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Ren Y, Gao G, Ding G, Zhang Y, Zhao P, Wang J. Temporal approach to identifying ectomycorrhizal community associated with Mongolian pine in a desert environment, northern China. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0202623. [PMID: 37707453 PMCID: PMC10580992 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02026-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
To date, the ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi community has been widely investigated with aging plantations affected by the pedologic factors. However, knowledge on the effects of phenology induced by climatic factors across the age range remains poorly understood on an intra-annual scale. Here, we sampled the fine roots of Mongolian pine (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica) plantations at different stages of the growing season (from April to September) across three stand ages (27, 34, and 44 yr) in the Mu Us Desert, Northwest China. We aim to disentangle the community composition and structure of EM fungi, as well as the impact of climate on EM fungi. We observed that the 173 distinct EM fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were identified. Geopora, Inocybe, Tomentella, and Tuber were the most frequent, and their dominance was maintained as stand aging. The richness and community composition were not significantly different with stand aging (P > 0.05). Host phenology and stand age are two important factors that have shaped the EM fungal community. The growing stage affected the beta diversity of the EM fungal community more than stand age, and this variation of the EM fungal community was closely related to seasonal climate, particularly precipitation. This improved information will provide a theoretical basis for the reforestation and rehabilitation of the Mongolian pine plantations using mycorrhizal techniques. IMPORTANCE Ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi are particularly important for host plants in a desert ecosystem. With a high degree of plasticity, EM fungi are largely influenced by host plant and environmental variables and fundamentally contribute to the ability of individuals to adapt to environmental changes. Therefore, the EM fungi are important for Mongolian pine (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica) plantation in a desert ecosystem. Although previous studies have concluded that multiple endogenous and exogenous processes ultimately lead to species-specific temporal patterns in EM fungal populations. We still neglect the effect of host phenology on EM fungal activity. The significance of our study is the interplay between climate-driven EM fungi and plant phenology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Ren
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of State Forestry and Grassland Administration on Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Guanglei Gao
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of State Forestry and Grassland Administration on Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Engineering Research Center of Forestry Ecological Engineering, Ministry of Education, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Guodong Ding
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of State Forestry and Grassland Administration on Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Efficient Production of Forest Resources, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Engineering Research Center of Forestry Ecological Engineering, Ministry of Education, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of State Forestry and Grassland Administration on Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Engineering Research Center of Forestry Ecological Engineering, Ministry of Education, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Peishan Zhao
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of State Forestry and Grassland Administration on Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiayuan Wang
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of State Forestry and Grassland Administration on Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
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Karlsen-Ayala E, Jusino MA, Gazis R, Smith ME. Habitat matters: The role of spore bank fungi in early seedling establishment of Florida slash pines. FUNGAL ECOL 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2022.101210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
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3
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Karlsen-Ayala E, Smith ME, Askey BC, Gazis R. Native ectomycorrhizal fungi from the endangered pine rocklands are superior symbionts to commercial inoculum for slash pine seedlings. MYCORRHIZA 2022; 32:465-480. [PMID: 36210381 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-022-01092-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The south Florida pine rocklands is a critically endangered, fire-dependent ecosystem dominated by the overstory tree Pinus densa (South Florida slash pine). Because pine recruitment in this ecosystem has proven problematic, restoration efforts need to include replanting slash pine trees. Even though ectomycorrhizal fungi are known to be critical symbionts of young pines and are necessary for the development of healthy pines, virtually nothing is known about these mutualists and their role in pine establishment and survival in the pine rocklands. One approach to improve pine establishment is to grow seedlings in a nursery before outplanting, facilitating early associations with ectomycorrhizae, and therefore improving seedling health. In this study, we compared health metrics (height, stem diameter, final needle length, root length, root colonization, needle greenness, root volume, and root:shoot ratio) of seedlings grown in soil amended with five commercially available mycorrhizal inocula versus field soil collected from three pine rockland fragments. Seedlings grown with native field soil from the pine rocklands generally performed better than those grown with commercial inoculum in all metrics except root length. According to their labels, each commercial inoculum contained between 4 and 10 ectomycorrhizal fungi species. However, no ectomycorrhizal fungi were recovered from two of the inoculum products and only three ectomycorrhizal fungi in total were recovered from the other three products. In contrast, seedlings grown with field soil are associated with ten ectomycorrhizal species. Our results highlight the importance of incorporating native ectomycorrhizal fungi into pine seedling replanting as part of restoration efforts in the pine rocklands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Karlsen-Ayala
- Department of Plant Pathology, Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Homestead, FL, 33031, USA.
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA.
- Department of Soil and Water Sciences, Southwest Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Immokalee, FL, 34142, USA.
| | - Matthew E Smith
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Bryce C Askey
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Romina Gazis
- Department of Plant Pathology, Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Homestead, FL, 33031, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
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Hagenbo A, Piñuela Y, Castaño C, Martínez de Aragón J, de-Miguel S, Alday JG, Bonet JA. Production and turnover of mycorrhizal soil mycelium relate to variation in drought conditions in Mediterranean Pinus pinaster, Pinus sylvestris and Quercus ilex forests. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 230:1609-1622. [PMID: 33091152 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In forests, ectomycorrhizal mycelium is pivotal for driving soil carbon and nutrient cycles, but how ectomycorrhizal mycelial dynamics vary in ecosystems with drought periods is unknown. We quantified the production and turnover of mycorrhizal mycelium in Mediterranean Pinus pinaster, Pinus sylvestris and Quercus ilex forests and related the estimates to standardised precipitation index (SPI), to study how mycelial dynamics relates to tree species and drought-moisture conditions. Production and turnover of mycelium was estimated between July and February, by quantifying the fungal biomass (ergosterol) in ingrowth mesh bags and using statistical modelling. SPI for time scales of 1-3 months was calculated from precipitation records and precipitation data over the study period. Forests dominated by Pinus trees displayed higher biomass but were seasonally more variable, as opposed to Q. ilex forests where the mycelial biomass remained lower and stable over the season. Production and turnover, respectively, varied between 1.4-5.9 kg ha-1 d-1 and 7.2-9.9 times yr-1 over the different forest types and were positively correlated with 2-month and 3-month SPI over the study period. Our results demonstrated that mycorrhizal mycelial biomass varied with season and tree species and we speculate that production and turnover are related to physiology and plant host performance during drought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Hagenbo
- Joint Research Unit CTFC - AGROTECNIO, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure 191, Lleida, 25198, Spain
- Department of Crop and Forest Sciences, University of Lleida, Lleida, E-251 98, Spain
- School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Örebro, SE-701 82, Sweden
- Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Box 115, Ås, 1431, Norway
| | - Yasmine Piñuela
- Department of Crop and Forest Sciences, University of Lleida, Lleida, E-251 98, Spain
| | - Carles Castaño
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, SE-750 07, Sweden
| | | | - Sergio de-Miguel
- Joint Research Unit CTFC - AGROTECNIO, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure 191, Lleida, 25198, Spain
- Department of Crop and Forest Sciences, University of Lleida, Lleida, E-251 98, Spain
| | - Josu G Alday
- Joint Research Unit CTFC - AGROTECNIO, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure 191, Lleida, 25198, Spain
- Department of Crop and Forest Sciences, University of Lleida, Lleida, E-251 98, Spain
| | - José Antonio Bonet
- Joint Research Unit CTFC - AGROTECNIO, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure 191, Lleida, 25198, Spain
- Department of Crop and Forest Sciences, University of Lleida, Lleida, E-251 98, Spain
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Botnen SS, Mundra S, Kauserud H, Eidesen PB. Glacier retreat in the High Arctic: opportunity or threat for ectomycorrhizal diversity? FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2021; 96:5894921. [PMID: 32816005 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiaa171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Climate change causes Arctic glaciers to retreat faster, exposing new areas for colonization. Several pioneer plants likely to colonize recent deglaciated, nutrient-poor areas depend on fungal partners for successful establishment. Little is known about general patterns or characteristics of facilitating fungal pioneers and how they vary with regional climate in the Arctic. The High Arctic Archipelago Svalbard represents an excellent study system to address these questions, as glaciers cover ∼60% of the land surface and recent estimations suggest at least 7% reduction of glacier area since 1960s. Roots of two ectomycorrhizal (ECM) plants (Salix polaris and Bistorta vivipara) were sampled in eight glacier forelands. Associated ECM fungi were assessed using DNA metabarcoding. About 25% of the diversity was unknown at family level, indicating presence of undescribed species. Seven genera dominated based on richness and abundance, but their relative importance varied with local factors. The genus Geopora showed surprisingly high richness and abundance, particularly in dry, nutrient-poor forelands. Such forelands will diminish along with increasing temperature and precipitation, and faster succession. Our results support a taxonomical shift in pioneer ECM diversity with climate change, and we are likely to lose unknown fungal diversity, without knowing their identity or ecological importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Botnen
- Section for Genetics and Evolutionary Biology (EVOGENE), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway.,The University Centre in Svalbard, PO Box 156, NO-9171 Longyearbyen, Norway
| | - S Mundra
- Section for Genetics and Evolutionary Biology (EVOGENE), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway.,The University Centre in Svalbard, PO Box 156, NO-9171 Longyearbyen, Norway.,Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, PO Box 15551, Al-Ain, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - H Kauserud
- Section for Genetics and Evolutionary Biology (EVOGENE), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066 Blindern, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - P B Eidesen
- The University Centre in Svalbard, PO Box 156, NO-9171 Longyearbyen, Norway
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6
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Mueller RC, Scudder CM, Whitham TG, Gehring CA. Legacy effects of tree mortality mediated by ectomycorrhizal fungal communities. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 224:155-165. [PMID: 31209891 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Successive droughts have resulted in extensive tree mortality in the southwestern United States. Recovery of these areas is dependent on the survival and recruitment of young trees. For trees that rely on ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) for survival and growth, changes in soil fungal communities following tree mortality could negatively affect seedling establishment. We used tree-focused and stand-scale measurements to examine the impact of pinyon pine mortality on the performance of surviving juvenile trees and the potential for mutualism limitation of seedling establishment via altered EMF communities. Mature pinyon mortality did not affect the survival of juvenile pinyons, but increased their growth. At both tree and stand scales, high pinyon mortality had no effect on the abundance of EMF inocula, but led to altered EMF community composition including increased abundance of Geopora and reduced abundance of Tuber. Seedling biomass was strongly positively associated with Tuber abundance, suggesting that reductions in this genus with pinyon mortality could have negative consequences for establishing seedlings. These findings suggest that whereas mature pinyon mortality led to competitive release for established juvenile pinyons, changes in EMF community composition with mortality could limit successful seedling establishment and growth in high-mortality sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca C Mueller
- Department of Biological Sciences and Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, 617 S. Beaver Street, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA
- Chemical and Biological Engineering Department, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, 59717, USA
| | - Crescent M Scudder
- Department of Biological Sciences and Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, 617 S. Beaver Street, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA
| | - Thomas G Whitham
- Department of Biological Sciences and Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, 617 S. Beaver Street, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA
| | - Catherine A Gehring
- Department of Biological Sciences and Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, 617 S. Beaver Street, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA
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Whipple AV, Cobb NS, Gehring CA, Mopper S, Flores-Rentería L, Whitham TG. Long-Term Studies Reveal Differential Responses to Climate Change for Trees Under Soil- or Herbivore-Related Stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:132. [PMID: 30833952 PMCID: PMC6387935 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, trees are confronting increased temperature and aridity, exacerbating susceptibility to herbivory. Long-term studies comparing patterns of plant performance through drought can help identify variation among and within populations in vulnerability to climate change and herbivory. We use long-term monitoring data to examine our overarching hypothesis that the negative impacts of poor soil and herbivore susceptibility would be compounded by severe drought. We studied pinyon pine, Pinus edulis, a widespread southwestern tree species that has suffered extensive climate-change related mortality. We analyzed data on mortality, growth, male reproduction, and herbivory collected for 14-32 years in three areas with distinct soil-types. We used standardized precipitation-evapotranspiration index (SPEI) as a climate proxy that summarizes the impacts of drought due to precipitation and temperature variation on semi-arid forests. Several key findings emerged: (1) Plant performance measurements did not support our hypothesis that trees growing in stressful, coarse-textured soils would suffer more than trees growing in finer-textured soils. Stem growth at the area with coarse, young cinder soils (area one) responded only weakly to drought, while stem growth on more developed soils with sedimentary (area two) and volcanic (area three) substrates, was strongly negatively affected by drought. Male reproduction declined less with drought at area one and more at areas two and three. Overall mortality was 30% on coarse cinder soils (area one) and averaged 55% on finer soil types (areas two and three). (2) Although moth herbivore susceptible trees were hypothesized to suffer more with drought than moth resistant trees, the opposite occurred. Annual stem growth was negatively affected by drought for moth resistant trees, but much less strongly for moth susceptible trees. (3) In contrast to our hypothesis, moths declined with drought. Overall, chronically water-stressed and herbivore-susceptible trees had smaller declines in performance relative to less-stressed trees during drought years. These long-term findings support the idea that stressed trees might be more resistant to drought since they may have adapted or acclimated to resist drought-related mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy V. Whipple
- Department of Biological Sciences, Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | - Neil S. Cobb
- Department of Biological Sciences, Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | - Catherine A. Gehring
- Department of Biological Sciences, Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | - Susan Mopper
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, United States
| | | | - Thomas G. Whitham
- Department of Biological Sciences, Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
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8
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Patterson A, Flores-Rentería L, Whipple A, Whitham T, Gehring C. Common garden experiments disentangle plant genetic and environmental contributions to ectomycorrhizal fungal community structure. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 221:493-502. [PMID: 30009496 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The interactions among climate change, plant genetic variation and fungal mutualists are poorly understood, but probably important to plant survival under drought. We examined these interactions by studying the ectomycorrhizal fungal (EMF) communities of pinyon pine seedlings (Pinus edulis) planted in a wildland ecosystem experiencing two decades of climate change-related drought. We established a common garden containing P. edulis seedlings of known maternal lineages (drought tolerant, DT; drought intolerant, DI), manipulated soil moisture and measured EMF community structure and seedling growth. Three findings emerged: EMF community composition differed at the phylum level between DT and DI seedlings, and diversity was two-fold greater in DT than in DI seedlings. EMF communities of DT seedlings did not shift with water treatment and were dominated by an ascomycete, Geopora sp. By contrast, DI seedlings shifted to basidiomycete dominance with increased moisture, demonstrating a lineage by environment interaction. DT seedlings grew larger than DI seedlings in high (28%) and low (50%) watering treatments. These results show that inherited plant traits strongly influence microbial communities, interacting with drought to affect seedling performance. These interactions and their potential feedback effects may influence the success of trees, such as P. edulis, in future climates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adair Patterson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011-5640, USA
| | - Lluvia Flores-Rentería
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011-5640, USA
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, 92182, USA
| | - Amy Whipple
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011-5640, USA
- Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011-5640, USA
| | - Thomas Whitham
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011-5640, USA
- Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011-5640, USA
| | - Catherine Gehring
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011-5640, USA
- Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011-5640, USA
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Castaño C, Lindahl BD, Alday JG, Hagenbo A, Martínez de Aragón J, Parladé J, Pera J, Bonet JA. Soil microclimate changes affect soil fungal communities in a Mediterranean pine forest. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2018; 220:1211-1221. [PMID: 29757469 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Soil microclimate is a potentially important regulator of the composition of plant-associated fungal communities in climates with significant drought periods. Here, we investigated the spatio-temporal dynamics of soil fungal communities in a Mediterranean Pinus pinaster forest in relation to soil moisture and temperature. Fungal communities in 336 soil samples collected monthly over 1 year from 28 long-term experimental plots were assessed by PacBio sequencing of ITS2 amplicons. Total fungal biomass was estimated by analysing ergosterol. Community changes were analysed in the context of functional traits. Soil fungal biomass was lowest during summer and late winter and highest during autumn, concurrent with a greater relative abundance of mycorrhizal species. Intra-annual spatio-temporal changes in community composition correlated significantly with soil moisture and temperature. Mycorrhizal fungi were less affected by summer drought than free-living fungi. In particular, mycorrhizal species of the short-distance exploration type increased in relative abundance under dry conditions, whereas species of the long-distance exploration type were more abundant under wetter conditions. Our observations demonstrate a potential for compositional and functional shifts in fungal communities in response to changing climatic conditions. Free-living fungi and mycorrhizal species with extensive mycelia may be negatively affected by increasing drought periods in Mediterranean forest ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carles Castaño
- Forest Bioengineering Solutions S.A., Crta. de Sant Llorenç de Morunys Km. 2, E-25280, Solsona, Spain
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-AGROTECNIO, Av. Rovira Roure, 191, E-25198, Lleida, Spain
| | - Björn D Lindahl
- Department of Soil and Environment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Josu G Alday
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-AGROTECNIO, Av. Rovira Roure, 191, E-25198, Lleida, Spain
| | - Andreas Hagenbo
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-75007, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Juan Martínez de Aragón
- Forest Bioengineering Solutions S.A., Crta. de Sant Llorenç de Morunys Km. 2, E-25280, Solsona, Spain
- Centre Tecnològic Forestal de Catalunya, CTFC-CEMFOR, Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys km 2, E-25280, Solsona, Spain
| | - Javier Parladé
- Centre de Cabrils, IRTA, Ctra. Cabrils Km. 2, E-08348, Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Pera
- Centre de Cabrils, IRTA, Ctra. Cabrils Km. 2, E-08348, Cabrils, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Antonio Bonet
- Departament de Producció Vegetal i Ciència Forestal, Universitat de Lleida-AGROTECNIO, Av. Rovira Roure, 191, E-25198, Lleida, Spain
- Centre Tecnològic Forestal de Catalunya, CTFC-CEMFOR, Ctra. de St. Llorenç de Morunys km 2, E-25280, Solsona, Spain
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10
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Patterns in Ectomycorrhizal Diversity, Community Composition, and Exploration Types in European Beech, Pine, and Spruce Forests. FORESTS 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/f9080445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi are pivotal drivers of ecosystem functioning in temperate and boreal forests. They constitute an important pathway for plant-derived carbon into the soil and facilitate nitrogen and phosphorus acquisition. However, the mechanisms that drive ectomycorrhizal diversity and community composition are still subject to discussion. We investigated patterns in ectomycorrhizal diversity, community composition, and exploration types on root tips in Fagus sylvatica,Picea abies, and Pinus sylvestris stands across Europe. Host tree species is the most important factor shaping the ectomycorrhizal community as well as the distribution of exploration types. Moreover, abiotic factors such as soil properties, N deposition, temperature, and precipitation, were found to significantly influence EM diversity and community composition. A clear differentiation into functional traits by means of exploration types was shown for all ectomycorrhizal communities across the three analyzed tree species. Contact and short-distance exploration types were clearly significantly more abundant than cord- or rhizomorph-forming long-distance exploration types of EM fungi. Medium-distance exploration types were significantly lower in abundance than contact and short-distance types, however they were the most frequent EM taxa and constituted nearly half of the EM community. Furthermore, EM taxa exhibit distinct ecological ranges, and the type of soil exploration seemed to determine whether EM taxa have small or rather big environmental ranges.
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11
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She W, Bai Y, Zhang Y, Qin S, Feng W, Sun Y, Zheng J, Wu B. Resource Availability Drives Responses of Soil Microbial Communities to Short-term Precipitation and Nitrogen Addition in a Desert Shrubland. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:186. [PMID: 29479346 PMCID: PMC5811472 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Desert microbes are expected to be substantially sensitive to global environmental changes, such as precipitation changes and elevated nitrogen deposition. However, the effects of precipitation changes and nitrogen enrichment on their diversity and community composition remain poorly understood. We conducted a field experiment over 2 years with multi-level precipitation and nitrogen addition in a desert shrubland of northern China, to examine the responses of soil bacteria and fungi in terms of diversity and community composition and to explore the roles of plant and soil factors in structuring microbial communities. Water addition significantly increased soil bacterial diversity and altered the community composition by increasing the relative abundances of stress-tolerant (dormant) taxa (e.g., Acidobacteria and Planctomycetes); however, nitrogen addition had no substantial effects. Increased precipitation and nitrogen did not impact soil fungal diversity, but significantly shifted the fungal community composition. Specifically, water addition reduced the relative abundances of drought-tolerant taxa (e.g., the orders Pezizales, Verrucariales, and Agaricales), whereas nitrogen enrichment decreased those of oligotrophic taxa (e.g., the orders Agaricales and Sordariales). Shifts in microbial community composition under water and nitrogen addition occurred primarily through changing resource availability rather than plant community. Our results suggest that water and nitrogen addition affected desert microbes in different ways, with watering shifting stress-tolerant traits and fertilization altering copiotrophic/oligotrophic traits of the microbial communities. These findings highlight the importance of resource availability in driving the desert microbial responses to short-term environmental changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei She
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuxuan Bai
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuqing Zhang
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of State Forestry Administration on Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Shugao Qin
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China.,Engineering Research Center of Forestry Ecological Engineering, Ministry of Education, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Feng
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of State Forestry Administration on Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Yanfei Sun
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Zheng
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Bin Wu
- Yanchi Research Station, School of Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of State Forestry Administration on Soil and Water Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
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12
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Knoblochová T, Kohout P, Püschel D, Doubková P, Frouz J, Cajthaml T, Kukla J, Vosátka M, Rydlová J. Asymmetric response of root-associated fungal communities of an arbuscular mycorrhizal grass and an ectomycorrhizal tree to their coexistence in primary succession. MYCORRHIZA 2017; 27:775-789. [PMID: 28752181 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-017-0792-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) grass Calamagrostis epigejos and predominantly ectomycorrhizal (EcM) tree Salix caprea co-occur at post-mining sites spontaneously colonized by vegetation. During succession, AM herbaceous vegetation is replaced by predominantly EcM woody species. To better understand the interaction of AM and EcM plants during vegetation transition, we studied the reciprocal effects of these species' coexistence on their root-associated fungi (RAF). We collected root and soil samples from three different microenvironments: stand of C. epigejos, under S. caprea canopy, and contact zone where roots of the two species interacted. RAF communities and mycorrhizal colonization were determined in sampled roots, and the soil was tested for EcM and AM inoculation potentials. Although the microenvironment significantly affected composition of the RAF communities in both plant species, the effect was greater in the case of C. epigejos RAF communities than in that of S. caprea RAF communities. The presence of S. caprea also significantly decreased AM fungal abundance in soil as well as AM colonization and richness of AM fungi in C. epigejos roots. Changes observed in the abundance and community composition of AM fungi might constitute an important factor in transition from AM-dominated to EcM-dominated vegetation during succession.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tereza Knoblochová
- Institute of Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, Zámek 1, 252 43, Průhonice, Czech Republic
- Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 5, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Kohout
- Institute of Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, Zámek 1, 252 43, Průhonice, Czech Republic
- Department of Experimental Plant Biology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 5, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Science, Vídeňská 1083, 142 20, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - David Püschel
- Institute of Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, Zámek 1, 252 43, Průhonice, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Doubková
- Institute of Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, Zámek 1, 252 43, Průhonice, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Frouz
- Faculty of Science, Institute for Environmental Studies, Charles University, Benátská 2, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Cajthaml
- Faculty of Science, Institute for Environmental Studies, Charles University, Benátská 2, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Kukla
- Faculty of Science, Institute for Environmental Studies, Charles University, Benátská 2, 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Vosátka
- Institute of Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, Zámek 1, 252 43, Průhonice, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Rydlová
- Institute of Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, Zámek 1, 252 43, Průhonice, Czech Republic.
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13
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Tree genetics defines fungal partner communities that may confer drought tolerance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:11169-11174. [PMID: 28973879 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1704022114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant genetic variation and soil microorganisms are individually known to influence plant responses to climate change, but the interactive effects of these two factors are largely unknown. Using long-term observational studies in the field and common garden and greenhouse experiments of a foundation tree species (Pinus edulis) and its mutualistic ectomycorrhizal fungal (EMF) associates, we show that EMF community composition is under strong plant genetic control. Seedlings acquire the EMF community of their seed source trees (drought tolerant vs. drought intolerant), even when exposed to inoculum from the alternate tree type. Drought-tolerant trees had 25% higher growth and a third the mortality of drought-intolerant trees over the course of 10 y of drought in the wild, traits that were also observed in their seedlings in a common garden. Inoculation experiments show that EMF communities are critical to drought tolerance. Drought-tolerant and drought-intolerant seedlings grew similarly when provided sterile EMF inoculum, but drought-tolerant seedlings grew 25% larger than drought-intolerant seedlings under dry conditions when each seedling type developed its distinct EMF community. This demonstration that particular combinations of plant genotype and mutualistic EMF communities improve the survival and growth of trees with drought is especially important, given the vulnerability of forests around the world to the warming and drying conditions predicted for the future.
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14
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Fernandez CW, Nguyen NH, Stefanski A, Han Y, Hobbie SE, Montgomery RA, Reich PB, Kennedy PG. Ectomycorrhizal fungal response to warming is linked to poor host performance at the boreal-temperate ecotone. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2017; 23:1598-1609. [PMID: 27658686 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.13510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Rising temperatures associated with climate change have been shown to negatively affect the photosynthetic rates of boreal forest tree saplings at their southern range limits. To quantify the responses of ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungal communities associated with poorly performing hosts, we sampled the roots of Betula papyrifera and Abies balsamea saplings growing in the B4Warmed (Boreal Forest Warming at an Ecotone in Danger) experiment. EM fungi on the root systems of both hosts were compared from ambient and +3.4 °C air and soil warmed plots at two sites in northern Minnesota. EM fungal communities were assessed with high-throughput sequencing along with measures of plant photosynthesis, soil temperature, moisture, and nitrogen. Warming selectively altered EM fungal community composition at both the phylum and genus levels, but had no significant effect on EM fungal operational taxonomic unit (OTU) diversity. Notably, warming strongly favored EM Ascomycetes and EM fungi with short-contact hyphal exploration types. Declining host photosynthetic rates were also significantly inversely correlated with EM Ascomycete and EM short-contact exploration type abundance, which may reflect a shift to less carbon demanding fungi due to lower photosynthetic capacity. Given the variation in EM host responses to warming, both within and between ecosystems, better understanding the link between host performance and EM fungal community structure will to clarify how climate change effects cascade belowground.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nhu H Nguyen
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
- Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
| | - Artur Stefanski
- Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Ying Han
- School of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Sarah E Hobbie
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | | | - Peter B Reich
- Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Richmond, NSW, Australia
| | - Peter G Kennedy
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
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15
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Livne-Luzon S, Avidan Y, Weber G, Migael H, Bruns T, Ovadia O, Shemesh H. Wild boars as spore dispersal agents of ectomycorrhizal fungi: consequences for community composition at different habitat types. MYCORRHIZA 2017; 27:165-174. [PMID: 27783205 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-016-0737-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The success of dispersal events depend on the organism's ability to reach and establish in a new habitat. In symbiotic organisms, establishment also depends on the presence of their symbiont partner in the new habitat. For instance, the establishment of obligate ectomycorrhizal (EM) trees outside the forest is largely limited by the presence of EM fungi in soil. Wild boars (Sus scrofa) are important dispersal agents of EM fungal spores, particularly in the moderately dry Mediterranean region. The aim of this study was to explore how EM fungal spores dispersed by wild boars influence the EM fungal community associated with the roots of Pinus halepensis seedlings at different habitat types. Using a greenhouse bioassay, we grew pine seedlings in two soil types: old-field and forest soils mixed with either natural or autoclaved wild boar feces. In both soils, we observed a community dominated by a few EM fungal species. Geopora (85 %) and Suillus (68 %) species dominated the forest and old-field soils, respectively. The addition of natural wild boar feces increased the abundance of Tuber species in both EM fungal communities. However, this effect was more pronounced in pots with old-field soil, leading to a more even community, equally dominated by both Tuber and Suillus species. In forest soil, Geopora maintained dominance, but decreased in abundance (67 %), due to the addition of Tuber species. Our findings indicate that wild boar feces can be an important source for EM inoculum, especially in habitats poor in EM fungi such as old-fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stav Livne-Luzon
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Life Sciences, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
| | - Yael Avidan
- Tel-Hai College, Environmental Sciences, Kiryat Shmona, Israel
| | - Gil Weber
- Tel-Hai College, Environmental Sciences, Kiryat Shmona, Israel
| | - Hen Migael
- Tel-Hai College, Environmental Sciences, Kiryat Shmona, Israel
| | - Thomas Bruns
- University of California, Plant and Microbial Biology, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ofer Ovadia
- Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Life Sciences, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Hagai Shemesh
- Tel-Hai College, Environmental Sciences, Kiryat Shmona, Israel.
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16
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Southworth D, Frank JL. Linking mycorrhizas to sporocarps: a new species, Geopora cercocarpi, on Cercocarpus ledifolius (Rosaceae). Mycologia 2017; 103:1194-200. [DOI: 10.3852/11-053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jonathan L. Frank
- Department of Biology, Southern Oregon University, Ashland, Oregon 97520-5071
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17
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Flores-Rentería L, Lau MK, Lamit LJ, Gehring CA. An elusive ectomycorrhizal fungus reveals itself: a new species of Geopora (Pyronemataceae) associated with Pinus edulis. Mycologia 2017; 106:553-63. [DOI: 10.3852/13-263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Catherine A. Gehring
- Department of Biological Sciences and Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona 86011
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18
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Sweet MJ, Singleton I. Soil contamination with silver nanoparticles reduces Bishop pine growth and ectomycorrhizal diversity on pine roots. JOURNAL OF NANOPARTICLE RESEARCH : AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FORUM FOR NANOSCALE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2015; 17:448. [PMID: 26617464 PMCID: PMC4655001 DOI: 10.1007/s11051-015-3246-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Soil contamination by silver nanoparticles (AgNP) is of potential environmental concern but little work has been carried out on the effect of such contamination on ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF). EMF are essential to forest ecosystem functions as they are known to enhance growth of trees by nutrient transfer. In this study, soil was experimentally contaminated with AgNP (0, 350 and 790 mg Ag/kg) and planted with Bishop pine seedlings. The effect of AgNP was subsequently measured, assessing variation in pine growth and ectomycorrhizal diversity associated with the root system. After only 1 month, the highest AgNP level had significantly reduced the root length of pine seedlings, which in turn had a small effect on above ground plant biomass. However, after 4 months growth, both AgNP levels utilised had significantly reduced both pine root and shoot biomass. For example, even the lower levels of AgNP (350 mg Ag/kg) soil, reduced fresh root biomass by approximately 57 %. The root systems of the plants grown in AgNP-contaminated soils lacked the lateral and fine root development seen in the control plants (no AgNP). Although, only five different genera of EMF were found on roots of the control plants, only one genus Laccaria was found on roots of plants grown in soil containing 350 mg AgNP/kg. At the higher levels of AgNP contamination, no EMF were observed. Furthermore, extractable silver was found in soils containing AgNP, indicating potential dissolution of silver ions (Ag+) from the solid AgNP.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. J. Sweet
- />Environmental Sustainability Research Centre, College of Life and Natural Sciences, University of Derby, Kedleston Road, Derby, DE22 1GB UK
| | - I. Singleton
- />School of Biology, Newcastle University, Ridley Building, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU UK
- />School of Life, Sport and Social Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Sighthill campus Sighthill Court, Edinburgh, EH11 4BN UK
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19
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Gehring CA, Mueller RC, Haskins KE, Rubow TK, Whitham TG. Convergence in mycorrhizal fungal communities due to drought, plant competition, parasitism, and susceptibility to herbivory: consequences for fungi and host plants. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:306. [PMID: 25009537 PMCID: PMC4070501 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants and mycorrhizal fungi influence each other's abundance, diversity, and distribution. How other biotic interactions affect the mycorrhizal symbiosis is less well understood. Likewise, we know little about the effects of climate change on the fungal component of the symbiosis or its function. We synthesized our long-term studies on the influence of plant parasites, insect herbivores, competing trees, and drought on the ectomycorrhizal fungal communities associated with a foundation tree species of the southwestern United States, pinyon pine (Pinus edulis), and described how these changes feed back to affect host plant performance. We found that drought and all three of the biotic interactions studied resulted in similar shifts in ectomycorrhizal fungal community composition, demonstrating a convergence of the community towards dominance by a few closely related fungal taxa. Ectomycorrhizal fungi responded similarly to each of these stressors resulting in a predictable trajectory of community disassembly, consistent with ecological theory. Although we predicted that the fungal communities associated with trees stressed by drought, herbivory, competition, and parasitism would be poor mutualists, we found the opposite pattern in field studies. Our results suggest that climate change and the increased importance of herbivores, competitors, and parasites that can be associated with it, may ultimately lead to reductions in ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity, but that the remaining fungal community may be beneficial to host trees under the current climate and the warmer, drier climate predicted for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine A. Gehring
- Department of Biological Sciences and Merriam Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, AZ, USA
| | - Rebecca C. Mueller
- Department of Biological Sciences and Merriam Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, AZ, USA
| | - Kristin E. Haskins
- Department of Biological Sciences and Merriam Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, AZ, USA
| | - Tine K. Rubow
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA
| | - Thomas G. Whitham
- Department of Biological Sciences and Merriam Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, AZ, USA
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20
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Gehring C, Flores-Rentería D, Sthultz CM, Leonard TM, Flores-Rentería L, Whipple AV, Whitham TG. Plant genetics and interspecific competitive interactions determine ectomycorrhizal fungal community responses to climate change. Mol Ecol 2013; 23:1379-1391. [PMID: 24118611 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2013] [Revised: 07/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Although the importance of plant-associated microbes is increasingly recognized, little is known about the biotic and abiotic factors that determine the composition of that microbiome. We examined the influence of plant genetic variation, and two stressors, one biotic and one abiotic, on the ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungal community of a dominant tree species, Pinus edulis. During three periods across 16 years that varied in drought severity, we sampled the EM fungal communities of a wild stand of P. edulis in which genetically based resistance and susceptibility to insect herbivory was linked with drought tolerance and the abundance of competing shrubs. We found that the EM fungal communities of insect-susceptible trees remained relatively constant as climate dried, while those of insect-resistant trees shifted significantly, providing evidence of a genotype by environment interaction. Shrub removal altered the EM fungal communities of insect-resistant trees, but not insect-susceptible trees, also a genotype by environment interaction. The change in the EM fungal community of insect-resistant trees following shrub removal was associated with greater shoot growth, evidence of competitive release. However, shrub removal had a 7-fold greater positive effect on the shoot growth of insect-susceptible trees than insect-resistant trees when shrub density was taken into account. Insect-susceptible trees had higher growth than insect-resistant trees, consistent with the hypothesis that the EM fungi associated with susceptible trees were superior mutualists. These complex, genetic-based interactions among species (tree-shrub-herbivore-fungus) argue that the ultimate impacts of climate change are both ecological and evolutionary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Gehring
- Department of Biological Sciences, Merriam-Powell Center for Environmental Research, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011-5640, USA
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