices, thus forming a distinct central-pole division in early cortical surface expansion. These results provide an important reference for exploring and understanding dynamic early brain development in health and disease.

A morphological study of schizophrenia with magnetic resonance imaging, advanced analytics, and machine learning

We have performed a morphological analysis of patients with schizophrenia and compared them with healthy controls. Our analysis includes the use of publicly available automated extraction tools to assess regional cortical thickness (inclusive of within region cortical thickness variability) from structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to characterize group-wise abnormalities associated with schizophrenia based on a publicly available dataset. We have also performed a correlation analysis between the automatically extracted biomarkers and a variety of patient clinical variables available. Finally, we also present the results of a machine learning analysis. Results demonstrate regional cortical thickness abnormalities in schizophrenia. We observed a correlation (rho = 0.474) between patients’ depression and the average cortical thickness of the right medial orbitofrontal cortex. Our leading machine learning technology evaluated was the support vector machine with stepwise feature selection, yielding a sensitivity of 92% and a specificity of 74%, based on regional brain measurements, including from the insula, superior frontal, caudate, calcarine sulcus, gyrus rectus, and rostral middle frontal regions. These results imply that advanced analytic techniques combining MRI with automated biomarker extraction can be helpful in characterizing patients with schizophrenia.

Age-dependent effects of schizophrenia genetic risk on cortical thickness and cortical surface area: Evaluating evidence for neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative models of schizophrenia

Risk for schizophrenia peaks during early adulthood, a critical period for brain development. Although several influential theoretical models have been proposed for the developmental relationship between brain pathology and clinical onset, to our knowledge, no study has directly evaluated the predictions of these models for schizophrenia developmental genetic effects on brain structure. To address this question, we introduce a framework to estimate the effects of schizophrenia genetic variation on brain structure phenotypes across the life span. Five-hundred and six participants, including 30 schizophrenia probands, 200 of their relatives (aged 12-85 years) from 32 families with at least two first-degree schizophrenia relatives, and 276 unrelated controls, underwent MRI to assess regional cortical thickness (CT) and cortical surface area (CSA). Genetic variance decomposition analyses were conducted to distinguish among schizophrenia neurogenetic effects that are most salient before schizophrenia peak age-of-risk (i.e., early neurodevelopmental effects), after peak age-of-risk (late neurodevelopmental effects), and during the later plateau of age-of-risk (neurodegenerative effects). Genetic correlations between schizophrenia and cortical traits suggested early neurodevelopmental effects for frontal and insula CSA, late neurodevelopmental effects for overall CSA and frontal, parietal, and occipital CSA, and possible neurodegenerative effects for temporal CT and parietal CSA. Importantly, these developmental neurogenetic effects were specific to schizophrenia and not found with nonpsychotic depression. Our findings highlight the potentially dynamic nature of schizophrenia genetic effects across the lifespan and emphasize the utility of integrating neuroimaging methods with developmental behavior genetic approaches to elucidate the nature and timing of risk-conferring processes in psychopathology. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Prenatal and early-life environmental factors, family demographics and cortical brain anatomy in 5-year-olds: an MRI study from FinnBrain Birth Cohort

The human brain develops dynamically during early childhood, when the child is sensitive to both genetic programming and extrinsic exposures. Recent studies have found links between prenatal and early life environmental factors, family demographics and the cortical brain morphology in newborns measured by surface area, volume and thickness. Here in this magnetic resonance imaging study, we evaluated whether a similar set of variables associates with cortical surface area and volumes measured in a sample of 170 healthy 5-year-olds from the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study. We found that child sex, maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index, 5 min Apgar score, neonatal intensive care unit admission and maternal smoking during pregnancy associated with surface areas. Furthermore, child sex, maternal age and maternal level of education associated with brain volumes. Expectedly, many variables deemed important for neonatal brain anatomy (such as birth weight and gestational age at birth) in earlier studies did not associate with brain metrics in our study group of 5-year-olds, which implies that their effects on brain anatomy are age-specific. Future research may benefit from including pre- and perinatal covariates in the analyses when such data are available. Finally, we provide evidence for right lateralization for surface area and volumes, except for the temporal lobes which were left lateralized. These subtle differences between hemispheres are variable across individuals and may be interesting brain metrics in future studies.

Influence of gonadal steroids on cortical surface area in infancy

Sex differences in the human brain emerge as early as mid-gestation and have been linked to sex hormones, particularly testosterone. Here, we analyzed the influence of markers of early sex hormone exposure (polygenic risk score (PRS) for testosterone, salivary testosterone, number of CAG repeats, digit ratios, and PRS for estradiol) on the growth pattern of cortical surface area in a longitudinal cohort of 722 infants. We found PRS for testosterone and right-hand digit ratio to be significantly associated with surface area, but only in females. PRS for testosterone at the most stringent P value threshold was positively associated with surface area development over time. Higher right-hand digit ratio, which is indicative of low prenatal testosterone levels, was negatively related to surface area in females. The current work suggests that variation in testosterone levels during both the prenatal and postnatal period may contribute to cortical surface area development in female infants.

Cortical changes in patients with schizophrenia across two ethnic backgrounds

While it is known that cultural background influences the healthy brain, less is known about how it affects cortical changes in schizophrenia. Here, we tested whether schizophrenia differentially affected the brain in Japanese and German patients. In a sample of 155 patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia and 191 healthy controls from Japan and Germany, we acquired 3 T-MRI of the brain. We subsequently compared cortical thickness and cortical surface area to identify whether differences between healthy controls and patients might be influenced by ethnicity. Additional analyses were performed to account for effects of duration of illness and medication. We found pronounced interactions between schizophrenia and cultural background in the cortical thickness of several areas, including the left inferior and middle temporal gyrus, as well as the right lateral occipital cortex. Regarding cortical surface area, interaction effects appeared in the insula and the occipital cortex, among others. Some of these brain areas are related to the expression of psychotic symptoms, which are known to differ across cultures. Our results indicate that cultural background impacts cortical structures in different ways, probably resulting in varying clinical manifestations, and call for the inclusion of more diverse samples in schizophrenia research.

Cyto/myeloarchitecture of cortical gray matter and superficial white matter in early neurodevelopment: multimodal MRI study in preterm neonates

The cerebral cortex undergoes rapid microstructural changes throughout the third trimester. Recently, there has been growing interest on imaging features that represent cyto/myeloarchitecture underlying intracortical myelination, cortical gray matter (GM), and its adjacent superficial whitematter (sWM). Using 92 magnetic resonance imaging scans from 78 preterm neonates, the current study used combined T1-weighted/T2-weighted (T1w/T2w) intensity ratio and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) measurements, including fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD), to characterize the developing cyto/myeloarchitectural architecture. DTI metrics showed a linear trajectory: FA decreased in GM but increased in sWM with time; and MD decreased in both GM and sWM. Conversely, T1w/T2w measurements showed a distinctive parabolic trajectory, revealing additional cyto/myeloarchitectural signature inferred. Furthermore, the spatiotemporal courses were regionally heterogeneous: central, ventral, and temporal regions of GM and sWM exhibited faster T1w/T2w changes; anterior sWM areas exhibited faster FA increases; and central and cingulate areas in GM and sWM exhibited faster MD decreases. These results may explain cyto/myeloarchitectural processes, including dendritic arborization, synaptogenesis, glial proliferation, and radial glial cell organization and apoptosis. Finally, T1w/T2w values were significantly associated with 1-year language and cognitive outcome scores, while MD significantly decreased with intraventricular hemorrhage.

Existence of Functional Connectome Fingerprint during Infancy and Its Stability over Months

The functional connectome fingerprint is a cluster of individualized brain functional connectivity patterns that are capable of distinguishing one individual from others. Although its existence has been demonstrated in adolescents and adults, whether such individualized patterns exist during infancy is barely investigated despite its importance in identifying the origin of the intrinsic connectome patterns that potentially mirror distinct behavioral phenotypes. To fill this knowledge gap, capitalizing on a longitudinal high-resolution structural and resting-state functional MRI dataset with 104 human infants (53 females) with 806 longitudinal scans (age, 16-876 d) and infant-specific functional parcellation maps, we observe that the brain functional connectome fingerprint may exist since infancy and keeps stable over months during early brain development. Specifically, we achieve an ∼78% individual identification rate by using ∼5% selected functional connections, compared with the best identification rate of 60% without connection selection. The frontoparietal networks recognized as the most contributive networks in adult functional connectome fingerprinting retain their superiority in infants despite being widely acknowledged as rapidly developing systems during childhood. The existence and stability of the functional connectome fingerprint are further validated on adjacent age groups. Moreover, we show that the infant frontoparietal networks can reach similar accuracy in predicting individual early learning composite scores as the whole-brain connectome, again resembling the observations in adults and highlighting the relevance of functional connectome fingerprint to cognitive performance. For the first time, these results suggest that each individual may retain a unique and stable marker of functional connectome during early brain development.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Functional connectome fingerprinting during infancy featuring rapid brain development remains almost uninvestigated even though it is essential for understanding the early individual-level intrinsic pattern of functional organization and its relationship with distinct behavioral phenotypes. With an infant-tailored functional connection selection and validation strategy, we strive to provide the delineation of the infant functional connectome fingerprint by examining its existence, stability, and relationship with early cognitive performance. We observe that the brain functional connectome fingerprint may exist since early infancy and remains stable over months during the first 2 years. The identified key contributive functional connections and networks for fingerprinting are also verified to be highly predictive for cognitive score prediction, which reveals the association between infant connectome fingerprint and cognitive performance.

Simulating Local Deformations in the Human Cortex Due to Blood Flow-Induced Changes in Mechanical Tissue Properties: Impact on Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Investigating human brain tissue is challenging due to the complexity and the manifold interactions between structures across different scales. Increasing evidence suggests that brain function and microstructural features including biomechanical features are related. More importantly, the relationship between tissue mechanics and its influence on brain imaging results remains poorly understood. As an important example, the study of the brain tissue response to blood flow could have important theoretical and experimental consequences for functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at high spatial resolutions. Computational simulations, using realistic mechanical models can predict and characterize the brain tissue behavior and give us insights into the consequent potential biases or limitations of in vivo, high-resolution fMRI. In this manuscript, we used a two dimensional biomechanical simulation of an exemplary human gyrus to investigate the relationship between mechanical tissue properties and the respective changes induced by focal blood flow changes. The model is based on the changes in the brain’s stiffness and volume due to the vasodilation evoked by neural activity. Modeling an exemplary gyrus from a brain atlas we assessed the influence of different potential mechanisms: (i) a local increase in tissue stiffness (at the level of a single anatomical layer), (ii) an increase in local volume, and (iii) a combination of both effects. Our simulation results showed considerable tissue displacement because of these temporary changes in mechanical properties. We found that the local volume increase causes more deformation and consequently higher displacement of the gyrus. These displacements introduced considerable artifacts in our simulated fMRI measurements. Our results underline the necessity to consider and characterize the tissue displacement which could be responsible for fMRI artifacts.

Reference-Relation Guided Autoencoder with Deep CCA Restriction for Awake-to-Sleep Brain Functional Connectome Prediction

The difficulty of acquiring resting-state fMRI of early developing children under the same condition leads to a dedicated protocol, i.e., scanning younger infants during sleep and older children during being awake, respectively. However, the obviously different brain activities of sleep and awake states arouse a new challenge of awake-to-sleep connectome prediction/translation, which remains unexplored despite its importance in the longitudinally-consistent delineation of brain functional development. Due to the data scarcity and huge differences between natural images and geometric data (e.g., brain connectome), existing methods tailored for image translation generally fail in predicting functional connectome from awake to sleep. To fill this critical gap, we unprecedentedly propose a novel reference-relation guided autoencoder with deep CCA restriction (R²AE-dCCA) for awake-to-sleep connectome prediction. Specifically, 1) A reference-autoencoder (RAE) is proposed to realize a guided generation from the source domain to the target domain. The limited paired data are thus greatly augmented by including the combinations of all the age-restricted neighboring subjects as the references, while the target-specific pattern is fully learned; 2) A relation network is then designed and embedded into RAE, which utilizes the similarity in the source domain to determine the belief-strength of the reference during prediction; 3) To ensure that the learned relation in the source domain can effectively guide the generation in the target domain, a deep CCA restriction is further employed to maintain the neighboring relation during translation; 4) New validation metrics dedicated for connectome prediction are also proposed. Experimental results showed that our proposed R²AE-dCCA produces better prediction accuracy and well maintains the modular structure of brain functional connectome in comparison with state-of-the-art methods.

Early magnetic resonance imaging biomarkers of schizophrenia spectrum disorders: Toward a fetal imaging perspective

There is mounting evidence to implicate the intrauterine environment as the initial pathogenic stage for neuropsychiatric disease. Recent developments in magnetic resonance imaging technology are making a multimodal analysis of the fetal central nervous system a reality, allowing analysis of structural and functional parameters. Exposures to a range of pertinent risk factors whether preconception or in utero can now be indexed using imaging techniques within the fetus' physiological environment. This approach may determine the first "hit" required for diseases that do not become clinically manifest until adulthood, and which only have subtle clinical markers during childhood and adolescence. A robust characterization of a "multi-hit" hypothesis may necessitate a longitudinal birth cohort; within this investigative paradigm, the full range of genetic and environmental risk factors can be assessed for their impact on the early developing brain. This will lay the foundation for the identification of novel biomarkers and the ability to devise methods for early risk stratification and disease prevention. However, these early markers must be followed over time: first, to account for neural plasticity, and second, to assess the effects of postnatal exposures that continue to drive the individual toward disease. We explore these issues using the schizophrenia spectrum disorders as an illustrative paradigm. However, given the potential richness of fetal magnetic resonance imaging, and the likely overlap of biomarkers, these concepts may extend to a range of neuropsychiatric conditions.

Cortical Structure and Cognition in Infants and Toddlers

Cortical structure has been consistently related to cognitive abilities in children and adults, yet we know little about how the cortex develops to support emergent cognition in infancy and toddlerhood when cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA) are maturing rapidly. In this report, we assessed how regional and global measures of CT and SA in a sample (N = 487) of healthy neonates, 1-year-olds, and 2-year-olds related to motor, language, visual reception, and general cognitive ability. We report novel findings that thicker cortices at ages 1 and 2 and larger SA at birth, age 1, and age 2 confer a cognitive advantage in infancy and toddlerhood. While several expected brain-cognition relationships were observed, overlapping cortical regions were also implicated across cognitive domains, suggesting that infancy marks a period of plasticity and refinement in cortical structure to support burgeoning motor, language, and cognitive abilities. CT may be a particularly important morphological indicator of ability, but its impact on cognition is relatively weak when compared with gestational age and maternal education. Findings suggest that prenatal and early postnatal cortical developments are important for cognition in infants and toddlers but should be considered in relation to other child and demographic factors.

Morphometric Analysis of Brain in Newborn with Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a severe pediatric disorder with herniation of abdominal viscera into the thoracic cavity. Since neurodevelopmental impairment constitutes a common outcome, we performed morphometric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analysis on CDH infants to investigate cortical parameters such as cortical thickness (CT) and local gyrification index (LGI). By assessing CT and LGI distributions and their correlations with variables which might have an impact on oxygen delivery (total lung volume, TLV), we aimed to detect how altered perfusion affects cortical development in CDH. A group of CDH patients received both prenatal (i.e., fetal stage) and postnatal MRI. From postnatal high-resolution T2-weighted images, mean CT and LGI distributions of 16 CDH were computed and statistically compared to those of 13 controls. Moreover, TLV measures obtained from fetal MRI were further correlated to LGI. Compared to controls, CDH infants exhibited areas of hypogiria within bilateral fronto-temporo-parietal labels, while no differences were found for CT. LGI significantly correlated with TLV within bilateral temporal lobes and left frontal lobe, involving language- and auditory-related brain areas. Although the causes of neurodevelopmental impairment in CDH are still unclear, our results may suggest their link with altered cortical maturation and possible impaired oxygen perfusion.

What a Clinician Should Know About the Neurobiology of Schizophrenia: A Historical Perspective to Current Understanding

The brain is no doubt the "organ" of psychiatry; yet, over the years, few evidence-based classifications of psychiatric disorders have been based on brain mechanisms. The National Institute of Mental Health notably proposed one such system, known as Research Domain Criteria, although it has not yet influenced any changes in the DSM. Of all the major psychiatric disorders, the brain has been studied most extensively in schizophrenia, with its speculative pathology first documented by Emil Kraepelin as early as the beginning of the 20th century. Subsequently, the revolution in technology over the past 50 years has changed how investigators are able to view the brain before death without performing biopsies. Schizophrenia is thus found to have both structural and functional widespread brain anomalies that likely lead to its clinical deterioration. At the onset of illness, acquiring an MRI scan could be part of the routine evaluation to determine how progressive the disease has so far been. However, this practice is not yet recognized by the American Psychiatric Association in any of its guidelines on the treatment of schizophrenia.

Infant FreeSurfer: An automated segmentation and surface extraction pipeline for T1-weighted neuroimaging data of infants 0-2 years

The development of automated tools for brain morphometric analysis in infants has lagged significantly behind analogous tools for adults. This gap reflects the greater challenges in this domain due to: 1) a smaller-scaled region of interest, 2) increased motion corruption, 3) regional changes in geometry due to heterochronous growth, and 4) regional variations in contrast properties corresponding to ongoing myelination and other maturation processes. Nevertheless, there is a great need for automated image-processing tools to quantify differences between infant groups and other individuals, because aberrant cortical morphologic measurements (including volume, thickness, surface area, and curvature) have been associated with neuropsychiatric, neurologic, and developmental disorders in children. In this paper we present an automated segmentation and surface extraction pipeline designed to accommodate clinical MRI studies of infant brains in a population 0-2 year-olds. The algorithm relies on a single channel of T1-weighted MR images to achieve automated segmentation of cortical and subcortical brain areas, producing volumes of subcortical structures and surface models of the cerebral cortex. We evaluated the algorithm both qualitatively and quantitatively using manually labeled datasets, relevant comparator software solutions cited in the literature, and expert evaluations. The computational tools and atlases described in this paper will be distributed to the research community as part of the FreeSurfer image analysis package.

Cortical Volume Differences in Subjects at Risk for Psychosis Are Driven by Surface Area

In subjects at risk for psychosis, the studies on gray matter volume (GMV) predominantly reported volume loss compared with healthy controls (CON). However, other important morphological measurements such as cortical surface area (CSA) and cortical thickness (CT) were not systematically compared. So far, samples mostly comprised subjects at genetic risk or at clinical risk fulfilling an ultra-high risk (UHR) criterion. No studies comparing UHR subjects with at-risk subjects showing only basic symptoms (BS) investigated the differences in CSA or CT. Therefore, we aimed to unravel the contribution of the 2 morphometrical measures constituting the cortical volume (CV) and to test whether these groups inhere different morphometric features. We conducted a surface-based morphometric analysis in 34 CON, 46 BS, and 39 UHR to examine between-group differences in CV, CSA, and CT vertex-wise across the whole cortex. Compared with BS and CON, UHR individuals presented increased CV in frontal and parietal regions, which was driven by larger CSA. These groups did not differ in CT. Yet, at-risk subjects who later developed schizophrenia showed thinning in the occipital cortex. Furthermore, BS presented increased CSA compared with CON. Our results suggest that volumetric differences in UHR subjects are driven by CSA while CV loss in converters seems to be based on cortical thinning. We attribute the larger CSA in UHR to aberrant pruning representing a vulnerability to develop psychotic symptoms reflected in different levels of vulnerability for BS and UHR, and cortical thinning to a presumably stress-related cortical decomposition.

Environmental Influences on Infant Cortical Thickness and Surface Area

Cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA) vary widely between individuals and are associated with intellectual ability and risk for various psychiatric and neurodevelopmental conditions. Factors influencing this variability remain poorly understood, but the radial unit hypothesis, as well as the more recent supragranular cortex expansion hypothesis, suggests that prenatal and perinatal influences may be particularly important. In this report, we examine the impact of 17 major demographic and obstetric history variables on interindividual variation in CT and SA in a unique sample of 805 neonates who received MRI scans of the brain around 2 weeks of age. Birth weight, postnatal age at MRI, gestational age at birth, and sex emerged as important predictors of SA. Postnatal age at MRI, paternal education, and maternal ethnicity emerged as important predictors of CT. These findings suggest that individual variation in infant CT and SA is explained by different sets of environmental factors with neonatal SA more strongly influenced by sex and obstetric history and CT more strongly influenced by socioeconomic and ethnic disparities. Findings raise the possibility that interventions aimed at reducing disparities and improving obstetric outcomes may alter prenatal/perinatal cortical development.

Extra-axial Cerebrospinal Fluid Relationships to Infant Brain Structure, Cognitive Development, and Risk for Schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Increased volume of extra-axial cerebrospinal fluid (EA-CSF) is associated with autism spectrum disorder diagnosis in young children. However, little is known about EA-CSF development in typically developing (TD) children or in children at risk for schizophrenia (SCZHR).

METHODS

3T magnetic resonance imaging scans were obtained in TD children (n = 105) and in SCZHR children (n = 38) at 1 and 2 years of age. EA-CSF volume and several measures of brain structure were generated, including global tissue volumes, cortical thickness, and surface area. Cognitive and motor abilities at 1 and 2 years of age were assessed using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning.

RESULTS

In the TD children, EA-CSF volume was positively associated with total brain volume, gray and white matter volumes, and total surface area at 1 and 2 years of age. In contrast, EA-CSF volume was negatively associated with average cortical thickness. Lower motor ability was associated with increased EA-CSF volume at 1 year of age. EA-CSF was not significantly increased in SCZHR children compared with TD children.

CONCLUSIONS

EA-CSF volume is positively associated with overall brain size and cortical surface area but negatively associated with cortical thickness. Increased EA-CSF is associated with delayed motor development at 1 year of age, similar to studies of children at risk for autism, suggesting that increased EA-CSF may be an early biomarker of abnormal brain development in infancy. Infants in the SCZHR group did not exhibit significantly increased EA-CSF, suggesting that increased EA-CSF could be specific to neurodevelopmental disorders with an earlier onset, such as autism.

Brain morphological and functional features in cognitive subgroups of schizophrenia

AIM

Previous studies have reported different brain morphologies in different cognitive subgroups of patients with schizophrenia. We aimed to examine the brain structures and functional connectivity in these cognitive subgroups of schizophrenia.

METHODS

We compared brain structures among healthy controls and cognitively deteriorated and preserved subgroups of patients with schizophrenia according to the decline in IQ. Connectivity analyses between subcortical regions and other brain areas were performed using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging among the groups.

RESULTS

Whole brain and total cortical gray matter, right fusiform gyrus, left pars orbitalis gyrus, right pars triangularis, left superior temporal gyrus and left insula volumes, and bilateral cortical thickness were decreased in the deteriorated group compared to the control and preserved groups. Both schizophrenia subgroups had increased left lateral ventricle, right putamen and left pallidum, and decreased bilateral hippocampus, left precentral gyrus, right rostral middle frontal gyrus, and bilateral superior frontal gyrus volumes compared with controls. Hyperconnectivity between the thalamus and a broad range of brain regions was observed in the deteriorated group compared to connectivity in the control group, and this hyperconnectivity was less evident in the preserved group. We also found hyperconnectivity between the accumbens and the superior and middle frontal gyri in the preserved group compared with connectivity in the deteriorated group.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide evidence of prominent structural and functional brain abnormalities in deteriorated patients with schizophrenia, suggesting that cognitive subgroups in schizophrenia might be useful biotypes to elucidate brain pathophysiology for new diagnostic and treatment strategies.

Mapping Theme Trends and Knowledge Structure of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Studies of Schizophrenia: A Bibliometric Analysis From 2004 to 2018

BACKGROUND

Recently, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology has been widely used to quantitatively analyze brain structure, morphology, and functional activities, as well as to clarify the neuropathological and neurobiological mechanisms of schizophrenia. However, although there have been many relevant results and conclusions, there has been no systematic assessment of this field.

AIM

To analyze important areas of research utilizing MRI in studies of schizophrenia and explore major trends and the knowledge structure using bibliometric analysis.

METHODS

Literature related to MRI studies of schizophrenia published in PubMed between January 1, 2004 and December 31, 2018 were retrieved in 5-year increments. The extracted major Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms/MeSH subheadings were analyzed quantitatively. Bi-clu-stering analysis, social network analysis (SNA), and strategic diagrams were employed to analyze the word matrix and co-occurrence matrix of high-frequency MeSH terms.

RESULTS

For the periods of 2004 to 2008, 2009 to 2013, and 2014 to 2018, the number of relevant retrieved publications were 916, 1,344, and 1,512 respectively, showing an overall growth trend. 26, 34, and 36 high-frequency major MeSH terms/MeSH subheadings were extracted in each period, respectively. In line with strategic diagrams, the main undeveloped theme clusters in 2004-2008 were effects of antipsychotics on brain structure and their curative efficacy. These themes were replaced in 2009-2013 by physiopathology mechanisms of schizophrenia, etiology of cognitive disorder, research on default mode network and schizophrenic psychology, and were partially replaced in 2014-2018 by studies of differences in the neurobiological basis for schizophrenia and other mental disorders. Based on SNA, nerve net/physiopathology and psychotic disorder/pathology were considered the emerging hotspots of research in 2009-2013 and 2014-2018.

CONCLUSIONS

MRI studies on schizophrenia were relatively diverse, but the theme clusters derived from each period may reflect the publication trends to some extent. Bibliometric research over a 15-year period may be helpful in depicting the overall scope of research interest and may generate novel ideas for researchers initiating new projects.

Individual identification and individual variability analysis based on cortical folding features in developing infant singletons and twins

Studying the early dynamic development of cortical folding with remarkable individual variability is critical for understanding normal early brain development and related neurodevelopmental disorders. This study focuses on the fingerprinting capability and the individual variability of cortical folding during early brain development. Specifically, we aim to explore (a) whether the developing neonatal cortical folding is unique enough to be considered as a "fingerprint" that can reliably identify an individual within a cohort of infants; (b) which cortical regions manifest more individual variability and thus contribute more for infant identification; (c) whether the infant twins can be distinguished by cortical folding. Hence, for the first time, we conduct infant individual identification and individual variability analysis involving twins based on the developing cortical folding features (mean curvature, average convexity, and sulcal depth) in 472 neonates with 1,141 longitudinal MRI scans. Experimental results show that the infant individual identification achieves 100% accuracy when using the neonatal cortical folding features to predict the identities of 1- and 2-year-olds. Besides, we observe high identification capability in the high-order association cortices (i.e., prefrontal, lateral temporal, and inferior parietal regions) and two unimodal cortices (i.e., precentral gyrus and lateral occipital cortex), which largely overlap with the regions encoding remarkable individual variability in cortical folding during the first 2 years. For twins study, we show that even for monozygotic twins with identical genes and similar developmental environments, their cortical folding features are unique enough for accurate individual identification; and in some high-order association cortices, the differences between monozygotic twin pairs are significantly lower than those between dizygotic twins. This study thus provides important insights into individual identification and individual variability based on cortical folding during infancy.

Impact of Polygenic Risk for Schizophrenia on Cortical Structure in UK Biobank

BACKGROUND

Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder with many genetic variants of individually small effect contributing to phenotypic variation. Lower cortical thickness (CT), surface area, and cortical volume have been demonstrated in people with schizophrenia. Furthermore, a range of obstetric complications (e.g., lower birth weight) are consistently associated with an increased risk for schizophrenia. We investigated whether a high polygenic risk score for schizophrenia (PGRS-SCZ) is associated with CT, surface area, and cortical volume in UK Biobank, a population-based sample, and tested for interactions with birth weight.

METHODS

Data were available for 2864 participants (n_male/n_female = 1382/1482; mean age = 62.35 years, SD = 7.40). Linear mixed models were used to test for associations among PGRS-SCZ and cortical volume, surface area, and CT and between PGRS-SCZ and birth weight. Interaction effects of these variables on cortical structure were also tested.

RESULTS

We found a significant negative association between PGRS-SCZ and global CT; a higher PGRS-SCZ was associated with lower CT across the whole brain. We also report a significant negative association between PGRS-SCZ and insular lobe CT. PGRS-SCZ was not associated with birth weight and no PGRS-SCZ × birth weight interactions were found.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that individual differences in CT are partly influenced by genetic variants and are most likely not due to factors downstream of disease onset. This approach may help to elucidate the genetic pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Further investigation in case-control and high-risk samples could help identify any localized effects of PGRS-SCZ, and other potential schizophrenia risk factors, on CT as symptoms develop.

Infant Brain Development Prediction With Latent Partial Multi-View Representation Learning

The early postnatal period witnesses rapid and dynamic brain development. However, the relationship between brain anatomical structure and cognitive ability is still unknown. Currently, there is no explicit model to characterize this relationship in the literature. In this paper, we explore this relationship by investigating the mapping between morphological features of the cerebral cortex and cognitive scores. To this end, we introduce a multi-view multi-task learning approach to intuitively explore complementary information from different time-points and handle the missing data issue in longitudinal studies simultaneously. Accordingly, we establish a novel model, latent partial multi-view representation learning. Our approach regards data from different time-points as different views and constructs a latent representation to capture the complementary information from incomplete time-points. The latent representation explores the complementarity across different time-points and improves the accuracy of prediction. The minimization problem is solved by the alternating direction method of multipliers. Experimental results on both synthetic and real data validate the effectiveness of our proposed algorithm.

White matter connectomes at birth accurately predict cognitive abilities at age 2

Cognitive ability is an important predictor of mental health outcomes that is influenced by neurodevelopment. Evidence suggests that the foundational wiring of the human brain is in place by birth, and that the white matter (WM) connectome supports developing brain function. It is unknown, however, how the WM connectome at birth supports emergent cognition. In this study, a deep learning model was trained using cross-validation to classify full-term infants (n = 75) as scoring above or below the median at age 2 using WM connectomes generated from diffusion weighted magnetic resonance images at birth. Results from this model were used to predict individual cognitive scores. We additionally identified WM connections important for classification. The model was also evaluated in a separate set of preterm infants (n = 37) scanned at term-age equivalent. Findings revealed that WM connectomes at birth predicted 2-year cognitive score group with high accuracy in both full-term (89.5%) and preterm (83.8%) infants. Scores predicted by the model were strongly correlated with actual scores (r = 0.98 for full-term and r = 0.96 for preterm). Connections within the frontal lobe, and between the frontal lobe and other brain areas were found to be important for classification. This work suggests that WM connectomes at birth can accurately predict a child's 2-year cognitive group and individual score in full-term and preterm infants. The WM connectome at birth appears to be a useful neuroimaging biomarker of subsequent cognitive development that deserves further study.

Hierarchical Rough-to-Fine Model for Infant Age Prediction Based on Cortical Features

Prediction of the chronological age based on neuroimaging data is important for brain development analysis and brain disease diagnosis. Although many researches have been conducted for age prediction of older children and adults, little work has been dedicated to infants. To this end, this paper focuses on predicting infant age from birth to 2-year old using brain MR images, as well as identifying some related biomarkers. However, brain development during infancy is too rapid and heterogeneous to be accurately modeled by the conventional regression models. To address this issue, a two-stage prediction method is proposed. Specifically, our method first roughly predicts the age range of an infant and then finely predicts the accurate chronological age based on a learned, age-group-specific regression model. Combining this two-stage prediction method with another complementary one-stage prediction method, a hierarchical rough-to-fine (HRtoF) model is built. HRtoF effectively splits the rapid and heterogeneous changes during a long time period into several short time ranges and further mines the discrimination capability of cortical features, thus reaching high accuracy in infant age prediction. Taking 8 types of cortical morphometric features from structural MRI as predictors, the effectiveness of our proposed HRtoF model is validated using an infant dataset including 50 healthy subjects with 251 longitudinal MRI scans from 14 to 797 days. Comparing with five state-of-the-art regression methods, HRtoF model reduces the mean absolute error of the prediction from >48 days to 32.1 days. The correlation coefficient of the predicted age and the chronological age reaches 0.963. Moreover, based on HRtoF, the relative contributions of the eight types of cortical features for age prediction are also studied.

A review on neuroimaging studies of genetic and environmental influences on early brain development

The past decades witnessed a surge of interest in neuroimaging study of normal and abnormal early brain development. Structural and functional studies of normal early brain development revealed massive structural maturation as well as sequential, coordinated, and hierarchical emergence of functional networks during the infancy period, providing a great foundation for the investigation of abnormal early brain development mechanisms. Indeed, studies of altered brain development associated with either genetic or environmental risks emerged and thrived. In this paper, we will review selected studies of genetic and environmental risks that have been relatively more extensively investigated-familial risks, candidate risk genes, and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) on the genetic side; maternal mood disorders and prenatal drug exposures on the environmental side. Emerging studies on environment-gene interactions will also be reviewed. Our goal was not to perform an exhaustive review of all studies in the field but to leverage some representative ones to summarize the current state, point out potential limitations, and elicit discussions on important future directions.

Associations between cortical thickness and auditory verbal hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia: A systematic review

Auditory verbal hallucinations are common symptoms in schizophrenia patients, and recent magnetic resonance imaging studies have suggested associations between cortical thickness and auditory verbal hallucinations. This article summarises the associations between cortical thickness reduction and auditory verbal hallucinations, conceptualising the findings based on the Research Domain Criteria framework. Six studies identified in a systematic literature search were included in the review. Cortical thickness reductions in schizophrenia patients with auditory verbal hallucinations were reported in the transverse temporal gyrus in four of the studies, in the superior temporal gyrus in three of them, and in the middle temporal gyrus in three of the studies. These regions are collectively associated with auditory perception in the cognitive system domain in the Research Domain Criteria. Findings in other brain areas were inconsistent, which may reflect uncharacterised differences in the phenomenology and subjective experience of auditory verbal hallucinations. Future studies are encouraged to apply the Research Domain Criteria to characterise other putative networks associated with the subjective experience of auditory verbal hallucinations. This approach may facilitate understanding of current inconsistencies between auditory verbal hallucinations and cortical thickness in other brain areas.

A computational method for longitudinal mapping of orientation-specific expansion of cortical surface in infants

The cortical surface of the human brain expands dynamically and regionally heterogeneously during the first postnatal year. As all primary and secondary cortical folds as well as many tertiary cortical folds are well established at term birth, the cortical surface area expansion during this stage is largely driven by the increase of surface area in two orthogonal orientations in the tangent plane: 1) the expansion parallel to the folding orientation (i.e., increasing the lengths of folds) and 2) the expansion perpendicular to the folding orientation (i.e., increasing the depths of folds). This information would help us better understand the mechanisms of cortical development and provide important insights into neurodevelopmental disorders, but still remains largely unknown due to lack of dedicated computational methods. To address this issue, we propose a novel method for longitudinal mapping of orientation-specific expansion of cortical surface area in these two orthogonal orientations during early infancy. First, to derive the two orientation fields perpendicular and parallel to cortical folds, we propose to adaptively and smoothly fuse the gradient field of sulcal depth and also the maximum principal direction field, by leveraging their region-specific reliability. Specifically, we formulate this task as a discrete labeling problem, in which each vertex is assigned to an orientation label, and solve it by graph cuts. Then, based on the computed longitudinal deformation of the cortical surface, we estimate the Jacobian matrix at each vertex by solving a least-squares problem and derive its corresponding stretch tensor. Finally, to obtain the orientation-specific cortical surface expansion, we project the stretch tensor into the two orthogonal orientations separately. We have applied the proposed method to 30 healthy infants, and for the first time we revealed the orientation-specific longitudinal cortical surface expansion maps during the first postnatal year.

Genetic influences on neonatal cortical thickness and surface area

Genetic and environmental influences on cortical thickness (CT) and surface area (SA) are thought to vary in a complex and dynamic way across the lifespan. It has been established that CT and SA are genetically distinct in older children, adolescents, and adults, and that heritability varies across cortical regions. Very little, however, is known about how genetic and environmental factors influence infant CT and SA. Using structural MRI, we performed the first assessment of genetic and environmental influences on normal variation of SA and CT in 360 twin neonates. We observed strong and significant additive genetic influences on total SA (a²  = 0.78) and small and nonsignificant genetic influences on average CT (a²  = 0.29). Moreover, we found significant genetic overlap (genetic correlation = 0.65) between these global cortical measures. Regionally, there were minimal genetic influences across the cortex for both CT and SA measures and no distinct patterns of genetic regionalization. Overall, outcomes from this study suggest a dynamic relationship between CT and SA during the neonatal period and provide novel insights into how genetic influences shape cortical structure during early development.

Construction of a neonatal cortical surface atlas using Multimodal Surface Matching in the Developing Human Connectome Project

We propose a method for constructing a spatio-temporal cortical surface atlas of neonatal brains aged between 36 and 44 weeks of post-menstrual age (PMA) at the time of scan. The data were acquired as part of the Developing Human Connectome Project (dHCP), and the constructed surface atlases are publicly available. The method is based on a spherical registration approach: Multimodal Surface Matching (MSM), using cortical folding for driving the alignment. Templates have been generated for the anatomical cortical surface and for the cortical feature maps: sulcal depth, curvature, thickness, T1w/T2w myelin maps and cortical regions. To achieve this, cortical surfaces from 270 infants were first projected onto the sphere. Templates were then generated in two stages: first, a reference space was initialised via affine alignment to a group average adult template. Following this, templates were iteratively refined through repeated alignment of individuals to the template space until the variability of the average feature sets converged. Finally, bias towards the adult reference was removed by applying the inverse of the average affine transformations on the template and de-drifting the template. We used temporal adaptive kernel regression to produce age-dependant atlases for 9 weeks (36-44 weeks PMA). The generated templates capture expected patterns of cortical development including an increase in gyrification as well as an increase in thickness and T1w/T2w myelination with increasing age.

Anatomy-guided joint tissue segmentation and topological correction for 6-month infant brain MRI with risk of autism

Tissue segmentation of infant brain MRIs with risk of autism is critically important for characterizing early brain development and identifying biomarkers. However, it is challenging due to low tissue contrast caused by inherent ongoing myelination and maturation. In particular, at around 6 months of age, the voxel intensities in both gray matter and white matter are within similar ranges, thus leading to the lowest image contrast in the first postnatal year. Previous studies typically employed intensity images and tentatively estimated tissue probabilities to train a sequence of classifiers for tissue segmentation. However, the important prior knowledge of brain anatomy is largely ignored during the segmentation. Consequently, the segmentation accuracy is still limited and topological errors frequently exist, which will significantly degrade the performance of subsequent analyses. Although topological errors could be partially handled by retrospective topological correction methods, their results may still be anatomically incorrect. To address these challenges, in this article, we propose an anatomy-guided joint tissue segmentation and topological correction framework for isointense infant MRI. Particularly, we adopt a signed distance map with respect to the outer cortical surface as anatomical prior knowledge, and incorporate such prior information into the proposed framework to guide segmentation in ambiguous regions. Experimental results on the subjects acquired from National Database for Autism Research demonstrate the effectiveness to topological errors and also some levels of robustness to motion. Comparisons with the state-of-the-art methods further demonstrate the advantages of the proposed method in terms of both segmentation accuracy and topological correctness.

Multi-task prediction of infant cognitive scores from longitudinal incomplete neuroimaging data

Early postnatal brain undergoes a stunning period of development. Over the past few years, research on dynamic infant brain development has received increased attention, exhibiting how important the early stages of a child's life are in terms of brain development. To precisely chart the early brain developmental trajectories, longitudinal studies with data acquired over a long-enough period of infants' early life is essential. However, in practice, missing data from different time point(s) during the data gathering procedure is often inevitable. This leads to incomplete set of longitudinal data, which poses a major challenge for such studies. In this paper, prediction of multiple future cognitive scores with incomplete longitudinal imaging data is modeled into a multi-task machine learning framework. To efficiently learn this model, we account for selection of informative features (i.e., neuroimaging morphometric measurements for different time points), while preserving the structural information and the interrelation between these multiple cognitive scores. Several experiments are conducted on a carefully acquired in-house dataset, and the results affirm that we can predict the cognitive scores measured at the age of four years old, using the imaging data of earlier time points, as early as 24 months of age, with a reasonable performance (i.e., root mean square error of 0.18).

Computational neuroanatomy of baby brains: A review

The first postnatal years are an exceptionally dynamic and critical period of structural, functional and connectivity development of the human brain. The increasing availability of non-invasive infant brain MR images provides unprecedented opportunities for accurate and reliable charting of dynamic early brain developmental trajectories in understanding normative and aberrant growth. However, infant brain MR images typically exhibit reduced tissue contrast (especially around 6 months of age), large within-tissue intensity variations, and regionally-heterogeneous, dynamic changes, in comparison with adult brain MR images. Consequently, the existing computational tools developed typically for adult brains are not suitable for infant brain MR image processing. To address these challenges, many infant-tailored computational methods have been proposed for computational neuroanatomy of infant brains. In this review paper, we provide a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art computational methods for infant brain MRI processing and analysis, which have advanced our understanding of early postnatal brain development. We also summarize publically available infant-dedicated resources, including MRI datasets, computational tools, grand challenges, and brain atlases. Finally, we discuss the limitations in current research and suggest potential future research directions.

Dynamic patterns of cortical expansion during folding of the preterm human brain

During the third trimester of human brain development, the cerebral cortex undergoes dramatic surface expansion and folding. Physical models suggest that relatively rapid growth of the cortical gray matter helps drive this folding, and structural data suggest that growth may vary in both space (by region on the cortical surface) and time. In this study, we propose a unique method to estimate local growth from sequential cortical reconstructions. Using anatomically constrained multimodal surface matching (aMSM), we obtain accurate, physically guided point correspondence between younger and older cortical reconstructions of the same individual. From each pair of surfaces, we calculate continuous, smooth maps of cortical expansion with unprecedented precision. By considering 30 preterm infants scanned two to four times during the period of rapid cortical expansion (28-38 wk postmenstrual age), we observe significant regional differences in growth across the cortical surface that are consistent with the emergence of new folds. Furthermore, these growth patterns shift over the course of development, with noninjured subjects following a highly consistent trajectory. This information provides a detailed picture of dynamic changes in cortical growth, connecting what is known about patterns of development at the microscopic (cellular) and macroscopic (folding) scales. Since our method provides specific growth maps for individual brains, we are also able to detect alterations due to injury. This fully automated surface analysis, based on tools freely available to the brain-mapping community, may also serve as a useful approach for future studies of abnormal growth due to genetic disorders, injury, or other environmental variables.

The developing human connectome project: A minimal processing pipeline for neonatal cortical surface reconstruction

The Developing Human Connectome Project (dHCP) seeks to create the first 4-dimensional connectome of early life. Understanding this connectome in detail may provide insights into normal as well as abnormal patterns of brain development. Following established best practices adopted by the WU-MINN Human Connectome Project (HCP), and pioneered by FreeSurfer, the project utilises cortical surface-based processing pipelines. In this paper, we propose a fully automated processing pipeline for the structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the developing neonatal brain. This proposed pipeline consists of a refined framework for cortical and sub-cortical volume segmentation, cortical surface extraction, and cortical surface inflation, which has been specifically designed to address considerable differences between adult and neonatal brains, as imaged using MRI. Using the proposed pipeline our results demonstrate that images collected from 465 subjects ranging from 28 to 45 weeks post-menstrual age (PMA) can be processed fully automatically; generating cortical surface models that are topologically correct, and correspond well with manual evaluations of tissue boundaries in 85% of cases. Results improve on state-of-the-art neonatal tissue segmentation models and significant errors were found in only 2% of cases, where these corresponded to subjects with high motion. Downstream, these surfaces will enhance comparisons of functional and diffusion MRI datasets, supporting the modelling of emerging patterns of brain connectivity.

The developing human connectome project: A minimal processing pipeline for neonatal cortical surface reconstruction

The Developing Human Connectome Project (dHCP) seeks to create the first 4-dimensional connectome of early life. Understanding this connectome in detail may provide insights into normal as well as abnormal patterns of brain development. Following established best practices adopted by the WU-MINN Human Connectome Project (HCP), and pioneered by FreeSurfer, the project utilises cortical surface-based processing pipelines. In this paper, we propose a fully automated processing pipeline for the structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the developing neonatal brain. This proposed pipeline consists of a refined framework for cortical and sub-cortical volume segmentation, cortical surface extraction, and cortical surface inflation, which has been specifically designed to address considerable differences between adult and neonatal brains, as imaged using MRI. Using the proposed pipeline our results demonstrate that images collected from 465 subjects ranging from 28 to 45 weeks post-menstrual age (PMA) can be processed fully automatically; generating cortical surface models that are topologically correct, and correspond well with manual evaluations of tissue boundaries in 85% of cases. Results improve on state-of-the-art neonatal tissue segmentation models and significant errors were found in only 2% of cases, where these corresponded to subjects with high motion. Downstream, these surfaces will enhance comparisons of functional and diffusion MRI datasets, supporting the modelling of emerging patterns of brain connectivity.

Multimodal Discrimination of Schizophrenia Using Hybrid Weighted Feature Concatenation of Brain Functional Connectivity and Anatomical Features with an Extreme Learning Machine

Multimodal features of structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the human brain can assist in the diagnosis of schizophrenia. We performed a classification study on age, sex, and handedness-matched subjects. The dataset we used is publicly available from the Center for Biomedical Research Excellence (COBRE) and it consists of two groups: patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. We performed an independent component analysis and calculated global averaged functional connectivity-based features from the resting-state functional MRI data for all the cortical and subcortical anatomical parcellation. Cortical thickness along with standard deviation, surface area, volume, curvature, white matter volume, and intensity measures from the cortical parcellation, as well as volume and intensity from sub-cortical parcellation and overall volume of cortex features were extracted from the structural MRI data. A novel hybrid weighted feature concatenation method was used to acquire maximal 99.29% (P < 0.0001) accuracy which preserves high discriminatory power through the weight of the individual feature type. The classification was performed by an extreme learning machine, and its efficiency was compared to linear and non-linear (radial basis function) support vector machines, linear discriminant analysis, and random forest bagged tree ensemble algorithms. This article reports the predictive accuracy of both unimodal and multimodal features after 10-by-10-fold nested cross-validation. A permutation test followed the classification experiment to assess the statistical significance of the classification results. It was concluded that, from a clinical perspective, this feature concatenation approach may assist the clinicians in schizophrenia diagnosis.

Can we predict subject-specific dynamic cortical thickness maps during infancy from birth?

Understanding the early dynamic development of the human cerebral cortex remains a challenging problem. Cortical thickness, as one of the most important morphological attributes of the cerebral cortex, is a sensitive indicator for both normal neurodevelopment and neuropsychiatric disorders, but its early postnatal development remains largely unexplored. In this study, we investigate a key question in neurodevelopmental science: can we predict the future dynamic development of cortical thickness map in an individual infant based on its available MRI data at birth? If this is possible, we might be able to better model and understand the early brain development and also early detect abnormal brain development during infancy. To this end, we develop a novel learning-based method, called Dynamically-Assembled Regression Forest (DARF), to predict the development of the cortical thickness map during the first postnatal year, based on neonatal MRI features. We applied our method to 15 healthy infants and predicted their cortical thickness maps at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of age, with respectively mean absolute errors of 0.209 mm, 0.332 mm, 0.340 mm, and 0.321 mm. Moreover, we found that the prediction precision is region-specific, with high precision in the unimodal cortex and relatively low precision in the high-order association cortex, which may be associated with their differential developmental patterns. Additional experiments also suggest that using more early time points for prediction can further significantly improve the prediction accuracy. Hum Brain Mapp 38:2865-2874, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Quantifying cortical development in typically developing toddlers and young children, 1-6 years of age

Cortical maturation, including age-related changes in thickness, volume, surface area, and folding (gyrification), play a central role in developing brain function and plasticity. Further, abnormal cortical maturation is a suspected substrate in various behavioral, intellectual, and psychiatric disorders. However, in order to characterize the altered development associated with these disorders, appreciation of the normative patterns of cortical development in neurotypical children between 1 and 6 years of age, a period of peak brain development during which many behavioral and developmental disorders emerge, is necessary. To this end, we examined measures of cortical thickness, surface area, mean curvature, and gray matter volume across 34 bilateral regions in a cohort of 140 healthy children devoid of major risk factors for abnormal development. From these data, we observed linear, logarithmic, and quadratic patterns of change with age depending on brain region. Cortical thinning, ranging from 10% to 20%, was observed throughout most of the brain, with the exception of posterior brain structures, which showed initial cortical thinning from 1 to 5 years, followed by thickening. Cortical surface area expansion ranged from 20% to 108%, and cortical curvature varied by 1–20% across the investigated age range. Right-left hemisphere asymmetry was observed across development for each of the 4 cortical measures. Our results present new insight into the normative patterns of cortical development across an important but under studied developmental window, and provide a valuable reference to which trajectories observed in neurodevelopmental disorders may be compared.

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Analysis of cortical thickness, surface area, curvature, and gray matter volume.

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Region specific trajectories of cortical maturation in infants and children.

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Analysis of significant asymmetry during early brain development.

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Differential brain development based on sex.

Hypofrontality and Posterior Hyperactivity in Early Schizophrenia: Imaging and Behavior in a Preclinical Model

BACKGROUND

Schizophrenia is a debilitating neuropsychiatric disorder typically diagnosed from late adolescence to adulthood. Subthreshold behavioral symptoms (e.g., cognitive deficits and substance abuse) often precede the clinical diagnosis of schizophrenia. However, these prodromal symptoms have not been consistently associated with structural and functional brain biomarkers, limiting the chance of early diagnosis of schizophrenia.

METHODS

Using an extensively multimodal range of magnetic resonance methods (for anatomy, metabolism, and function), we screened early biomarkers in a methylazoxymethanol acetate (MAM) rat model of schizophrenia and saline-treated control (SHAM) rats, in conjunction with immunohistochemistry, myelin staining, and a novel three-choice, reversal-learning task to identify early behavioral markers corresponding the subthreshold symptoms.

RESULTS

MAM (vs. SHAM) rats had lower/higher structural connectivity in anterior/posterior corpus callosum. The orbitofrontal cortex of MAM rats showed lower resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging functional connectivity in conjunction with lower neuronal density, lower glucose oxidation, and attenuated neurotransmission (hypofrontality). In contrast, these measures were all higher in visual cortex of MAM rats (posterior hyperactivity), which might parallel perceptual problems in schizophrenia. In behavioral studies, MAM (vs. SHAM) rats displayed abnormal orbitofrontal cortex-mediated decision-making processes, resulting in a novel reward-sensitive hyperflexible phenotype, which might reflect vulnerability of prodromal patients to substance abuse.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified two novel biomarkers of early schizophrenia in a preclinical rat model: hypofrontality associated with the hyperflexible phenotype, and posterior hyperactivity. Because each of these magnetic resonance methods is clinically translatable, these markers could contribute to early diagnosis and the development of novel therapies of schizophrenia.

Reduced cortical thickness and increased surface area in antisocial personality disorder

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), one of whose characteristics is high impulsivity, is of great interest in the field of brain structure and function. However, little is known about possible impairments in the cortical anatomy in ASPD, in terms of cortical thickness (CTh) and surface area (SA), as well as their possible relationship with impulsivity. In this neuroimaging study, we first investigated the changes of CTh and SA in ASPD patients, in comparison to those of healthy controls, and then performed correlation analyses between these measures and the ability of impulse control. We found that ASPD patients showed thinner cortex while larger SA in several specific brain regions, i.e., bilateral superior frontal gyrus (SFG), orbitofrontal and triangularis, insula cortex, precuneus, middle frontal gyrus (MFG), middle temporal gyrus (MTG), and left bank of superior temporal sulcus (STS). In addition, we also found that the ability of impulse control was positively correlated with CTh in the SFG, MFG, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), pars triangularis, superior temporal gyrus (STG), and insula cortex. To our knowledge, this study is the first to reveal simultaneous changes in CTh and SA in ASPD, as well as their relationship with impulsivity. These cortical structural changes may introduce uncontrolled and callous behavioral characteristic in ASPD patients, and these potential biomarkers may be very helpful in understanding the pathomechanism of ASPD.

Network-Level Connectivity Dynamics of Movie Watching in 6-Year-Old Children

Better understanding of the developing brain’s functional mechanisms is critical for improving diagnosis and treatment of different developmental disorders. Particularly, characterizing how the developing brain dynamically reorganizes during different cognitive states may offer novel insight into the neuronal mechanisms of cognitive deficits. Imaging the brain during naturalistic conditions, like movie watching, provides a highly practical way to study young children’s developing functional brain systems. In this study we compared the network-level functional organization of 6-year-old children while they were at rest with their functional connectivity as they watched short video clips. We employed both a data-driven independent component analysis (ICA) approach and a hypothesis-driven seed-based analysis to identify changes in network-level functional interactions during the shift from resting to video watching. Our ICA results showed that naturally watching a movie elicits significant changes in the functional connectivity between the visual system and the dorsal attention network when compared to rest (t₍₃₂₎ = 5.02, p = 0.0001). More interestingly, children showed an immature, but qualitatively adult-like, pattern of reorganization among three of the brain’s higher-order networks (frontal control, default-mode and dorsal attention). For both ICA and seed-based approaches, we observed a decrease in the frontal network’s correlation with the dorsal attention network (ICA: t₍₃₂₎ = −2.46, p = 0.02; Seed-based: t₍₃₂₎ = −1.62, p =0.12) and an increase in its connectivity with the default mode network (ICA: t₍₃₂₎ = 2.84, p = 0.008; Seed-based: t₍₃₂₎ = 2.28, p =0.03), which is highly consistent with the pattern observed in adults. These results offer improved understanding of the developing brain’s dynamic network-level interaction patterns during the transition between different brain states and call for further studies to examine potential alterations to such dynamic patterns in different developmental disorders.

Spatial Patterns, Longitudinal Development, and Hemispheric Asymmetries of Cortical Thickness in Infants from Birth to 2 Years of Age

Cortical thickness (CT) is related to normal development and neurodevelopmental disorders. It remains largely unclear how the characteristic patterns of CT evolve in the first 2 years. In this paper, we systematically characterized for the first time the detailed vertex-wise patterns of spatial distribution, longitudinal development, and hemispheric asymmetries of CT at 0, 1, and 2 years of age, via surface-based analysis of 219 longitudinal magnetic resonance images from 73 infants. Despite the dynamic increase of CT in the first year and the little change of CT in the second year, we found that the overall spatial distribution of thin and thick cortices was largely present at birth, and evolved only modestly during the first 2 years. Specifically, the precentral gyrus, postcentral gyrus, occipital cortex, and superior parietal region had thin cortices, whereas the prefrontal, lateral temporal, insula, and inferior parietal regions had thick cortices. We revealed that in the first year thin cortices exhibited low growth rates of CT, whereas thick cortices exhibited high growth rates. We also found that gyri were thicker than sulci, and that the anterior bank of the central sulcus was thicker than the posterior bank. Moreover, we showed rightward hemispheric asymmetries of CT in the lateral temporal and posterior insula regions at birth, which shrank gradually in the first 2 years, and also leftward asymmetries in the medial prefrontal, paracentral, and anterior cingulate cortices, which expanded substantially during this period. This study provides the first comprehensive picture of early patterns and evolution of CT during infancy.

Cortical maturation and myelination in healthy toddlers and young children

The maturation of cortical structures, and the establishment of their connectivity, are critical neurodevelopmental processes that support and enable cognitive and behavioral functioning. Measures of cortical development, including thickness, curvature, and gyrification have been extensively studied in older children, adolescents, and adults, revealing regional associations with cognitive performance, and alterations with disease or pathology. In addition to these gross morphometric measures, increased attention has recently focused on quantifying more specific indices of cortical structure, in particular intracortical myelination, and their relationship to cognitive skills, including IQ, executive functioning, and language performance. Here we analyze the progression of cortical myelination across early childhood, from 1 to 6 years of age, in vivo for the first time. Using two quantitative imaging techniques, namely T1 relaxation time and myelin water fraction (MWF) imaging, we characterize myelination throughout the cortex, examine developmental trends, and investigate hemispheric and gender-based differences. We present a pattern of cortical myelination that broadly mirrors established histological timelines, with somatosensory, motor and visual cortices myelinating by 1 year of age; and frontal and temporal cortices exhibiting more protracted myelination. Developmental trajectories, defined by logarithmic functions (increasing for MWF, decreasing for T1), were characterized for each of 68 cortical regions. Comparisons of trajectories between hemispheres and gender revealed no significant differences. Results illustrate the ability to quantitatively map cortical myelination throughout early neurodevelopment, and may provide an important new tool for investigating typical and atypical development.

Reduced cortical thickness in right Heschl's gyrus associated with auditory verbal hallucinations severity in first-episode schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs) represent one of the most intriguing phenomena in schizophrenia, however, brain abnormalities underlying AVHs remain unclear. The present study examined the association between cortical thickness and AVHs in first-episode schizophrenia.

METHOD

High-resolution MR images were obtained in 49 first-episode schizophrenia (FES) patients and 50 well-matched healthy controls (HCs). Among the FES patients, 18 suffered persistent AVHs ("auditory hallucination" AH group), and 31 never experienced AVHs ("no hallucination" NH group). The severity of AVHs was rated by the Auditory Hallucinations Rating Scale (AHRS). Cortical thickness differences among the three groups and their association with AVHs severity were examined.

RESULTS

Compared to both HCs and NH patients, AH patients showed lower cortical thickness in the right Heschl's gyrus. The degree of reduction in the cortical thickness was correlated with AVH severity in the AH patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Abnormalities of cortical thickness in the Heschl's gyrus may be a physiological factor underlying auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia.

Selective Functional Disconnection of the Dorsal Subregion of the Temporal Pole in Schizophrenia

Although extensive resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) changes have been reported in schizophrenia, rsFC changes in the temporal pole (TP) remain unknown. The TP contains several subregions with different connection patterns; however, it is not known whether TP subregions are differentially affected in schizophrenia. Sixty-six schizophrenia patients and 76 healthy comparison subjects underwent resting-state fMRI using a sensitivity-encoded spiral-in (SENSE-SPIRAL) imaging sequence to reduce susceptibility-induced signal loss and distortion. The TP was subdivided into the dorsal (TPd) and ventral (TPv) subregions. Mean fMRI time series were extracted for each TP subregion and entered into a seed-based rsFC analysis. Direct between-group comparisons revealed reduced rsFC between the right TPd and brain regions involved in language processing and multisensory integration in schizophrenia, including the left superior temporal gyrus, left mid-cingulate cortex, and right insular cortex. The rsFC changes of the right TPd in schizophrenia were independent of the grey matter reduction of this subregion. Moreover, these rsFC changes were unrelated to illness severity, duration of illness and antipsychotic medication dosage. No significant group differences were observed in the rsFC of the left TPd and bilateral TPv subregions. These findings suggest a selective (the right TPd) functional disconnection of TP subregions in schizophrenia.