1
|
Robinson SA, Gavel MJ, Richardson SD, Chlebak RJ, Milotic D, Koprivnikar J, Forbes MR. Sub-chronic exposure to a neonicotinoid does not affect susceptibility of larval leopard frogs to infection by trematode parasites, via either depressed cercarial performance or host immunity. Parasitol Res 2019; 118:2621-2633. [PMID: 31300888 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06385-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Little information is available on the effects of neonicotinoid insecticides on vertebrates. Previous work using amphibians found chronic exposure to some neonicotinoids had no detrimental effects on fitness-relevant traits. However, there is some evidence of more subtle effects of neonicotinoids on immune traits and evidence that other pesticides can suppress tadpole immunity resulting in elevated levels of parasitism in the exposed tadpoles. The objective of our study was to assess whether neonicotinoid exposure affected tadpole immunometrics and susceptibility to parasitic helminths. We assessed northern leopard frog tadpole (Lithobates pipiens) levels of parasitism and leukocyte profiles following exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of clothianidin and free-living infective cercariae of a helminth parasite, an Echinostoma sp. trematode. When comparing tadpoles from controls to either 1 or 100 μg/L clothianidin treatments, we found similar measures of parasitism (i.e. prevalence, abundance and intensity of echinostome cysts) and similar leukocyte profiles. We also confirmed that clothianidin was not lethal for cercariae; however, slight reductions in swimming activity were detected at the lowest exposure concentration of 0.23 μg/L. Our results show that exposure to clothianidin during the larval amphibian stage does not affect leukocyte profiles or susceptibility to parasitism by larval trematodes in northern leopard frogs although other aspects such as length of host exposure require further study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stacey A Robinson
- National Wildlife Research Centre, Wildlife and Landscape Science Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0H3, Canada.
| | - M J Gavel
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - S D Richardson
- National Wildlife Research Centre, Wildlife and Landscape Science Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - R J Chlebak
- National Wildlife Research Centre, Wildlife and Landscape Science Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1A 0H3, Canada.,Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - D Milotic
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - J Koprivnikar
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - M R Forbes
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Guo R, Zhang W, Ai S, Ren L, Zhang Y. Fluctuating asymmetry rather than oxidative stress in Bufo raddei can be an accurate indicator of environmental pollution induced by heavy metals. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2017; 189:293. [PMID: 28550515 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-017-5991-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Oxidative stress (OS) and fluctuating asymmetry (FA) as risk markers for environmental stress are widely used to predict changes in the health and fitness of many animals exposed to pollutants. However, from the perspective of protecting declining amphibians, it remains to be verified which one would be a reliable indicator for amphibians exposed to long-term heavy metal pollution under natural conditions. In this study, the OS and FA of Bufo raddei exposed to natural heavy metal pollution were analyzed to determine which marker is more accurate for indicating heavy metal-induced stress. Three years of data were collected during the breeding season of B. raddei from Baiyin (BY), which has been mainly contaminated with Cu, Zn, Pb, and Cd compounds for a long period, and from Liujiaxia (LJX), which is a relatively unpolluted area. Unexpectedly, although significant accumulation of the four heavy metals was found in the kidney and liver of B. raddei from BY, the levels of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and malondialdehyde in these two organs were found to be irregular, with low repeatability in both BY and LJX. However, significant differences in the levels of FA were observed in B. raddei populations from these two areas over the past 3 years (P < 0.01). The degrees of FA in B. raddei populations from BY and LJX were assessed as degree 4 and 1, respectively. In short, this study suggested that FA was a more reliable and effective indicator than OS to monitor and predict long-term environmental stress on anuran amphibians.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Guo
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, 730000, Lanzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenya Zhang
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, 730000, Lanzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Shiwei Ai
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, 730000, Lanzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang Ren
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, 730000, Lanzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingmei Zhang
- Gansu Key Laboratory of Biomonitoring and Bioremediation for Environmental Pollution, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, 730000, Lanzhou, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Guerra C, Aráoz E. Amphibian malformations and body condition across an agricultural landscape of northwest Argentina. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2016; 121:105-116. [PMID: 27667808 DOI: 10.3354/dao03048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Agricultural landscapes support large amphibian populations because they provide habitat for many species, although agriculture affects amphibians through various mechanisms. Pollution with agrochemicals is the major threat to amphibian populations after habitat loss, as chemicals alter the ecophysiology of amphibians, putting their health and survival at risk. We aimed to assess the effect of different environments, sites, width of forest buffers and sampling years on the health of amphibians, which was estimated through the prevalence of malformations and body condition. During 3 yr of pitfall trapping, we captured 4491 amphibians. The prevalence of malformations was higher in the croplands than in the forests, while the body condition was better within forests. The prevalence of malformations was higher in the narrower forest site than in the wider forest site. The prevalence of malformations and the body condition were higher in the third year. The prevalence of malformations differed by species. We found 11 types of malformation, which mainly affected limbs and were unilateral or bilaterally asymmetrical. Our results showed that the prevalence of malformations and body condition reflect different aspects of the health of amphibians and that forest individuals are healthier than those from croplands. The results also highlight the importance of spatial configuration besides the conservation of natural habitats to preserve healthy amphibians in agricultural landscapes. The types of malformation that we found suggest that agrochemicals could be an important cause of malformations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Guerra
- Instituto de Herpetología, Fundación Miguel Lillo, Miguel Lillo 251, San Miguel de Tucumán (4000), Tucumán, Argentina
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Van Der Kraak GJ, Hosmer AJ, Hanson ML, Kloas W, Solomon KR. Effects of atrazine in fish, amphibians, and reptiles: an analysis based on quantitative weight of evidence. Crit Rev Toxicol 2015; 44 Suppl 5:1-66. [PMID: 25375889 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2014.967836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
A quantitative weight of evidence (WoE) approach was developed to evaluate studies used for regulatory purposes, as well as those in the open literature, that report the effects of the herbicide atrazine on fish, amphibians, and reptiles. The methodology for WoE analysis incorporated a detailed assessment of the relevance of the responses observed to apical endpoints directly related to survival, growth, development, and reproduction, as well as the strength and appropriateness of the experimental methods employed. Numerical scores were assigned for strength and relevance. The means of the scores for relevance and strength were then used to summarize and weigh the evidence for atrazine contributing to ecologically significant responses in the organisms of interest. The summary was presented graphically in a two-dimensional graph which showed the distributions of all the reports for a response. Over 1290 individual responses from studies in 31 species of fish, 32 amphibians, and 8 reptiles were evaluated. Overall, the WoE showed that atrazine might affect biomarker-type responses, such as expression of genes and/or associated proteins, concentrations of hormones, and biochemical processes (e.g. induction of detoxification responses), at concentrations sometimes found in the environment. However, these effects were not translated to adverse outcomes in terms of apical endpoints. The WoE approach provided a quantitative, transparent, reproducible, and robust framework that can be used to assist the decision-making process when assessing environmental chemicals. In addition, the process allowed easy identification of uncertainty and inconsistency in observations, and thus clearly identified areas where future investigations can be best directed.
Collapse
|
5
|
Pickford DB, Jones A, Velez-Pelez A, Orton F, Iguchi T, Mitsui N, Tooi O. Screening breeding sites of the common toad (Bufo bufo) in England and Wales for evidence of endocrine disrupting activity. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2015; 117:7-19. [PMID: 25817886 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Revised: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Anuran amphibians are often present in agricultural landscapes and may therefore be exposed to chemicals in surface waters used for breeding. We used passive accumulation devices (SPMD and POCIS) to sample contaminants from nine breeding sites of the Common toad (Bufo bufo) across England and Wales, measuring endocrine activity of the extracts in a recombinant yeast androgen screen (YAS) and yeast estrogen screen (YES) and an in vitro vitellogenin induction screen in primary culture of Xenopus laevis hepatocytes. We also assessed hatching, growth, survival, and development in caged larvae in situ, and sampled metamorphs for gonadal histopathology. None of the SPMD extracts exhibited estrogen receptor or androgen receptor agonist activity, while POCIS extracts from two sites in west-central England exhibited concentration-dependent androgenic activity in the YAS. Three sites exhibited significant estrogenic activity in both the YES and the Xenopus hepatocyte. Hatching rates varied widely among sites, but there was no consistent correlation between hatching rate and intensity of agricultural activity, predicted concentrations of agrochemicals, or endocrine activity measured in YES/YAS assays. While a small number of intersex individuals were observed, their incidence could not be associated with predicted pesticide exposure or endocrine activitity measured in the in vitro screens. There were no significant differences in sex ratio, as determined by gonadal histomorphology among the study sites, and no significant correlation was observed between proportion of males and predicted exposure to agrochemicals. However, a negative correlation did become apparent in later sampling periods between proportion of males and estrogenic activity of the POCIS sample, as measured in the YES. Our results suggest that larval and adult amphibians may be exposed to endocrine disrupting chemicals in breeding ponds, albeit at low concentrations, and that chemical contaminants other than plant protection products may contribute to endocrine activity of surface waters in the agricultural landscape.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Pickford
- Institute for the Environment, Brunel University, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, United Kingdom.
| | - Alexandra Jones
- Institute for the Environment, Brunel University, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, United Kingdom
| | - Alejandra Velez-Pelez
- Institute for the Environment, Brunel University, Kingston Lane, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, United Kingdom
| | | | - Taisen Iguchi
- National Institute for Basic Biology, 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787, Japan
| | - Naoko Mitsui
- Environmental Risk Research Center, Institute of Environmental Ecology, IDEA Consultants, Inc., 1334-5 Riemon, Yaizu, Shizuoka 421-0212, Japan
| | - Osamu Tooi
- Environmental Risk Research Center, Institute of Environmental Ecology, IDEA Consultants, Inc., 1334-5 Riemon, Yaizu, Shizuoka 421-0212, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Moresco RM, Margarido VP, de Oliveira C. A persistent organic pollutant related with unusual high frequency of hermaphroditism in the neotropical anuran Physalaemus cuvieri Fitzinger, 1826. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2014; 132:6-11. [PMID: 24742721 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2014.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Representing a reflection of anthropic activity, the level of xenobiotic compounds in aquatic ecosystems has increased in recent years, bringing severe damage to the environment. The present work reports the occurrence of malformation in gonads of Physalaemus cuvieri individuals from a population of Atlantic Forest in Southern Brazil. Twenty male specimens were collected, which had their testicles removed, immersed in Karnovsky fixative solution, included in historesin for 2 μm cuts and stained with Hematoxylin-eosin. Four specimens showed intersexual gonads condition along with the presence of sperm and oocytes. In order to test a possible contamination of water, 2L were collected from the water body to check organochlorine, organophosphate and carbamate compounds. The analysis of water showed the presence of agrotoxic Dieldrin in a concentration of 0.05 μg/L, representing a concentration above the recommended reference. This agrotoxic, in addition to acting as endocrine disrupter and commercially prohibited, has quite persistent residual effects, and may be responsible for the high frequency of P. cuvieri with intersexual gonads, which in the long term can represent a risk for this population due to the potential impact on its effective reproductive ability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela M Moresco
- Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Departamento de Biologia. Rua Cristóvão Colombo, 2265-Jardim Nazareth, CEP 15054-000, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil; Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná (Unioeste), Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Rua Universitária, 2069-Jardim Universitário, CEP 85819-110, Cascavel, Paraná, Brazil.
| | - Vladimir P Margarido
- Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná (Unioeste), Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Rua Universitária, 2069-Jardim Universitário, CEP 85819-110, Cascavel, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Classius de Oliveira
- Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Departamento de Biologia. Rua Cristóvão Colombo, 2265-Jardim Nazareth, CEP 15054-000, São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lamb JC, Boffetta P, Foster WG, Goodman JE, Hentz KL, Rhomberg LR, Staveley J, Swaen G, Van Der Kraak G, Williams AL. Critical comments on the WHO-UNEP State of the Science of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals – 2012. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2014; 69:22-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2013] [Revised: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 02/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
8
|
Papoulias DM, Schwarz MS, Mena L. Gonadal abnormalities in frogs (Lithobates spp.) collected from managed wetlands in an agricultural region of Nebraska, USA. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2013; 172:1-8. [PMID: 22982548 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2012.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2012] [Revised: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Nebraska's Rainwater Basin (RWB) provides important wetland habitat for North American migratory birds. Concern exists that pesticide and nutrient runoff from surrounding row-crops enters wetlands degrading water quality and adversely affecting birds and wildlife. Frogs may be especially vulnerable. Plains leopard (Lithobates blairi) metamorphs from RWB wetlands with varying concentrations of pesticides were evaluated for a suite of biomarkers of exposure to endocrine active chemicals. Froglets had ovarian dysgenesis, high rates of testicular oocytes, and female-biased sex ratios however, there was no clear statistical association between pesticide concentrations and biomarkers. Data interpretation was hindered because timing and duration of exposures were unknown and due to an incomplete understanding of L. blairi sexual development. Emphasis is on describing the complex developmental biology of closely-related leopard frogs, how this understanding can explain RWB L. blairi anomalies, and the need for sampling at the appropriate life stage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diana M Papoulias
- Columbia Environmental Research Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 4200 New Haven Rd., Columbia, MO 65201, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
|
10
|
Moreira JC, Peres F, Simões AC, Pignati WA, Dores EDC, Vieira SN, Strüssmann C, Mott T. [Groundwater and rainwater contamination by pesticides in an agricultural region of Mato Grosso state in central Brazil]. CIENCIA & SAUDE COLETIVA 2012; 17:1557-68. [PMID: 22699646 DOI: 10.1590/s1413-81232012000600019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2012] [Accepted: 04/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study sought to analyze groundwater and rainwater contamination by pesticides in two municipalities (Lucas do Rio Verde and Campo Verde) of Mato Grosso state. The area is Brazil's mid-west situated among the major soybean, corn and cotton producers in the state and the country. The analytical methodology combined chromatographic techniques on groundwater and rainwater samples with eco-toxicological analyses of the impacts of contamination by pesticide on bio-indicator species. The results revealed the presence of different pesticide residues in the groundwater and rainwater samples collected in the two municipalities. In conjunction with this data, results of the eco-toxicological tests revealed the presence of anomalies in a bio-indicator species collected in one of the two study sites compatible with exposure to pesticides. The results presented and discussed here highlight the degradation of water resources in the region, caused by the intensive use of pesticides in agriculture, including the contamination of drinking water sources and rain, broadening the risk of contamination beyond the cultivated areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josino Costa Moreira
- Centro de Estudos da Saúde do Trabalhador e Ecologia Humana, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sergio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, 21041-210 Rio de Janeiro, RJ.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Vandenberg LN, Colborn T, Hayes TB, Heindel JJ, Jacobs DR, Lee DH, Shioda T, Soto AM, vom Saal FS, Welshons WV, Zoeller RT, Myers JP. Hormones and endocrine-disrupting chemicals: low-dose effects and nonmonotonic dose responses. Endocr Rev 2012; 33:378-455. [PMID: 22419778 PMCID: PMC3365860 DOI: 10.1210/er.2011-1050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1986] [Impact Index Per Article: 165.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
For decades, studies of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have challenged traditional concepts in toxicology, in particular the dogma of "the dose makes the poison," because EDCs can have effects at low doses that are not predicted by effects at higher doses. Here, we review two major concepts in EDC studies: low dose and nonmonotonicity. Low-dose effects were defined by the National Toxicology Program as those that occur in the range of human exposures or effects observed at doses below those used for traditional toxicological studies. We review the mechanistic data for low-dose effects and use a weight-of-evidence approach to analyze five examples from the EDC literature. Additionally, we explore nonmonotonic dose-response curves, defined as a nonlinear relationship between dose and effect where the slope of the curve changes sign somewhere within the range of doses examined. We provide a detailed discussion of the mechanisms responsible for generating these phenomena, plus hundreds of examples from the cell culture, animal, and epidemiology literature. We illustrate that nonmonotonic responses and low-dose effects are remarkably common in studies of natural hormones and EDCs. Whether low doses of EDCs influence certain human disorders is no longer conjecture, because epidemiological studies show that environmental exposures to EDCs are associated with human diseases and disabilities. We conclude that when nonmonotonic dose-response curves occur, the effects of low doses cannot be predicted by the effects observed at high doses. Thus, fundamental changes in chemical testing and safety determination are needed to protect human health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura N Vandenberg
- Tufts University, Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, 200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Choung CB, Hyne RV, Mann RM, Stevens MM, Hose GC. Developmental toxicity of two common corn pesticides to the endangered southern bell frog (Litoria raniformis). ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2011; 159:2648-2655. [PMID: 21737194 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2011.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Revised: 05/16/2011] [Accepted: 05/28/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
To examine the link between corn agriculture and the observed decline of the endangered southern bell frog (SBF), the effects of two corn crop pesticides on larval growth and development were investigated. Tadpoles were exposed to terbufos sulfone (10 μg/L), a major breakdown product of the insecticide terbufos, and the herbicide atrazine (25 μg/L) individually and as a mixture until the completion of metamorphosis. Atrazine did not interact synergistically with terbufos sulfone or result in significant effects on growth and development alone, although there was some indication of accelerated metamorphosis in the pilot study. Terbufos sulfone alone and as a mixture (terbufos/atrazine) significantly slowed larval development and ultimately delayed metamorphosis. The observed developmental effects from an environmentally relevant concentration of terbufos sulfone indicates a risk posed by this persistent degradation product to the endangered SBF, which breeds and develops in the rice bays adjacent to corn fields treated with pesticides.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine B Choung
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|