Women's Work, Gender Roles, and Intimate Partner Violence in Nigeria

Associations between intimate partner violence and women's labor market outcomes in Nigeria

BACKGROUND

Little is known regarding economic impacts of intimate partner violence (IPV) in humanitarian settings, especially the labor market burden. Examining costs of IPV beyond the health burden may provide new information to help with resource allocation for addressing IPV, including within conflict zones. This paper measures the incidence and prevalence of different types of IPV, the potential relationship between IPV and labor market activity, and estimating the cost of these IPV-associated labor market differentials.

METHODS

The association between labor market outcomes, IPV experience, and conflict exposure among women ages 15-49 in Nigeria were studied using the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey and 2013-17 Uppsala Conflict Data Program data. Descriptive analysis was used to identify patterns of IPV and labor outcomes by region. Based on this, multivariable logistic regression models were used to estimate the association between labor market participation and lifetime IPV exposure. These models were combined with earnings data from the United Nations Human Development Report 2021/2022 and a top-down costing approach to quantify the impacts in terms of lost productivity to the Nigerian economy.

RESULTS

Substantial differences in IPV exposure and labor market outcomes were found between conflict and non-conflict-affected areas. Women with past year or lifetime exposure to physical, emotional, or "any" IPV were more likely to withdraw from the labor market in the past year, although no differences were found for sexual IPV or conflict-affected regions. We estimate an average reduction of 4.14% in the likelihood of working, resulting in nearly $3.0 billion USD of lost productivity, about 1% of Nigeria's total economic output.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased odds of labor market withdraw were associated with several measures of IPV. Withdrawal from the formal labor market sector has a substantial associated economic cost for all of Nigerian society. If stronger prevention measures reduce the incidence of IPV against women in Nigeria, a substantial portion of lost economic costs likely could be reclaimed. These costs underscore the economic case, alongside the moral imperative, for stronger protections against IPV for girls and women in Nigeria.

Risk factors associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) against Jordanian married women: A social ecological perspective

This paper seeks to gain insights into complex and multiple influences which may behind the different components of intimate partner violence (IPV) against Jordanian wives. Drawing on a quantitative approach, the paper explores and presents findings of the determinants of domestic violence sustained by female partners during the year preceding a nationally representative survey. The survey is based on national multi-stage random sampling data from the 2012 Jordan Demographic Health Survey (JDHS). The paper applies the social-ecological framework. A method of Leastwise deletion techniques is used to remove missing data. Doing this resulted in 6213 married women used in the data analysis. Logistic regression models are used to estimate/predict different forms of IPV against domestic female partners. The findings of the study suggest that wives are victimized at all levels of the framework. Specifically, family, community, and social levels were the most vital factors affecting victims experiencing IPV. More specifically, wives witnessing their fathers beat their mothers and wives who are scared of their husbands are more prone to sustain violence inflicted by their partners. Furthermore, wives' education, working status, and age at marriage do not predict IPV. Another key finding is that wife empowerment in family relationships is a protective factor against domestic violence against her. The implication is that the patriarchal explanation of domestic violence against wives is valid in the Jordanian cultural context. This study underscores the need to reevaluate the effectiveness of Jordan's general human development programs and women empowerment programs as an essential measure for alleviating IPV inflicted on married women in Jordan.

Multilevel determinants of physical violence among ever-partnered women in South Africa

BACKGROUND

Violence against women continues to be a challenge in many countries. Many women suffer physical violence at the hands of their intimate partners and sometimes this leads to their deaths. This study aimed to examine the multilevel determinants of physical violence among ever-partnered women in South Africa.

METHODS

We used data from the 2016 South Africa Demographic and Health Survey. The study has a weighted sample size of 4169 ever-partnered women aged 18-49 years, based on the domestic violence module. We included univariate, bivariate and multilevel logistic regression analysis. We included a two-level model to measure the relationship between the selected background characteristics and physical violence.

RESULTS

The prevalence of physical violence among ever-partnered women was 20.6%. The bivariate findings showed that educational status, employment status, witness to inter-parental violence, partner's drinking habits, household wealth, educational difference, and province were statistically associated with physical violence. The multilevel analysis showed some evidence of between-cluster variation in physical violence. We found that age, education, employment status, witness to inter-parental violence, partner's drinking habits, household wealth, education difference, place of residence, and province were key predictors of physical violence. The odds of physical violence were more than two-fold in the Eastern Cape and Mpumalanga compared to Gauteng.

CONCLUSION

The study highlighted various key factors explaining physical violence. The findings suggest the need for targeted interventions aimed at specific communities of women, such as those from the Eastern Cape and Mpumalanga, as well as interventions that will empower women and address gender inequalities.

The Effect of Economic Reliance, Stress, and Women's Employment Status on Intimate Partner Violence Risk Among Partnered Women in Burkina Faso and Kenya

Economic factors, such as economic reliance on male partners, and economic stressors such as household income or employment loss, play an important role in the risk of intimate partner violence (IPV) within romantic partnerships. To investigate these relationships, we used survey data from IPUMS Performance Monitoring for Action that were collected in 2020 and 2021. We assessed the relationship between several economic factors-(1) women's economic reliance on their partners, (2) household income loss, and (3) respondent's employment status over the past year-and experience of IPV in the past year in Burkina Faso (N = 2,646) and Kenya (N = 3,416). Women who reported being economically reliant on their partners were less likely to experience physical or psychological violence in Burkina Faso (Prevalence ratio [PR]: 0.41, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.26-0.64 and PR: 0.75, 95% CI: 0.59-0.94, respectively), and physical violence in Kenya (PR: 0.69, 95% CI: 0.52-0.90) compared to women who reported not being economically reliant. In Kenya, women in households that experienced a complete loss of income were more likely to experience IPV compared to households that did not experience income loss-1.9 times more likely to experience psychological violence, and three times more likely to experience sexual violence. In Burkina Faso, no significant relationship was found between household income loss and IPV. Our findings indicate that both relative economic empowerment and overall economic stress may act as important risk factors for IPV, particularly where patriarchal and gender inequitable norms are relevant. These findings reinforce the need for a nuanced and intersectional understanding of IPV risk and intervention development, with the relationships between economic dynamics and IPV varying across countries and contexts.

Prevalence and risk factors of physical violence against husbands: evidence from India

As the proportion of women being victims of spousal violence in India is higher than men, laws are usually framed to safeguard women. However, men who have experienced physical spousal violence are not unheard of. The study aims to provide the nationwide prevalence of physical violence against husbands and the risk factors for such violence, using large-scale nationally representative 'National Family Health Survey' (NFHS 4) data. The study used descriptive, bivariate, logistic, and multilevel regression models with a random intercept clustering within states and households to explain the physical violence against husband. Sample size for the analysis was 62,716 currently married women aged 15-49 years. Findings revealed that in most of the states of India, physical spousal violence has increased over time. Behavioural characteristics like marital control, alcoholism, and childhood experience of parental violence have a consistent and strong role in explaining the experience of physical violence across states. With age, experience of violence against husbands increases. Differences in socio-economic characteristics do not have unidirectional effect on violence experienced by husbands across regions of India. Working women who are earning cash and having access to mobile phones perpetrate more physical violence in selected regions. Education shows a gradient on such violence perpetration, indicating that only after achieving a certain level of education, chances of violence reduce. Regionally contrasting social and economic risk factors in explaining violence strengthen the argument that violence is space and culture-specific, and development alone may not resolve violence unless the system is addressing the behavioural aspects. There is a need for supporting men experiencing domestic violence within the existing system facilities. Revisiting the present domestic violence laws and programmes for inclusivity is the need of the hour.

The link between intimate partner violence and spousal resource inequality in lower- and middle-income countries

OBJECTIVE

There is an increasing need to understand how differential levels of resource inequality between spouses are associated with women's experience of intimate partner violence (IPV) in lower- and middle-income countries across four regions. This study aims to focus on four areas of relative power and resources between couples in a partnership: employment, job skills, earnings, and household making-decision across four lower- and middle-income regions.

METHOD

Data on 150,623 women was drawn from the most recent, harmonized Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) for 24 countries in West-Central Africa (WCA), East-Southern Africa (ESA), Middle East and North Africa (MENA), and South Asia (SA). Leveraging an event history framework, we fitted mixture cure models to illuminate both the likelihood of never experiencing IPV and the onset of IPV among women in their first union across the four regions.

RESULTS

We found that women who are not in the labor market are less likely to experience violence compared to those who are in all places except MENA. Among couples in which both partners are in the labor market, women with lower job skills than their partner are less likely to experience violence. Inequality in earnings is associated with the onset of intimate partner violence in ESA and SA. Similarly, inequality in household decision-making is associated with the onset of the first spousal violence but only in ESA, MENA, and SA.

CONCLUSION

This study found vast heterogeneity in the different measures of spousal resource inequality and women's experience of IPV across LMIC settings. This underscores the imperative for interventions focused on enhancing women's economic outcomes to consider and confront the contextual norms associated with women's economic empowerment, in order to mitigate unintended adverse consequences.

Factors associated with married women's attitude toward intimate partner violence: A study on 20 low-and middle-income countries

Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is a global problem and has been reported to be significantly higher for women in Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs). The researchers analyzed Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data of married women in 20 LMICs to examine those most vulnerable to accepting IPV by investigating associated risk factors. The researchers revealed a higher level of acceptance of IPV among illiterate women from poorer households in remote areas. Using these findings, the authors provide insight into ensuring and enhancing the living standards of these vulnerable women by making education more readily accessible.

Gender-Based Violence Narratives in Internet-Based Conversations in Nigeria: Social Listening Study

BACKGROUND

Overcoming gender inequities is a global priority recognized as essential for improved health and human development. Gender-based violence (GBV) is an extreme manifestation of gender inequities enacted in real-world and internet-based environments. In Nigeria, GBV has come to the forefront of attention since 2020, when a state of emergency was declared due to increased reporting of sexual violence. Understanding GBV-related social narratives is important to design public health interventions.

OBJECTIVE

We explore how gender-related internet-based conversations in Nigeria specifically related to sexual consent (actively agreeing to sexual behavior), lack of consent, and slut-shaming (stigmatization in the form of insults based on actual or perceived sexuality and behaviors) manifest themselves and whether they changed between 2017 and 2022. Additionally, we explore what role events or social movements have in shaping gender-related narratives in Nigeria.

METHODS

Social listening was carried out on 12,031 social media posts (Twitter, Facebook, forums, and blogs) and almost 2 million public searches (Google and Yahoo search engines) between April 2017 and May 2022. The data were analyzed using natural language processing to determine the most salient conversation thematic clusters, qualitatively analyze time trends in discourse, and compare data against selected key events.

RESULTS

Between 2017 and 2022, internet-based conversation about sexual consent increased 72,633%, from an average 3 to 2182 posts per month, while slut-shaming conversation (perpetrating or condemning) shrunk by 9%, from an average 3560 to 3253 posts per month. Thematic analysis shows conversation revolves around the objectification of women, poor comprehension of elements of sexual consent, and advocacy for public education about sexual consent. Additionally, posters created space for sexual empowerment and expressions of sex positivity, pushing back against others who weaponize posts in support of slut-shaming narrative. Time trend analysis shows a greater sense of empowerment in advocating for education around the legal age of consent for sexual activity, calling out double standards, and rejecting slut-shaming. However, analysis of emotions in social media posts shows anger was most prominent in sexual consent (n=1213, 73%) and slut-shaming (n=226, 64%) posts. Organic social movements and key events (#ArewaMeToo and #ChurchToo, the #SexforGrades scandal, and the #BBNaija television program) played a notable role in sparking discourse related to sexual consent and slut-shaming.

CONCLUSIONS

Social media narratives are significantly impacted by popular culture events, mass media programs, social movements, and micro influencers speaking out against GBV. Hashtags, media clips, and other content can be leveraged effectively to spread awareness and spark conversation around evolving gender norms. Public health practitioners and other stakeholders including policymakers, researchers, and social advocates should be prepared to capitalize on social media events and discourse to help shape the conversation in support of a normative environment that rejects GBV in all its forms.

Patriarchy's Link to Intimate Partner Violence: Applications to Survivors' Asylum Claims

Eligibility for asylum for survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV) has recently been contested. We summarize social science evidence to show how such survivors generally meet asylum criteria. Studies consistently show a relationship between patriarchal factors and IPV, thereby establishing a key asylum criterion that women are being persecuted because of their status as women. Empirical support is also provided for other asylum criteria, specifically: patriarchal norms contribute to state actors' unwillingness to protect survivors, and survivors' political opinions are linked to an escalation of perpetrators' violence. The findings have implications for policy reform and supporting individual asylum-seekers.

Indicators Related to Marital Dissatisfaction

This is a study on indicators related to marital dissatisfaction. The research was conducted by the psychology department of a reproductive health institution in Mexico City. The objective was to know the relation between marital satisfaction/dissatisfaction and gender roles, self-esteem, the types of coping strategies and the types of violence perceived from the partner. It was a nonexperimental, retrospective, cross-sectional study of two samples-one of women and one of men-classified by marital satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The nonprobability quota sampling included 208 participants: 104 women and 104 men. Comparisons, correlations and a discriminant analysis were made to identify the most significant variables. Women with marital dissatisfaction perceived blackmail, psychological violence and humiliation/devaluation from their partner; they preferably adopt a submissive gender role and use escape/avoidance as a coping strategy, and so do the men with marital dissatisfaction, who also perceived blackmail, control and psychological violence from their partner; they have low self-esteem, and they preferably adopt a submissive gender role. Isolating factors will allow for more specificity in terms of psychological care at health institutions as well as avoiding gender biases and preventing an increase of violence in couples.

Understanding the Geography of Victimization: A Spatial Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence in India

Most studies on intimate partner violence (IPV) and its drivers have focused on individual-and household-level characteristics of the victim. Recent studies have acknowledged that it is a community-level phenomenon, using spatial analytical methods to analyze community-level determinants of IPV and its geographic dimensions. Such studies provide mixed evidence on the impact of different factors and need to be supplemented by similar studies-particularly in South Asian countries where IPV is common. The present study examines district-level variations in the incidence of various forms of IPV and identifies its determinants in India, a fast-growing South Asian country with poor gender indicators. The study combines data from the National Family Health Survey, District Level Household Survey, and the decadal Census. It applies spatial analytical methods such as the Global Moran's I, Getis-ord statistic, and Multivariate Local Geary to determine the nature of the spatial distribution of different categories of IPV. Spatial regression models are used to identify the community-level predictors of each category of IPV. The study finds non-random overlapping spatial clusters in the eastern part of India. The study also finds that neighborhoods characterized by low empowerment levels, and with a high child sex ratio, road connectivity, and proportion of socially marginalized groups are more likely to exhibit high levels of all types of IPV-although the impact of these determinants varies across districts. Furthermore, spill-overs in the incidence of IPV between neighboring districts are also observed. The study concludes by recommending the use of localized policies, rather than broad national or state policies, in reducing IPV.

Exposure to interparental violence and intimate partner violence among women in Papua New Guinea

INTRODUCTION

Evidence suggests that childhood exposure to interparental violence increases the risk of intimate partner violence (IPV) experience or perpetration in adolescence or adulthood. However, it is unclear if exposure to interparental violence increases the risk of IPV among women in Papua New Guinea. This study, therefore, seeks to fill this gap in the literature by examining the association between childhood exposure to interparental violence and IPV among women in Papua New Guinea.

METHODS

We used data from the most recent 2016-18 Papua New Guinea Demographic and Health Survey. We included 3,512 women in our analyses. Past-year experience of IPV was the outcome variable in this study. Exposure to interparental violence was the key explanatory variable. We used a multilevel binary logistic regression to examine the association between exposure to interparental violence and IPV.

RESULTS

We found a higher probability of experiencing IPV among women exposed to interparental violence [aOR = 1.45, 95% CI = 1.13, 1.86] relative to women who were not exposed. Furthermore, we found that women living in rural areas had a lower likelihood of IPV experience [aOR = O.50, 95% CI = 0.32, 0.80] compared to those in urban settings. Finally, a greater odd of IPV experience was found among women staying in the Highlands Region [aOR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.06, 1.96] compared to those staying in the Southern Region.

CONCLUSION

Exposure to interparental violence was found to be significantly associated with IPV among women in Papua New Guinea. The findings of this study suggest the need for proven operational strategies to reduce IPV, such as improving anti-IPV laws in Papua New Guinea. We recommend the development and implementation of intercession strategies to reduce the experience and justification of violence among women exposed to interparental violence. In addition, health professionals should implement counseling and health education initiatives to tackle the consequences of IPV on women's well-being.

The Epidemiology of Young People's Work and Experiences of Violence in Nine Countries: Evidence from the Violence against Children Surveys

Globally, 497 million young people (15-24 years) are in the labour force. The current research on work and violence indicates reciprocal links across the life course. This study draws on data from 35,723 young people aged 13-24 years in the Violence Against Children Surveys (VACS) in nine countries to describe the epidemiology of work in order to explore associations between (1) current work and violence and (2) childhood violence and work in a hazardous site in young adulthood. The prevalence of past-year work among 13-24-year-olds was highest in Malawi: 82.4% among young men and 79.7% among young women. In most countries, young women were more likely to be working in family or domestic dwellings (range: 23.5-60.6%) compared to men (range: 8.0-39.0%), while men were more likely to be working on a farm. Work in a hazardous site was higher among young men compared to women in every country. Among children aged 13-17 years, we found significant positive associations between past-year work and violence among girls in three countries (aORs between 2.14 and 3.07) and boys in five countries (aORs 1.52 to 3.06). Among young people aged 18-24 years, we found significant positive associations among young women in five countries (aORs 1.46 to 2.61) and among young men in one country (aOR 2.62). Associations between childhood violence and past-year work in a hazardous site among 18-24-year-olds were significant in one country among girls and in three countries among boys. Continued efforts are needed to prevent hazardous work, improve work environments, and integrate violence prevention efforts into workplaces.

Reaching out to men in ending intimate partner violence: a qualitative study among male civil servants in Ibadan, Nigeria

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to explore the perceptions of male civil servants in Ibadan, Nigeria about the perpetration of IPV and to document their suggested measures to prevent IPV in our communities in Nigeria.

METHODS

Four focus group discussions were conducted among 36 male civil servants selected from Oyo State Secretariat, Ibadan using purposive sampling technique. Data were transcribed and analysed using thematic approach.

RESULTS

Six major themes were identified; awareness of the forms of IPV, women and men as victims, causes, attitude, consequences as well as the suggested strategies for the prevention of IPV. Physical and psychological abuse were mentioned across the groups. The respondents pointed out that women experience IPV more than men, but that men also experience it. Some respondents stated that physical and psychological abuse against female intimate partners were acceptable in some circumstances according to the societal norms. The negative effects of IPV on physical, mental and social well-being of the individual, families and society were mentioned. Suggested ways of preventing IPV include tolerance and patience which will promote healthy, respectful and non-violent relationships among intimate partners.

CONCLUSION

Considering the perceptions and attitudes of these men to IPV, it is important to reach out to both genders for appropriate preventive and educational intervention in ending IPV among women and men.

Associations between sexual identity, living with disability, bully victimisation, and HIV status and intimate partner violence among residents in Nigeria

Background

The aim of the study was to determine the associations between sexual identity, disability and HIV status and bullying victimisation, and a history of physical, emotional and sexual violence in Nigeria.

Methods

This was a secondary analysis of a primary dataset generated through an online survey conducted between February 7 and 19, 2021. The 3197 participants for the primary study were recruited through snowballing. The dependent variables were physical, emotional and sexual violence. The independent variables were sexual identity (heterosexual and sexual minority), HIV status (negative, positive and unknown), bullying victimisation (yes/no) and living with disability (yes/no). A multivariate logistic regression model was developed for each form of IPV. Each model was adjusted for age, sex assigned at birth, marital status and education level.

Results

Respondents living with HIV had higher odds for physical (AOR: 2.01; 95% CI: 1.46–2.76; p < 0.001), sexual (AOR: 2.17; 95%CI: 1.55–3.05; p < 0.001), and emotional (AOR: 1.59; 95%CI: 1.24–2.06; p < 0.001) violence. Also, those with history of bullying victimisation had higher odds for physical (AOR: 3.79; 95%CI: 2.86 – 5.68; p < 0.001), sexual (AOR: 3.05; 95%CI: 2.27 – 4.10; p < 0.001) and emotional (AOR: 2.66; 95%CI: 2.10 – 3.37; p < 0.001) violence. In addition, females had higher odds of physical (AOR: 1.52; 95%CI: 1.13–2.043; p < 0.001) and sexual (AOR: 1.83; 95%CI: 1.34 – 2.50; p < 0.001) violence; and respondents cohabiting (AOR: 1.95; 95%CI: 1.12 – 3.28; p = 0.012) had higher odds for emotional violence. Respondents who were married have significantly lower odds of experiencing physical (AOR: 0.66; 95%CI: 0.45 – 9.60; p = 0.029), sexual (AOR: 0.40; 95%CI: 0.26 – 0.62; p < 0.001) and emotional (AOR: 0.68; 95%CI: 0.50 – 0.93; p = 0.015) violence when compared to singles. Younger respondents also had lower odds of experiencing sexual violence (AOR: 0.97; 95%CI: 0.95–0.99; p = 0.016).

Conclusion

HIV positive status and bullying victimisation seem to increase the risk for all forms of IPV while the experience of IPV did not differ by sexual identity and disability status. The associations between age, sex, marital status and IPV may suggest moderating roles of the factors taking cognisance of the cultural context of these relationships. Future relational analysis is necessary to further understand the pathways for the associations found between the variables in this study.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-14186-6.

Troubling Trade-offs Between Women's Work and Intimate Partner Violence: Evidence From 19 Developing Countries

The empirical link between women's employment status and their experience of different types of intimate partner violence (IPV) is not very apparent. Using Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) data from 19 developing countries in South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Middle East, we found that working women were significantly more likely to experience IPV than their stay-at-home counterparts. Given the great diversity in women's employment with respect to economic returns and working conditions, we disaggregated women's employment into three categories vis-à-vis agriculture jobs (AJ), blue-collar jobs (BJ), and white-collar jobs (WJ). The disaggregated analysis revealed that women engaged in all three job categories were significantly more likely to experience IPV. After controlling for potential endogeneity of women's employment, we found that women's work increased the risk of less severe physical violence (LSPV) and emotional violence (EV) but reduced the risk of sexual violence (SV). Endogeneity-adjusted disaggregated analysis showed that women engaged in BJ and WJ faced an increased risk of LSPV but reduced risk of SV. In contrast, women undertaking AJ faced a smaller risk of severe physical violence (SPV) and SV. This study contradicts some long-held beliefs that women's work is a sufficient condition for protecting them from IPV. The public policy should not assume that women's earnings automatically protect them against the risk of IPV. While encouraging a greater female labor force participation rate is important in its own right, women's risk of IPV is context-specific.

Male and Female Perceptions and Experiences of Sexual and Gender-based Violence in South Kivu, Eastern DRC

Conflict settings are often the context of some of the highest rates of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV). Although women are disproportionately the victims of SGBV, they are not the only victims. Indirect impacts of SGBV also impact men, families, and communities. Examining SGBV as only a woman's concern reinforces the hegemonic gender-binary view that SGBV somehow does not include men, who can be direct victims of SGBV, family members of female victims of SGBV, and/or perpetrators of SGBV. This qualitative study seeks to fill a gap by exploring the impact of SGBV on individuals, families, and communities, and potential options to ameliorate those issues. Data were collected in 2019 from community-based discussions in South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo. Women described being direct victims of SGBV, as well as the burden of being at constant alert to the possible threat of violence. Men talked more about SGBV being perpetrated against women, and the indirect effect on men's perception of their social husband and/or father role to protect and provide for their family. Taken together, women and men describe three types of violence: sexual violence by an unknown assailant who is often associated the rebel groups or the military; sexual violence from a known assailant within one's community; and sexual or physical violence within intimate partnerships (i.e., intimate partner violence). Women focused more on community-based solutions to reduce their exposure to violence, while men discussed the government's responsibility to end the long-standing conflict that has severely disrupted lives. Practically, these findings support the need to specify different types of SGBV, and the opportunity to tailor interventions by type.

Prevalence and Risk Factors for Women's Reports of Past-Year Intimate Partner Violence: A Comparative Analysis of Six East African National Surveys

Violence against women, in all its forms, has been acknowledged as a violation of basic human rights and research evidence shows that it could lead to adverse health consequences. In this study we aimed to determine the prevalence and coexistence of different forms of IPV as well as examine individual-level factors associated with ever experiencing any form of IPV in the 12 months preceding the survey using the most recent Demographic Health Survey data from six East African countries. Results show that the prevalence ranged between 16.5% (Burundi) and 29.3% (Uganda) for emotional, 16.8% (Ethiopia) and 26.6% (Tanzania) for physical, and 8.3% (Rwanda and Ethiopia) and 18.4% (Burundi) for sexual IPV. The prevalence of any IPV ranged from 26.7% to 39.3%. In terms of coexistence, 15.6% to 19.0% of women reported experiencing all the three forms of IPV, with higher proportions reporting experiencing two of the three forms of IPV. The prevalence of both physical and emotional IPV was highest in Tanzania (49.1%), both emotional and sexual IPV in Uganda (28.0%), and both physical and sexual IPV in Burundi (26.2%). A partner's use of alcohol and a woman's justification of wife beating were both statistically significant common risk factors for IPV across the six countries. Women whose partners got drunk often were found to be up to nine times more likely to experience IPV compared to those whose partners did not drink. Younger women and those with larger families were at an increased risk of experiencing IPV, while other significant factors were country specific. In conclusion, our findings highlight the need for integrated and context-specific approaches that deconstruct gendered norms related to power dynamics and patriarchal nuances at household and community level in order to holistically address different forms of IPV.

The evaluation of the subjection of married women to domestic violence in terms of submissive behaviors in Turkey: A descriptive study

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate the subjection of married women living in the center of a city in Turkey to domestic violence in terms of submissive behaviors.

DESIGN AND METHODS

The study was descriptive and cross-sectional. The data were collected from married women (n = 7097) who volunteered to participate in the study and completed a survey form between September 2019 and February 2020.

RESULTS

Submissive behavior scores were high in the women subjected to physical violence, based on many characteristics, and the difference between groups was statistically significant (p < 0.05).

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Nurses should be active participants in the diagnosis, treatment, care, and rehabilitation processes of women who have suffered from violence and should support them in improving their coping skills.

Sexual Violence Experience Among Nigerian Girls and Young Women: What Are the Roles of Early Sexual Debut, Multiple Sex Partnerships, and Traditional Gender Role Beliefs?

In Nigeria, one in four females has experienced some form of sexual abuse. Therefore, it is imperative to examine risk factors associated with sexual violence victimization of Nigerian girls and young women to identify targets for prevention and help stakeholders prioritize response efforts. The present article focuses on secondary data analyses of 1,766 females, aged 13 to 24, interviewed in the population-based 2014 Nigeria Violence Against Children Survey. The outcome of interest is lifetime sexual violence (LSV). Several potential predictors were explored: beliefs about gender roles related to sex, early sexual debut (aged <16 years), and multiple sex partners in the past 12 months. Other risk factors assessed were age, ethnicity, religion, education, marital status, and employment. Logistic regression analyses estimated adjusted odds ratios (AORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results revealed that females who endorsed beliefs about patriarchal sexual decision-making (AOR = 2.1, 95% CI = [1.28, 3.32]) or ever attended school (AOR = 2.4, 95% CI = [1.35, 4.34]) were more likely to report experiencing LSV. Prevention programs that target traditional norm beliefs about gender and sexuality have the potential to influence sexual violence in Nigeria. In addition, school attendance may expose females to potential perpetrators. Thus, to prevent sexual violence of girls who attend school, implementing safety measures may be beneficial for protecting them while in and traveling to/from school.

Community Attitudes Towards Violence Against Women, and Lived Experiences of Family Violence and Abuse During Childhood in Rural Eastern Nigeria: Implications for Policy and Programming

Background

Violence against women (VAW) has remained an increasingly significant public health problem globally. This study explored childhood experiences of abuse and attitude towards violence against women among adults in a rural community in South-east Nigeria.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study conducted in a rural community in Ebonyi, Nigeria. Data were collected from 280 respondents using interviewer-administered questionnaires. Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 25.

Results

The mean age of the male participants was 46.5±16.8, while that for the female participants was 43.3±16.9. Most were females (203/280, 72.5%), out of which (83/203, 40.9%) had secondary school as the highest level of education attained. Most participants were females (203/280, 72.5%), married (225/280, 80.4%) with secondary school education (124/280, 44.3%). More than one-tenth (33/280, 11.8%) had ever witnessed parental violence, while 46.4% had been physically abused in childhood. Forced touching and penetrative sex was experienced sometimes by 11.4% (32/280) and 21.8% (61/289), respectively. Overall, the majority (258/280, 92.8%) had a disapproving attitude towards gender-based violence. Most participants disagreed that hitting or insulting woman was not wrong (246/280, 87.9%). The majority of the respondents agreed that women were inferior to men from a cultural perspective (175/280, 62.5%). Almost half strongly agreed (125/2280, 44.6%) and agreed (118/280, 42.1%) that a woman is a man’s possession. The predictors of attitude were secondary school education (AOR = 7.74, 95% CI = 1.69–35.54) and monogamous marital setting (AOR = 2.83, 95% CI = 1.08–7.42).

Conclusion

This study showed that Nigerian adults had high levels of childhood exposures to family violence, physical and sexual abuse. Overall, the majority disapproved of VAW; however, there were gaps that endorsed patriarchal ideologies. Interventions to address VAW should include components targeted at children exposed to violence and de-bunking patriarchal ideologies that encourage VAW.

Innovative methods to analyse the impact of gender norms on adolescent health using global health survey data

Background

Understanding how gender norms affect health is an important entry point into designing programs and policies to change norms and improve gender equality and health. However, it is rare for global health datasets to include questions on gender norms, especially questions that go beyond measuring gender-related attitudes, thus limiting gender analysis.

Methods

We developed five case studies using health survey data from six countries to demonstrate approaches to defining and operationalising proxy measures and analytic approaches to investigating how gender norms can affect health. Key findings, strengths and limitations of our norms proxies and methodological choices are summarised.

Findings

Case studies revealed links between gender norms and multiple adolescent health outcomes. Proxys for norms were derived from data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours, as well as differences between attitudes and behaviours. Data were cross-sectional, longitudinal, census- and social network-based. Analytic methods were diverse. We found that gender norms affect: 1) Intimate partner violence in Nigeria; 2) Unhealthy weight control behaviours in Brazil and South Africa; 3) HIV status in Zambia; 4) Health and social mobility in the US; and 5) Childbirth in Honduras.

Interpretation

Researchers can use existing global health survey data to examine pathways through which gender norms affect health by generating proxies for gender norms. While direct measures of gender norms can greatly improve the understanding of how gender affects health, proxy measures for norms can be designed for the specific health-related outcome and normative context, for instance by either aggregating behaviours or attitudes or quantifying the difference (dissonance) between them. These norm proxies enable evaluations of the influence of gender norms on health and insights into possible reference groups and sanctions for non-compliers, thus informing programmes and policies to shape norms and improve health.

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This article presents effective methods to study gender norms in existing global health survey data.

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We devised conceptual pathways linking gender norms to gender-based health disparities.

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We identified gender norms proxies and reference groups enforcing the norm.

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We tested hypotheses linking gender norms to health.

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These methods can aid policy and programme design to advance gender equality and health.

Community-level influences on women’s experience of intimate partner violence and modern contraceptive use in Nigeria: a multilevel analysis of nationally representative survey

Background: Modern contraceptives (MC) are important strategies for reducing unwanted pregnancies, unsafe abortion and maternal mortality, but MC remains low at 18% in Nigeria. Similarly, while there is increasing prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) in Nigeria, its effects on contraceptive use remain unclear. This study examined the influence of IPV on MC use, while adjusting for individual- and community-level confounders. Methods : The study utilized 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey data. We performed multilevel binary logistic regression analysis on 24,973 married women aged 15-49 49 (nested within 1,400 communities), who were sexually active and were not pregnant at the time of the survey. Results : Findings show that use of MC was higher among married women who reported experience of IPV than those without IPV exposure. After adjusting for individual-level and contextual factors, the odds of using MC was significantly higher among women who experienced any form of IPV (OR: 1.61, 95% CI: 1.17-2.21, p<0.005) compared to those who reported no IPV experience. Around one-quarter of the total variance in contraceptive use with respect to the different types of IPV could be explained at the community level. Conclusion : The study provides empirical evidence that there is significant community effect on IPV exposure and women’s contraceptive uptake. Attention must therefore be given to the context-specific social and gender norms that affect women’s sexual and reproductive health in Nigeria.

Suffering in the Hands of a Loved One: The Endemic to Intimate Partner Violence and Consequences on Migrant Female Head-Load Carriers in Ghana

The study contributed to filling a knowledge gap in the area of intimate partner violence (IPV). Previous studies conducted in Ghana have investigated the causes and types of IPV, leaving a gap on the consequences the violence had on the victims. Using a population of local economic migrants (hereafter, head-load carriers), a qualitative design with emphasis on phenomenology was employed to investigate the effects of IPV on 20 head-load carriers in two major cities in Ghana (Kumasi and Accra). The analysis performed on the data, using interpretive phenomenological analysis, revealed that IPV affected the head-load carriers' health, employment, and human relationships. Each of the participants spoke of one or more health complications, which they attributed to IPV. Among the health-related effects reported by the head-load carriers were body pains, wounds, depression, suicide ideation, headache, and abdominal pains that resulted from the termination of an unwanted pregnancy. All the head-load carriers recounted the detrimental outcomes of IPV on their job and human relationships. After they had experienced IPV, some of the victims could not go to work due to fear of stigmatization and those who were able to could not work as they usually do due to severe pain. At their workplace, some of the IPV victims became aggressive toward customers and coworkers, whereas others remained isolated. These negatively impacted on their human relationship skills and earnings. Based on the findings, there is the need for policies that seek to address IPV to consider the effects on victims' employment, earning, and behavior.

Survivors' Social Construction of Intimate Partner Violence in Cebu City, Philippines

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a worldwide social issue perpetrated by intimate male partners against their wives. Studies on IPV have generated accurate comparative information since the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights and the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women to guide strategy and track progress in attempts to comprehend the IPV issues. In many attempts to understand violence against women, the social construction of IPV was not well documented in the literature. This article aims to explore IPV survivors' social construction of IPV by analyzing the experiential narratives of IPV survivors. To address the objective, this article used the phenomenological approach by examining the lived experiences of 15 IPV survivors. Our study finds that IPV made IPV survivors empowered, and with this social construction, survivors were able to overcome violence perpetrated by their intimate partners. The findings further proved that giving preferential attention to the needs of IPV victims could lead to victim empowerment, a factor needed in the elimination of violence against women and children in all forms. It is suggested for any intervention activities to (a) ultimately address the empowerment of individuals and (b) respond to the needs of individuals because what may work for one victim may not work for another.

Community-level influences on women’s experience of intimate partner violence and modern contraceptive use in Nigeria: a multilevel analysis of nationally representative survey

Background: Modern contraceptives (MC) are important strategies for reducing unwanted pregnancies, unsafe abortion and maternal mortality, but MC remains low at 18% in Nigeria. Similarly, while there is increasing prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) in Nigeria, its effects on contraceptive use remain unclear. This study examined the influence of IPV on MC use, while adjusting for individual- and community-level confounders. Methods: The study utilized 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey data. We performed multilevel binary logistic regression analysis on 24,973 married women aged 15-49, who were sexually active and were not pregnant at the time of the survey. Results: Findings show that use of MC was higher among married women who reported experience of IPV than those without IPV exposure. After adjusting for individual-level and contextual factors, the odds of using MC was significantly higher among women who experienced any form of IPV (OR: 1.61, 95% CI: 1.17-2.21, p<0.005) compared to those who reported no IPV experience. Around one-quarter of the total variance in contraceptive use with respect to the different types of IPV could be explained at the community level. Conclusion: The study provides empirical evidence that there is significant community effect on IPV exposure and women’s contraceptive uptake. Attention must therefore be given to the context-specific social and gender norms that affect women’s sexual and reproductive health in Nigeria.

Ethnoregional Dynamics of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Nigeria

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a reality the average Nigerian woman has to grapple with everyday. Ethnicity and place of residence play a pivotal role in the social realities of Nigerian women, especially with their experience of IPV. However, there is a paucity of reviews examining the impact of ethnicity and place of residence on women's experiences of IPV in Nigeria. This study seeks to explore the ethnoregional dynamics of IPV from the range of studies undertaken on the subject matter. Eighteen studies meant the inclusion criteria for analysis. The major criteria for selecting studies for analysis were peer-reviewed studies on IPV against women and studies on a Nigerian population, regardless of the nationality of the authors. Databases like the University of Saskatchewan Library, ProQuest, Sociological Abstracts, and Journal Storage (JSTOR) were used in searching for peer-reviewed studies. The study revealed that Igbo women tend to experience IPV more than Yoruba and Hausa women. The study also found that rural women tend to experience IPV more than urban women. The study points out some of the services available for female victims of IPV and the possible strategies that can be adapted to reach them effectively.

Prevalence and factors associated with intimate partner violence against women in The Gambia: a population-based analysis

Although intimate partner violence (IPV) against women is prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, studies that investigated factors associated with IPV among Gambian women are limited. In this study, we examined the prevalence and factors associated with the different forms of IPV against Gambian women. We used a sample of 3,116 currently married women age (15 ~ 49 years) from The Gambia Demographic and Health Survey 2013. Logistic regression models were used to examine factors associated with Physical Violence (PV), Sexual Violence (SV), and Emotional Violence (EV). Over 40% (n = 1,248) of women reported at least one form of IPV. The prevalence of PV, SV and EV was 20.6%, 4.3%, and 15.1% respectively. Women married at age 18 ~ 24 (adjusted Odds Ratio [aOR]_SV = 1.55), lived with 3 ~ 4 (aOR_PV = 1.69; aOR_EV = 2.10) and ≥5 (aOR_PV = 1.77; aOR_EV = 2.64) children, witnessed parental violence (aOR_PV = 1.66; aOR_SV = 2.75; aOR_EV = 2.25), partner's primary education (aOR_PV = 1.76), accused of unfaithfulness (aOR_PV = 2.42; aOR_SV = 3.62; aOR_EV4.10), and partner's alcohol consumption (aOR_PV = 2.56; OR_SV = 3.91; aOR_EV = 2.82) are more likely to report IPV. Conversely, women who lived in Kerewan area (aOR_PV = 0.43; aOR_SV = 0.38; aOR_EV = 0.50), had high income (aOR_PV = 0.65), Wolof (aOR_PV = 0.68) and Jola (aOR_PV = 0.65) ethnicity and unemployed (aOR_PV = 0.59; aOR_SV = 0.56) were less likely to report IPV. Interventions to prevent IPV should focus on education on its effects, and programs that reject sociocultural practices as determinants of IPV.

Drought and intimate partner violence towards women in 19 countries in sub-Saharan Africa during 2011-2018: A population-based study

BACKGROUND

Drought has many known deleterious impacts on human health, but little is known about the relationship between drought and intimate partner violence (IPV). We aimed to evaluate this relationship and to assess effect heterogeneity between population subgroups among women in 19 sub-Saharan African countries.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

We used data from 19 Demographic and Health Surveys from 2011 to 2018 including 83,990 partnered women aged 15-49 years. Deviations in rainfall in the year before the survey date were measured relative to the 29 previous years using Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Station data, with recent drought classified as ordinal categorical variable (severe: ≤10th percentile; mild/moderate: >10th percentile to ≤30th percentile; none: >30th percentile). We considered 4 IPV-related outcomes: reporting a controlling partner (a risk factor for IPV) and experiencing emotional violence, physical violence, or sexual violence in the 12 months prior to survey. Logistic regression was used to estimate marginal risk differences (RDs). We evaluated the presence of effect heterogeneity by age group and employment status. Of the 83,990 women included in the analytic sample, 10.7% (9,019) experienced severe drought and 23.4% (19,639) experienced mild/moderate drought in the year prior to the survey, with substantial heterogeneity across countries. The mean age of respondents was 30.8 years (standard deviation 8.2). The majority of women lived in rural areas (66.3%) and were married (73.3%), while less than half (42.6%) were literate. Women living in severe drought had higher risk of reporting a controlling partner (marginal RD in percentage points = 3.0, 95% CI 1.3, 4.6; p < 0.001), experiencing physical violence (marginal RD = 0.8, 95% CI 0.1, 1.5; p = 0.019), and experiencing sexual violence (marginal RD = 1.2, 95% CI 0.4, 2.0; p = 0.001) compared with women not experiencing drought. Women living in mild/moderate drought had higher risk of reporting physical (marginal RD = 0.7, 95% CI 0.2, 1.1; p = 0.003) and sexual violence (marginal RD = 0.7, 95% CI 0.3, 1.2; p = 0.001) compared with those not living in drought. We did not find evidence for an association between drought and emotional violence. In analyses stratified by country, we found 3 settings where drought was protective for at least 1 measure of IPV: Namibia, Tanzania, and Uganda. We found evidence for effect heterogeneity (additive interaction) for the association between drought and younger age and between drought and employment status, with stronger associations between drought and IPV among adolescent girls and unemployed women. This study is limited by its lack of measured hypothesized mediating variables linking drought and IPV, prohibiting a formal mediation analysis. Additional limitations include the potential for bias due to residual confounding and potential non-differential misclassification of the outcome measures leading to an attenuation of observed associations.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that drought was associated with measures of IPV towards women, with larger positive associations among adolescent girls and unemployed women. There was heterogeneity in these associations across countries. Weather shocks may exacerbate vulnerabilities among women in sub-Saharan Africa. Future work should further evaluate potential mechanisms driving these relationships.

Lifetime prevalence of intimate partner violence against women in an urban Brazilian city: A cross-sectional survey

Background

Intimate partner violence is a global health burden that disproportionately affects women and their health outcomes. Women in Brazil are also affected by interpersonal violence. We aimed to estimate the lifetime prevalence of three forms of interpersonal violence against women (IPVAW) and to identify sociodemographic factors associated with IPVAW in one urban Brazilian city.

Methods

Using a cross-sectional design, we interviewed women aged ≥18 years in the urban Brazilian city, Maringá, who currently have or have had an intimate partner. The 13-item WHO Violence Against Women instrument was used to ask participants about their experiences with intimate partner violence, categorized into psychological, physical and sexual violence. We estimated associations between IPVAW and sociodemographic characteristics using generalized linear models.

Results and conclusions

Of the 419 women who were enrolled and met inclusion criteria, lifetime prevalence of IPVAW was 56%. Psychological violence was more prevalent (52%) than physical (21%) or sexual violence (13%). Twenty-eight women (6.4%) experienced all three forms of IPVAW. Women were more likely to experience violence if they were employed, did not live with their partner or had 4 or more children. Educational level, household income, age and race were not significantly associated factors. Our findings highlight a high prevalence of IPVAW in a community in southern Brazil.

Women's income and risk of intimate partner violence: secondary findings from the MAISHA cluster randomised trial in North-Western Tanzania

BACKGROUND

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is pervasive throughout the world, with profound consequences for women's health. While women's 'economic empowerment' is touted as a potential means to reduce IPV, evidence is mixed as to the role of different economic factors in determining women's risk. This paper explores associations and potential pathways between women's income and experience of IPV, in Mwanza city, Tanzania.

METHODS

We use data from married/cohabiting women (N = 740) enrolled in the MAISHA study, a cluster randomised trial of an IPV prevention intervention. Women were interviewed at baseline and 29-months later. We use logistic regression to model cross-sectional (baseline) and longitudinal associations between: a woman's monthly income (quartiles) and her past year risk of physical IPV, sexual IPV and economic abuse; and a woman's relative financial contribution to the household (same/less than partner; more than partner) and past year physical IPV and sexual IPV.

RESULTS

At baseline, 96% of respondents reported earning an income and 28% contributed more financially to the household than their partner did. Higher income was associated with lower past-year physical IPV risk at baseline and longitudinally, and lower sexual IPV at baseline only. No clear associations were seen between income and economic abuse. Higher relative financial contribution was associated with increased physical IPV and sexual IPV among all women at baseline, though only among control women longitudinally. Higher income was associated with several potential pathways to reduced IPV, including reduced household hardship, fewer arguments over the partner's inability to provide for the family, improved relationship dynamics, and increased relationship dissolution. Those contributing more than their partner tended to come from more disadvantaged households, argue more over their partner's inability to provide, and have worse relationship dynamics.

CONCLUSIONS

While women's income was protective against IPV, women who contributed more financially than their partners had greater IPV risk. Poverty and tensions over men's inability to provide emerge as potentially important drivers of this association. Interventions to empower women should not only broaden women's access to economic resources and opportunities, but also work with women and men to address men's livelihoods, male gender roles and masculinity norms.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov #NCT02592252 , registered retrospectively (13/08/2015).

The pathways between female garment workers' experience of violence and development of depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) is high (54%) in Bangladesh. Moreover, female garment workers report higher rates of IPV and are also vulnerable to workplace violence (WPV). Experience of violence puts women at increased risk of developing depressive symptoms, which are related with low self-esteem, lower life satisfaction and lower productivity. To our knowledge, there has been no previous research on depression among female garment workers and its connections to IPV and WPV in Bangladesh. This paper aims to address this gap by studying the relationship of IPV, WPV and depression among female garment workers.

METHODS

The data for this paper comes from a cross-sectional survey of female garment workers (n = 800) conducted as baseline survey of a quasi-experimental study known as HERrespect. Survey data were collected during September-December, 2016 among randomly selected female garment workers from eight garment factories in and around Dhaka city. Structural equation modelling was conducted to explore the relationship among IPV, WPV and depression.

RESULTS

The findings show high rates of any IPV (69%); WPV (73%, experienced or witnessed) and depressive symptomatology (40%) among female garment workers. The analysis of pathways shows that IPV impacts a woman's experience of WPV and work related stress leading to the development of depression; while WPV had direct and mediated pathways to depression. Experience of controlling by their husband leads to WPV and increased work related stress, and thus leads to depression. It also reveals that a worker's ability to mobilize resources in emergency, however, increased self-esteem and reduced work related stress.

CONCLUSION

This study shows the pathways through which experience of IPV and WPV lead to development of depressive symptoms among female garment workers. The link between women's ability to mobilize resources with self-esteem and work related stress indicates the need for socio-economic empowerment of women and may suggest that combined intervention to address IPV and women's empowerment could be successful in dealing with WPV and mental health.

Intimate partner violence against women in Nigeria: a multilevel study investigating the effect of women's status and community norms

BACKGROUND

Intimate partner violence (IPV) against women has been recognised as a public health problem with far-reaching consequences for the physical, reproductive, and mental health of women. The ecological framework portrays intimate partner violence as a multifaceted phenomenon, demonstrating the interplay of factors at different levels: individual, community, and the larger society. The present study examined the effect of individual- and community-level factors on IPV in Nigeria, with a focus on women's status and community-level norms among men.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study based on the latest Nigerian Demographic Health Survey (2013) was conducted involving 20,802 ever-partnered women aged 15-49 years. Several multilevel logistic regression models were calibrated to assess the association of individual- and community-level factors with IPV. Both measures of association (fixed effect) and measures of variations (random effect) were reported.

RESULTS

Almost one in four women in Nigeria reported having ever experienced intimate partner violence. Having adjusted for other relevant covariates, higher women's status reduced the odds of IPV (OR = 0.47; 95% CI = 0.32-0.71). However, community norms among men that justified IPV against women modified the observed protective effect of higher women's status against IPV and reversed the odds (OR = 1.89; 95% CI = 1.26-2.83).

CONCLUSIONS

Besides women's status, community norms towards IPV are an important factor for the occurrence of IPV. Thus, addressing intimate partner violence against women calls for community-wide approaches aimed at changing norms among men alongside improving women's status.