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Hofhansl F, Chacón-Madrigal E, Fuchslueger L, Jenking D, Morera-Beita A, Plutzar C, Silla F, Andersen KM, Buchs DM, Dullinger S, Fiedler K, Franklin O, Hietz P, Huber W, Quesada CA, Rammig A, Schrodt F, Vincent AG, Weissenhofer A, Wanek W. Climatic and edaphic controls over tropical forest diversity and vegetation carbon storage. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5066. [PMID: 32193471 PMCID: PMC7081197 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-61868-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Tropical rainforests harbor exceptionally high biodiversity and store large amounts of carbon in vegetation biomass. However, regional variation in plant species richness and vegetation carbon stock can be substantial, and may be related to the heterogeneity of topoedaphic properties. Therefore, aboveground vegetation carbon storage typically differs between geographic forest regions in association with the locally dominant plant functional group. A better understanding of the underlying factors controlling tropical forest diversity and vegetation carbon storage could be critical for predicting tropical carbon sink strength in response to projected climate change. Based on regionally replicated 1-ha forest inventory plots established in a region of high geomorphological heterogeneity we investigated how climatic and edaphic factors affect tropical forest diversity and vegetation carbon storage. Plant species richness (of all living stems >10 cm in diameter) ranged from 69 to 127 ha-1 and vegetation carbon storage ranged from 114 to 200 t ha-1. While plant species richness was controlled by climate and soil water availability, vegetation carbon storage was strongly related to wood density and soil phosphorus availability. Results suggest that local heterogeneity in resource availability and plant functional composition should be considered to improve projections of tropical forest ecosystem functioning under future scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Hofhansl
- International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Schlossplatz 1, A-2361, Laxenburg, Austria.
| | | | - Lucia Fuchslueger
- Department of Biology, Plants and Ecosystems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Daniel Jenking
- Escuela de Agronomía, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Albert Morera-Beita
- Laboratory of Applied Tropical Ecology, National University of Costa Rica, Heredia, Costa Rica
| | - Christoph Plutzar
- Department of Botany & Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Institute of Social Ecology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Fernando Silla
- Area of Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Kelly M Andersen
- Nanyang Technological University, Asian School of the Environment, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798, Singapore, Singapore
| | - David M Buchs
- School of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Cardiff University, Park Place, Cardiff, CF10 3AT, UK
| | - Stefan Dullinger
- Department of Botany & Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Konrad Fiedler
- Department of Botany & Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Oskar Franklin
- International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Schlossplatz 1, A-2361, Laxenburg, Austria
| | - Peter Hietz
- Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, Institute of Botany, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Werner Huber
- Department of Botany & Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Carlos A Quesada
- Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Coordenação de Dinâmica Ambiental, Avenida Ephigenio Salles 2239, Aleixo - 69000000, Manaus, AM, Brasil
| | - Anja Rammig
- Technical University of Munich, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Hans-Carl-v.-Carlowitz-Platz 2, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Franziska Schrodt
- School of Geography, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea G Vincent
- Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Anton Weissenhofer
- Department of Botany & Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Wanek
- Department of Microbiology & Ecosystem Science, Division of Terrestrial Ecosystem Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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2
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Treseder KK, Berlemont R, Allison SD, Martiny AC. Drought increases the frequencies of fungal functional genes related to carbon and nitrogen acquisition. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206441. [PMID: 30462680 PMCID: PMC6248904 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although water is a critical resource for organisms, microbially-mediated processes such as decomposition and nitrogen (N) transformations can endure within ecosystems even when water is scarce. To identify underlying mechanisms, we examined the genetic potential for fungi to contribute to specific aspects of carbon (C) and N cycling in a drought manipulation in Southern California grassland. In particular, we measured the frequency of fungal functional genes encoding enzymes that break down cellulose and chitin, and take up ammonium and amino acids, in decomposing litter. Furthermore, we used "microbial cages" to reciprocally transplant litter and microbes between control and drought plots. This approach allowed us to distinguish direct effects of drought in the plot environment versus indirect effects via shifts in the microbial community or changes in litter chemistry. For every fungal functional gene we examined, the frequency of that gene within the microbial community increased significantly in drought plots compared to control plots. In contrast, when plot environment was held constant, frequencies of these fungal functional genes did not differ significantly between control-derived microbes versus drought-derived microbes, or between control-derived litter versus drought-derived litter. It appears that drought directly selects for fungi with the genetic capacity to acquire these specific C- and N-containing compounds. This genetic trait may allow fungi to take advantage of ephemeral water supplies. Altogether, proliferation of fungi with the genetic capacity for C and N acquisition may contribute to the maintenance of biogeochemical cycling under drought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen K. Treseder
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Renaud Berlemont
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, California, United States of America
| | - Steven D. Allison
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- Department of Earth System Science, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Adam C. Martiny
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- Department of Earth System Science, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
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3
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Rowland L, da Costa ACL, Oliveira AAR, Oliveira RS, Bittencourt PL, Costa PB, Giles AL, Sosa AI, Coughlin I, Godlee JL, Vasconcelos SS, Junior JAS, Ferreira LV, Mencuccini M, Meir P. Drought stress and tree size determine stem CO 2 efflux in a tropical forest. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2018; 218:1393-1405. [PMID: 29397028 PMCID: PMC5969101 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
CO2 efflux from stems (CO2_stem ) accounts for a substantial fraction of tropical forest gross primary productivity, but the climate sensitivity of this flux remains poorly understood. We present a study of tropical forest CO2_stem from 215 trees across wet and dry seasons, at the world's longest running tropical forest drought experiment site. We show a 27% increase in wet season CO2_stem in the droughted forest relative to a control forest. This was driven by increasing CO2_stem in trees 10-40 cm diameter. Furthermore, we show that drought increases the proportion of maintenance to growth respiration in trees > 20 cm diameter, including large increases in maintenance respiration in the largest droughted trees, > 40 cm diameter. However, we found no clear taxonomic influence on CO2_stem and were unable to accurately predict how drought sensitivity altered ecosystem scale CO2_stem , due to substantial uncertainty introduced by contrasting methods previously employed to scale CO2_stem fluxes. Our findings indicate that under future scenarios of elevated drought, increases in CO2_stem may augment carbon losses, weakening or potentially reversing the tropical forest carbon sink. However, due to substantial uncertainties in scaling CO2_stem fluxes, stand-scale future estimates of changes in stem CO2 emissions remain highly uncertain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Rowland
- College of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterExeterEX4 4RJUK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Azul I. Sosa
- Instituto de BiologiaUNICAMPCampinasSP13083‐970Brasil
| | - Ingrid Coughlin
- Departamento de BiologiaFFCLRPUniversidade de São PauloRibeirão PretoSP14040‐900Brasil
| | - John L. Godlee
- School of GeoSciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3FFUK
| | | | - João A. S. Junior
- Instituto de GeosciênciasUniversidade Federal do ParáBelémPA66075‐110Brasil
| | | | | | - Patrick Meir
- School of GeoSciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3FFUK
- Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
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4
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Rowland L, Zaragoza‐Castells J, Bloomfield KJ, Turnbull MH, Bonal D, Burban B, Salinas N, Cosio E, Metcalfe DJ, Ford A, Phillips OL, Atkin OK, Meir P. Scaling leaf respiration with nitrogen and phosphorus in tropical forests across two continents. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2017; 214:1064-1077. [PMID: 27159833 PMCID: PMC5412872 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Leaf dark respiration (Rdark ) represents an important component controlling the carbon balance in tropical forests. Here, we test how nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) affect Rdark and its relationship with photosynthesis using three widely separated tropical forests which differ in soil fertility. Rdark was measured on 431 rainforest canopy trees, from 182 species, in French Guiana, Peru and Australia. The variation in Rdark was examined in relation to leaf N and P content, leaf structure and maximum photosynthetic rates at ambient and saturating atmospheric CO2 concentration. We found that the site with the lowest fertility (French Guiana) exhibited greater rates of Rdark per unit leaf N, P and photosynthesis. The data from Australia, for which there were no phylogenetic overlaps with the samples from the South American sites, yielded the most distinct relationships of Rdark with the measured leaf traits. Our data indicate that no single universal scaling relationship accounts for variation in Rdark across this large biogeographical space. Variability between sites in the absolute rates of Rdark and the Rdark : photosynthesis ratio were driven by variations in N- and P-use efficiency, which were related to both taxonomic and environmental variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Rowland
- School of GeosciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3JNUK
- GeographyCollege of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterAmory BuildingExeterEX4 4RJUK
| | - Joana Zaragoza‐Castells
- School of GeosciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghEH9 3JNUK
- GeographyCollege of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterAmory BuildingExeterEX4 4RJUK
| | - Keith J. Bloomfield
- Division of Plant SciencesResearch School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberra2601ACTAustralia
| | - Matthew H. Turnbull
- Centre for Integrative EcologySchool of Biological SciencesUniversity of CanterburyPrivate Bag4800ChristchurchNew Zealand
| | - Damien Bonal
- INRAUMR 1137 Ecologie et Ecophysiologie ForestieresChampenoux54280France
| | - Benoit Burban
- INRA UMR‐ECOFOGCampus agronomique ‐ BP 31697379KourouFrench GuianaFrance
| | - Norma Salinas
- Environmental Change InstituteSchool of Geography and the EnvironmentUniversity of OxfordSouth Parks RoadOxfordOX1 3QYUK
| | - Eric Cosio
- Pontificia Universidad Catolica del PeruSeccion QuimicaAv Universitaria 1801, San MiguelLimaPeru
| | - Daniel J. Metcalfe
- CSIROLand and WaterTropical Forest Research CentreAthertonQLD4883Australia
| | - Andrew Ford
- CSIROLand and WaterTropical Forest Research CentreAthertonQLD4883Australia
| | | | - Owen K. Atkin
- Division of Plant SciencesResearch School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberra2601ACTAustralia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy BiologyDivision of Plant SciencesResearch School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberra2601ACTAustralia
| | - Patrick Meir
- GeographyCollege of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterAmory BuildingExeterEX4 4RJUK
- Division of Plant SciencesResearch School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberra2601ACTAustralia
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Jomura M, Akashi Y, Itoh H, Yuki R, Sakai Y, Maruyama Y. Biotic and Abiotic Factors Controlling Respiration Rates of Above- and Belowground Woody Debris of Fagus crenata and Quercus crispula in Japan. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145113. [PMID: 26658727 PMCID: PMC4682764 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
As a large, long-term pool and source of carbon and nutrients, woody litter is an important component of forest ecosystems. The objective of this study was to estimate the effect of the factors that regulate the rate of decomposition of coarse and fine woody debris (CFWD) of dominant tree species in a cool-temperate forest in Japan. Respiration rates of dead stems, branches, and coarse and fine roots of Fagus crenata and Quercus crispula felled 4 years prior obtained in situ ranged from 20.9 to 500.1 mg CO2 [kg dry wood]–1 h–1 in a one-time measurement in summer. Respiration rate had a significant negative relationship with diameter; in particular, that of a sample of Q. crispula with a diameter of >15 cm and substantial heartwood was low. It also had a significant positive relationship with moisture content. The explanatory variables diameter, [N], wood density, and moisture content were interrelated. The most parsimonious path model showed 14 significant correlations among 8 factors and respiration. Diameter and [C] had large negative direct effects on CFWD respiration rate, and moisture content and species had medium positive direct effects. [N] and temperature did not have direct or indirect effects, and position and wood density had indirect effects. The model revealed some interrelationships between controlling factors. We discussed the influence of the direct effects of explanatory variables and the influence especially of species and position. We speculate that the small R2 value of the most parsimonious model was probably due to the omission of microbial biomass and activity. These direct and indirect effects and interrelationships between explanatory variables could be used to develop a process-based CFWD decomposition model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayuko Jomura
- Department of Forest Science and Resources, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Yuhei Akashi
- Department of Forest Science and Resources, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Hiromu Itoh
- Department of Forest Science and Resources, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Risa Yuki
- Department of Forest Science and Resources, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yoshimi Sakai
- Kyusyu Research Center, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Kumamoto, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Yutaka Maruyama
- Department of Forest Science and Resources, College of Bioresource Sciences, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan
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6
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Bonal D, Burban B, Stahl C, Wagner F, Hérault B. The response of tropical rainforests to drought-lessons from recent research and future prospects. ANNALS OF FOREST SCIENCE 2015; 73:27-44. [PMID: 27069374 PMCID: PMC4810888 DOI: 10.1007/s13595-015-0522-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE We review the recent findings on the influence of drought on tree mortality, growth or ecosystem functioning in tropical rainforests. Drought plays a major role in shaping tropical rainforests and the response mechanisms are highly diverse and complex. The numerous gaps identified here require the international scientific community to combine efforts in order to conduct comprehensive studies in tropical rainforests on the three continents. These results are essential to simulate the future of these ecosystems under diverse climate scenarios and to predict the future of the global earth carbon balance. CONTEXT Tropical rainforest ecosystems are characterized by high annual rainfall. Nevertheless, rainfall regularly fluctuates during the year and seasonal soil droughts do occur. Over the past decades, a number of extreme droughts have hit tropical rainforests, not only in Amazonia but also in Asia and Africa. The influence of drought events on tree mortality and growth or on ecosystem functioning (carbon and water fluxes) in tropical rainforest ecosystems has been studied intensively, but the response mechanisms are complex. AIMS Herein, we review the recent findings related to the response of tropical forest ecosystems to seasonal and extreme droughts and the current knowledge about the future of these ecosystems. RESULTS This review emphasizes the progress made over recent years and the importance of the studies conducted under extreme drought conditions or in through-fall exclusion experiments in understanding the response of these ecosystems. It also points to the great diversity and complexity of the response of tropical rainforest ecosystems to drought. CONCLUSION The numerous gaps identified here require the international scientific community to combine efforts in order to conduct comprehensive studies in tropical forest regions. These results are essential to simulate the future of these ecosystems under diverse climate scenarios and to predict the future of the global earth carbon balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Bonal
- />INRA, UMR « Ecologie et Ecophysiologie Forestières », Université de Lorraine-INRA, F-54280 Champenoux, France
| | - Benoit Burban
- />INRA, UMR «Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane», AgroParisTech-CIRAD-INRA-CNRS-Université de Guyane-Université des Antilles, Campus Agronomique, 97387 Kourou, Guyane Française France
| | - Clément Stahl
- />CIRAD, UMR « Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane », AgroParisTech- CIRAD-INRA-CNRS-Université de Guyane-Université des Antilles, Campus Agronomique, 97387 Kourou, Guyane Française France
- />University of Antwerpen, Campus Agronomique, 97387 Kourou, Guyane Française France
| | - Fabien Wagner
- />National Institute for Space Research (INPE), São José dos Campos, SP 12227-010 Brazil
| | - Bruno Hérault
- />CIRAD, UMR « Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane », AgroParisTech- CIRAD-INRA-CNRS-Université de Guyane-Université des Antilles, Campus Agronomique, 97387 Kourou, Guyane Française France
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7
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Dossa GGO, Paudel E, Wang H, Cao K, Schaefer D, Harrison RD. Correct calculation of
CO
2
efflux using a closed‐chamber linked to a non‐dispersive infrared gas analyzer. Methods Ecol Evol 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.12451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gbadamassi G. O. Dossa
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden Chinese Academy of Sciences Menglun Mengla 666303 Yunnan China
- Centre for Mountain Ecosystem Studies Kunming Institute of Botany Kunming 650201 Yunnan China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100039 China
| | - Ekananda Paudel
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden Chinese Academy of Sciences Menglun Mengla 666303 Yunnan China
- Centre for Mountain Ecosystem Studies Kunming Institute of Botany Kunming 650201 Yunnan China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing 100039 China
| | - Hongyan Wang
- School of Resources and Environment Northeast Agricultural University Harbin 150030 Heilongjiang China
| | - Kunfang Cao
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden Chinese Academy of Sciences Menglun Mengla 666303 Yunnan China
- College of Forestry Guangxi University Nanning 530004 Guangxi China
| | - Douglas Schaefer
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden Chinese Academy of Sciences Menglun Mengla 666303 Yunnan China
| | - Rhett D. Harrison
- Centre for Mountain Ecosystem Studies Kunming Institute of Botany Kunming 650201 Yunnan China
- World Agroforestry Centre East & Central Asia Regional Office Kunming 650201 Yunnan China
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8
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Yoon TK, Noh NJ, Kim S, Han S, Son Y. Coarse woody debris respiration of Japanese red pine forests in Korea: controlling factors and contribution to the ecosystem carbon cycle. Ecol Res 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11284-015-1275-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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9
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Rowland L, Hill TC, Stahl C, Siebicke L, Burban B, Zaragoza-Castells J, Ponton S, Bonal D, Meir P, Williams M. Evidence for strong seasonality in the carbon storage and carbon use efficiency of an Amazonian forest. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2014; 20:979-91. [PMID: 23996917 PMCID: PMC4298765 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The relative contribution of gross primary production and ecosystem respiration to seasonal changes in the net carbon flux of tropical forests remains poorly quantified by both modelling and field studies. We use data assimilation to combine nine ecological time series from an eastern Amazonian forest, with mass balance constraints from an ecosystem carbon cycle model. The resulting analysis quantifies, with uncertainty estimates, the seasonal changes in the net carbon flux of a tropical rainforest which experiences a pronounced dry season. We show that the carbon accumulation in this forest was four times greater in the dry season than in the wet season and that this was accompanied by a 5% increase in the carbon use efficiency. This seasonal response was caused by a dry season increase in gross primary productivity, in response to radiation and a similar magnitude decrease in heterotrophic respiration, in response to drying soils. The analysis also predicts increased carbon allocation to leaves and wood in the wet season, and greater allocation to fine roots in the dry season. This study demonstrates implementation of seasonal variations in parameters better enables models to simulate observed patterns in data. In particular, we highlight the necessity to simulate the seasonal patterns of heterotrophic respiration to accurately simulate the net carbon flux seasonal tropical forest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Rowland
- School of Geosciences, University of EdinburghEdinburgh, EH9 3JN, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Stephane Ponton
- INRA, UMR 1137 Ecologie et Ecophysiologie ForestièresChampenoux, 54280, France
| | - Damien Bonal
- INRA, UMR 1137 Ecologie et Ecophysiologie ForestièresChampenoux, 54280, France
| | - Patrick Meir
- School of Geosciences, University of EdinburghEdinburgh, EH9 3JN, UK
- Research School of Biology, Division of Plant Sciences, Australian National UniversityCanberra, ACT, 0200, Australia
| | - Mathew Williams
- School of Geosciences, University of EdinburghEdinburgh, EH9 3JN, UK
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