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Tian M, Li H, Wu S, Xi H, Wang YX, Lu YY, Wei L, Huang Q. Exposure to haloacetic acid disinfection by-products and male steroid hormones: An epidemiological and in vitro study. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 468:133796. [PMID: 38377905 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Haloacetic acids (HAAs) are ubiquitous in drinking water and have been associated with impaired male reproductive health. However, epidemiological evidence exploring the associations between HAA exposure and reproductive hormones among males is scarce. In the current study, the urinary concentrations of dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA), the internal exposure markers of HAAs, as well as sex hormones (testosterone [T], progesterone [P], and estradiol [E2]) were measured among 449 Chinese men. Moreover, in vitro experiments, designed to simulate the real-world scenarios of human exposure, were conducted to assess testosterone synthesis in the Leydig cell line MLTC-1 and testosterone metabolism in the hepatic cell line HepG2 in response to low-dose HAA exposure. The DCAA and TCAA urinary concentrations were found to be positively associated with urinary T, P, and E2 levels (all p < 0.001), but negatively associated with the ratio of urinary T to E2 (p < 0.05). Combined with in vitro experiments, the results suggest that environmentally-relevant doses of HAA stimulate sex hormone synthesis and steroidogenesis pathway gene expression in MLTC-1 cells. In addition, the inhibition of the key gene CYP3A4 involved in the testosterone phase Ⅰ catabolism, and induction of the gene UGT2B15 involved in testosterone phase Ⅱ glucuronide conjugation metabolism along with the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transport genes (ABCC4 and ABCG2) in HepG2 cells could play a role in elevation of urinary hormone excretion upon low-dose exposure to HAAs. Our novel findings highlight that exposure to HAAs at environmentally-relevant concentrations is associated with increased synthesis and excretion of sex hormones in males, which potentially provides an alternative approach involving urinary hormones for the noninvasive evaluation of male reproductive health following exposure to DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiping Tian
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China.
| | - Huiru Li
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
| | - Shuangshan Wu
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Hanyan Xi
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
| | - Yi-Xin Wang
- Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China; Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Yan-Yang Lu
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Liya Wei
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
| | - Qingyu Huang
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China.
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Chowdhury S. Comparing risk of disinfection byproducts in drinking water under variable scenarios of seawater intrusion. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 870:161772. [PMID: 36702281 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The higher levels of halides in seawater increase bromide and iodide in the coastal aquifers, leading to higher concentrations of halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs). The populations in the coastal areas are susceptible to increased concentrations of DBPs while many DBPs are cyto- and genotoxic to mammalian cells, and are possible/probable human carcinogens. The implications of seawater intrusion on the concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), and the risks were analyzed by adding 0.0-2.0 % seawater (SW) (by volume) and chlorine to groundwater. Bromide and iodide concentrations in groundwater (0.0 %SW) were observed as 42.5 and non-detected (ND) μg/L respectively. With 2.0 %SW, these were spiked up to 1100 and 2.1 μg/L respectively. The most common THMs (THM4), iodinated THMs (I-THMs) and HAAs were 30.4, 0.13 and 27.9 μg/L for 0.0 % SW respectively. With 2.0 %SW, these values were 106.3, 1.6 and 72.9 μg/L, respectively. At 0.0 %SW, averages of chronic daily intakes (CDI) for THM4, HAAs and I-THMs were 2.61 × 10-4, 2.26 × 10-4 and 7.69 × 10-7 mg/kg/day respectively, which were increased to 9.97 × 10-4, 4.70 × 10-4 and 9.47 × 10-6 mg/kg/day, respectively for 2.0 %SW. For 0.0 %SW, overall cancer risks from few DBPs was 3.09 × 10-5 (6.46 × 10-6 - 7.23 × 10-5) while at 1.0 % and 2.0 %SW, risks were 4.88 × 10-5 (1.26 × 10-5-1.08 × 10-4) and 4.11 × 10-5 (1.21 × 10-5-9.28 × 10-5) respectively. The reduction of risks for 2.0 %SW was due to the increase of bromoform (TBM), and decrease in bromodichloromethane (BDCM) and dibromochloromethane (DBCM) at 2.0 %SW. The disability-adjusted life years (DALY) loss showed an increasing trend from 0.0 %SW (DALY: 77.30) to 1.0 %SW (DALY: 122.0) while an increase to 2.0 %SW showed a decrease in DALY (DALY: 102.8). Future study on toxicity of other regulated and emerging DBPs is warranted to better predict cancer risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakhawat Chowdhury
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Saudi Arabia; Faculty of Engineering & Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's A1B 3X5, NL, Canada.
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3
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Shah ZU, Parveen S. Distribution and risk assessment of pesticide residues in sediment samples from river Ganga, India. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0279993. [PMID: 36730256 PMCID: PMC9894440 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Indiscriminate use of pesticides leads to their entry in to the bottom sediments, where they are absorbed in the sediment's particle and thus, may become the consistent source of aquatic pollution. The present work was carried out to evaluate pesticide residues in the sediment samples and associated human health risk of commonly used pesticides along the basin of river Ganga. Total of 16 pesticides were analyzed along three stretches of river Ganga. The concentration of pesticides in the upper stretch ranged from ND to 0.103 μg/kg, in the middle stretch ND to 0.112 μg/kg, and in the lower stretch ND to 0.105 μg/kg. Strong positive correlation was found between total organic carbon and total pesticide residues in sediment samples. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic values were estimated below the threshold limit suggesting no associated risk. Risks associated with the inhalation route of exposure were found to be higher than the dermal and ingestion routes. Children were found at higher risk at each site from multiple routes of exposure than adult population groups. Toxic unit values were found to be below the threshold value suggesting no risk associated with exposure of pesticides from sediments. However, long term effects on ecological quality due to consistent pesticide exposure must not be ignored. Therefore, the present study focuses on concrete efforts like lowering the irrational used of pesticides, tapping of agricultural and domestic drains, advice to farmers for appropriate use of pesticide doses, to reduce the threat of pesticide pollution in the river system and possible human health risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeshan Umar Shah
- Department of Zoology, Limnology Research Laboratory, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
- * E-mail:
| | - Saltanat Parveen
- Department of Zoology, Limnology Research Laboratory, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
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Zheng X, Xu J, Gao Y, Li W, Chen Y, Geng H, Yue J, Xu M. Within-day variation and health risk assessment of trihalomethanes (THMs) in a chlorinated indoor swimming pool in China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:18354-18363. [PMID: 36210406 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23498-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Trihalomethanes (THMs) are the most common species of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pools and have received widespread attention due to their risk to public health. However, studies examining within-day variation and the carcinogenic health risks from exposure to THMs in indoor swimming pools are limited. Our study aimed to detect the within-day variation of four THMs categories and carcinogenic health risk in indoor swimming pool water in Taiyuan, China, and to examine the correlations between THMs and environmental parameters. Our results showed chloroform (TCM) was the most abundant component in THMs with median concentrations from 0.038-0.118 μg/m3. TCM and THMs were significantly positively correlated with FCl and significantly negatively correlated with the cumulative number of swimmers (CNS) in the swimming pool. The concentration of total THMs and TCM, lifetime average daily doses (LADD) of TCM, and the total lifetime cancer risks (ELCR) values of THMs declined with time with the highest level occurring at 8:00 am. ELCR values of THMs were in the range of 1.368 × 10-5-1.968 × 10-5, which exceeded the negligible risk level (10-6) defined by US EPA. Our results suggest that THM occurrence and the carcinogenic health risks in pool water varied temporally. Exposure to pool water THMs may pose a carcinogenic risk to human health, especially at the pool's opening time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianyun Zheng
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China.
| | - Jingchao Xu
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Ye Gao
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
- School of Physical Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Wanghong Li
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
- School of Physical Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Yimei Chen
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Hong Geng
- Institute of Environmental Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Jianwei Yue
- Shanxi Unisdom Testing Technology Co., Ltd., Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Min Xu
- Shanxi Unisdom Testing Technology Co., Ltd., Taiyuan, 030032, China
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5
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Costa C, Assunção R, Sequeira D, Esteves F, Valdiglesias V, Laffon B, Teixeira JP, Madureira J. From trihalomethanes chronic daily intake through multiple exposure routes to cancer and non-cancer health risk assessment: Evidence from public Portuguese indoor swimming pools facilities using a probabilistic approach. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 818:151790. [PMID: 34808171 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to estimate chronic daily intake (CDI) and to predict the attributable lifetime cancer risk (LCR) and hazard index (HI) from concurrent exposure to four trihalomethanes (THMs; chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform), via multiple exposure routes (oral ingestion, dermal contact and inhalation), among 238 non-competitive attendees of 10 Portuguese public indoor swimming pools (SPs), using a probabilistic approach based on Monte Carlo simulations. Exposure parameters of study participants were collected via questionnaires and THMs levels in SPs water were determined according the respective normative standards. The CDI for total THMs calculated for male and female participants considering all routes was 7.52 and 8.97 mg/kg/day, respectively. SP attendees presented higher CDI through inhalation than via the other two exposure routes, and chloroform was the compound contributing the most to total THMs CDI. The risk analysis indicated that the total LCR and HI from the targeted THMs were higher than the negligible risk levels (1 × 10-6 and 1, respectively) in the scenarios examined (central tendency exposure and reasonable maximum exposure), and the health risk for females was slightly higher than for males. This study suggests that there are possible adverse health risks, thus, to protect pool attendees, adequate mitigation measures, and comprehensive regulatory guidelines on individual THMs concentrations are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Costa
- Environmental Health Department, National Institute of Health, Rua Alexandre Herculano 321, 4000-055 Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Assunção
- CESAM-Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; Food and Nutrition Department, National Institute of Health, Avenida Padre Cruz, 1649-016 Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA National School of Public Health, Public Health Research Centre, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Av. Padre Cruz, 1600-560 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Diana Sequeira
- EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipa Esteves
- Environmental Health Department, National Institute of Health, Rua Alexandre Herculano 321, 4000-055 Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
| | - Vanessa Valdiglesias
- Universidade da Coruña, Grupo DICOMOSA, Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Avanzadas (CICA), Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Campus A Zapateira s/n, 15071 A Coruña, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), AE CICA-INIBIC, Oza, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Blanca Laffon
- Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de A Coruña (INIBIC), AE CICA-INIBIC, Oza, 15071 A Coruña, Spain; Universidade da Coruña, Grupo DICOMOSA, Centro de Investigaciones Científicas Avanzadas (CICA), Departamento de Psicología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, Campus Elviña s/n, 15071 A Coruña, Spain
| | - João Paulo Teixeira
- Environmental Health Department, National Institute of Health, Rua Alexandre Herculano 321, 4000-055 Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Joana Madureira
- Environmental Health Department, National Institute of Health, Rua Alexandre Herculano 321, 4000-055 Porto, Portugal; EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal; Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Rua das Taipas 135, 4050-600 Porto, Portugal
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Dehghani M, Shahsavani S, Mohammadpour A, Jafarian A, Arjmand S, Rasekhi MA, Dehghani S, Zaravar F, Derakhshan Z, Ferrante M, Oliveri Conti G. Determination of chloroform concentration and human exposure assessment in the swimming pool. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 203:111883. [PMID: 34391733 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This cross-sectional study aimed to examine the concentration of the by-products of chlorination in the swimming pool and estimate human health risk for the swimmers of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences. In this study, the chloroform concentrations of 16 samples were measured using Gas Chromatography (GC). All the measured concentrations were less than the allowed amount announced by the World Health Organization (WHO). The results of the cancer risk (CR) and hazard index (HI) showed that the major exposure routes were found to be dermal during swimming and the 95 percentile of estimated CR and HI for the male group were 1.38 × 10-10 and 1.82 × 10-5 respectively, which is higher than the values of 5.48 × 10-10 and 2.25 × 10-5 respectively, for the women group. Sensitivity analyses indicated that the swimming exposure time (ET), and chloroform concentration were the most relevant variables in the health risk model. Therefore, knowledge about the sources of micro-pollutants in swimming pools might help promote the health methods of the pool environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansooreh Dehghani
- Research Center for Health Sciences, Institute of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Samaneh Shahsavani
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Amin Mohammadpour
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Arian Jafarian
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Sara Arjmand
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Amin Rasekhi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Samaneh Dehghani
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Foroozandeh Zaravar
- School of Paramedical Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Zahra Derakhshan
- Research Center for Health Sciences, Institute of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Margherita Ferrante
- Environmental and Food Hygiene Laboratories (LIAA) of Department of Medical Sciences, Surgical and Advanced Technologies "G.F. Ingrassia", Hygiene and Public Health, University of Catania, Italy
| | - Gea Oliveri Conti
- Environmental and Food Hygiene Laboratories (LIAA) of Department of Medical Sciences, Surgical and Advanced Technologies "G.F. Ingrassia", Hygiene and Public Health, University of Catania, Italy
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Occurrence of Disinfection By-Products in Swimming Pools in the Area of Thessaloniki, Northern Greece. Assessment of Multi-Pathway Exposure and Risk. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26247639. [PMID: 34946721 PMCID: PMC8703401 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26247639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the occurrence of disinfection by-products (DBPs) (trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), halonitriles (HANs), halonitromethane (TCNM) and haloketones (HKs)) in different type of swimming pools in the area of Thessaloniki, northern Greece by employing the EPA methods 551.1 and 552.3. Moreover, general water quality parameters (pH, residual chlorine, dissolved organic carbon, UV254 absorption, total nitrogen, alkalinity and conductivity) were also measured. The concentrations of DBPs showed great variability among swimming pools as well as within the same pool between sampling campaigns. HAAs exhibited the highest concentrations followed by THMs, HANs, TCNM and HKs. Exposure doses for four age groups (3–<6 y, 6–<11 y, 11–<16 y and adults) were calculated. Route-specific exposures varied among DBPs groups. Inhalation was the dominant exposure route to THMs and TCNM (up to 92–95%). Ingestion and dermal absorption were the main exposure routes to HAAs (40–82% and 18–59%, respectively), depending on the age of swimmers. HANs contributed up to 75% to the calculated cytotoxicity of pool water. Hazard indices for different exposure routes were <1, suggesting non-carcinogenic risk. Inhalation posed the higher carcinogenic risk for THMs, whereas risk via oral and dermal routes was low. Ingestion and dermal contact posed the higher risk for HAAs. Risk management strategies that minimise DBPs exposure without compromising disinfection efficiency in swimming pools are necessary.
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Peng F, Yang F, Lu Y, Li H, Yang Z. Formation of disinfection byproducts during chlorination of mixed nitrogenous compounds in swimming pools. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 754:142100. [PMID: 32916492 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in swimming pool waters are receiving increasing attention because of their toxicity and widespread occurrence. Current studies rarely investigate the formation of DBPs from typical precursors in swimming pools under mixed exposure. They also rarely investigate the formation of carbonaceous DBPs (C-DBPs) and nitrogenous DBPs (N-DBPs) simultaneously. In this study, the formation of C-DBPs and N-DBPs were investigated during chlorination of mixed precursors (i.e., tryptophan, urea, creatinine, and ammonia). The effects of precursors and operation parameters were also investigated. Among the four precursors, tryptophan had the highest DBP formation potential. Urea and ammonia restrained the formation of C-DBPs but promoted the formation of more toxic N-DBPs. C-DBP yields were significantly higher than N-DBP yields under all experimental conditions. Longer reaction time and higher chlorine dosage promoted the formation of C-DBPs, while higher temperature decreased the concentration of N-DBPs. The presence of bromide not only improved the sum yields of DBPs, but also shifted chlorinated DBPs to brominated species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Fang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Yi Lu
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
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Anchal P, Kumari M, Gupta SK. Human health risk estimation and predictive modeling of halogenated disinfection by- products (chloroform) in swimming pool waters: a case study of Dhanbad, Jharkhand, India. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCE & ENGINEERING 2020; 18:1595-1605. [PMID: 33312664 PMCID: PMC7721849 DOI: 10.1007/s40201-020-00578-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection is an important process to make the water free from harmful pathogenic substances, but sometimes it results in the formation of harmful by-products. Development of predictive models is required to define the concentration of THMs in pool water. Majority of studies reported inhalation to be the most significant THMs exposure route which is more likely to be dependent upon the concentration of THMs in pool water and in air. THMs concentration in the analyzed pool water samples and in air was found to be 197.18 ± 16.31 μg L-1 and 0.033 μg m3-1, respectively. Statistical parameters such as high correlation coefficients, high R2 values, low standard error, and low mean square error of prediction indicated the validity of MLR based linear model over non-linear model. Therefore, linear model can be most suitably used to pre-assess and predict the THMs levels in swimming pool water. Risk estimation studies was conducted by using the united states environmental protection agency (USEPA) Swimmer Exposure Assessment Model (SWIMODEL). The lifetime time cancer risk values related to chloroform exceeded 10-6 for both the sub-population. Inhalation exposure leads to maximum risk and contributed up to 99% to total cancer risk. Risk due to other exposure pathways like accidental ingestion and skin contact was found to be negligible and insignificant. Monte Carlo simulation results revealed that the simulated THMs risk values for the studied exposure pathways lies within ±3.1% of the average risk values obtained using SWIMODEL. Hence, the risk estimates obtained using SWIMODEL seemed to be appropriate in determining the potential risk exposure of THMs on human health. Variation in input parameters like body weight (BW) and skin surface area (SA) leads to difference in risk estimates for the studied population. Non cancer risk was found to be insignificant as represented by low hazard quotient (HQ < 1) values. Through monitoring and regulations on control of THMs in swimming pool water is required to minimize the risk associated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puja Anchal
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004 India
| | - Minashree Kumari
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004 India
| | - Sunil Kumar Gupta
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, Jharkhand 826004 India
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Chowdhury S, Chowdhury IR, Mazumder MAJ, Al-Suwaiyan MS. Predicting risk and loss of disability-adjusted life years (DALY) from selected disinfection byproducts in multiple water supply sources in Saudi Arabia. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 737:140296. [PMID: 32783866 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water is an issue in many countries. Many DBPs are possible or probable human carcinogens while few DBPs pose cyto- and genotoxic effects to the mammalian cells. The populations are likely to consume DBPs with drinking water throughout their lifetimes. A number of DBPs are regulated in many countries to protect humans. In this study, human exposure, risk and disability-adjusted life years (DALY) were predicted from DBPs in multiple water supply systems, including groundwater (GW), desalinated water (DW) and blend water (BW). The averages of lifetime excess cancer risks from GW, DW and BW were 4.15 × 10-6, 1.75 × 10-5 and 2.59 × 10-5 respectively. The populations in age groups of 0 - <2, 2-16 and >16 years contributed 25.4-25.7%, 28.6-29.6% and 45.0-45.7% to the total risks respectively. The DALY from GW, DW and BW were estimated to be 5.8, 27.0 and 39.9 years, respectively while the corresponding financial burdens were US$ 0.63, 2.93 and 4.34 million respectively. The findings are likely to assist in selecting the supply water sources to better control human exposure and risk from DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakhawat Chowdhury
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Imran Rahman Chowdhury
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Mohammad Saleh Al-Suwaiyan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
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Wang X, Dong S. Assessment of exposure of children swimmers to trihalomethanes in an indoor swimming pool. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2020; 18:533-544. [PMID: 32833679 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2020.188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to understand the exposure levels of trihalomethanes (THMs) in an indoor swimming pool and calculate the risks of exposure to THMs, based on the presence of each THM species, of children swimmers aged 6-17, in Beijing, China. We obtained exposure factors for the children through questionnaires and measured THM concentrations through laboratory tests, and we combined the results with an exposure model to calculate the risks, with consideration of different exposure routes (oral ingestion, inhalation and dermal absorption). In terms of exposure factors for the swimmers aged 6-17, the average body weight, exposure duration, exposure frequency, swimming time, shower time, changing time, warm-up exercise and rest time, skin surface area and ingestion rate of pool water were 40.46 kg, 2.70 years, 96 events/year, 64.03 min/event, 17.04 min/event, 15.31 min/event, 12.71 min/event, 1.37 m2 and 48.93 ml/event, respectively. The THM concentrations in swimming pool water, shower water, swimming pool air and locker room air were 67.17 μg/L, 12.64 μg/L, 358.66 μg/m3 and 40.98 μg/m3, respectively. The average cancer risk of THMs was 5.44 × 10-6, which is an unacceptable risk according to the United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Guidelines. The average hazard index was 0.007, i.e., less than 1, indicating that the noncancer risk was acceptable. Chloroform (TCM) was the main substance in four species of THMs and inhalation exposure was the main exposure pathway. The risk of cancer and noncancer from inhalation exposure to THMs accounts for 97-99% of the total risk. As a result, the disease control authorities and administrative department should pay attention to the health and safety of swimming facilities and, at the same time, establish standards for THMs in the air through further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoshuang Wang
- National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100050, China E-mail:
| | - Shaoxia Dong
- National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100050, China E-mail:
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12
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Peng F, Peng J, Li H, Li Y, Wang B, Yang Z. Health risks and predictive modeling of disinfection byproducts in swimming pools. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 139:105726. [PMID: 32298877 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection is an indispensable water treatment process used to inactivate pathogens and prevent outbreaks of infectious diseases in swimming pools. However, toxic disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are inevitably formed during the process. To improve the supervision and regulation of DBPs in swimming pools, the reliability of using trihalomethanes (THMs) as the sole indicator of organic DBPs and the possibility of using easily detectable water quality parameters as predictors of DBPs were discussed based on the occurrence of 29 typical DBPs in swimming pools. Among the target DBP categories, THMs and haloacetic acids (HAAs) were the prominent species, and the concentrations of HAAs were the highest. The risk assessment results indicated that the total risk values in most pools were higher than the acceptable value (10-6). Compared with nitrosamines and THMs, HAAs were the main contributors to the cancer risks posed by dermal absorption and ingestion. THMs (r = 0.619; p < 0.01) and HAAs (r = 0.989; p < 0.01) were both significantly correlated with total DBPs (the sum of 29 DBPs). A stepwise multivariate regression model was developed by analyzing the correlations between total DBPs and water quality parameters, and the relationship coefficient R2 was 0.756. This study provides important information and perspectives for the improvement and implementation of standards for swimming pool water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangyuan Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Jingjin Peng
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Haipu Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
| | - Yue Li
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China
| | - Beizi Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha 410078, PR China
| | - Zhaoguang Yang
- Center for Environment and Water Resources, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, PR China; Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety, Changsha 410083, PR China.
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13
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Heaney LM, Kang S, Turner MA, Lindley MR, Thomas CLP. Evidence for alternative exhaled elimination profiles of disinfection by-products and potential markers of airway responses to swimming in a chlorinated pool environment. INDOOR AIR 2020; 30:284-293. [PMID: 31814168 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine-based disinfectants protect pool water from pathogen contamination but produce potentially harmful halogenated disinfection by-products (DBPs). This study characterized the bioaccumulation and elimination of exhaled DBPs post-swimming and investigated changes in exhaled breath profiles associated with chlorinated pool exposure. Nineteen participants provided alveolar-enriched breath samples prior to and 5, 90, 300, 510, and 600 minutes post-swimming. Known DBPs associated with chlorinated water were quantitated by thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Two distinct exhaled DBP elimination profiles were observed. Most participants (84%) reported peak concentrations immediately post-swimming that reduced exponentially. A sub-group exhibited a previously unobserved and delayed washout profile with peak levels at 90 minutes post-exposure. Metabolomic investigations tentatively identified two candidate biomarkers associated with swimming pool exposure, demonstrating an upregulation in the hours after exposure. These data demonstrated a hitherto undescribed exhaled DBP elimination profile in a small number of participants which contrasts previous findings of uniform accumulation and exponential elimination. This sub-group which exhibited delayed peak-exhaled concentrations suggests the uptake, processing, and immediate elimination of DBPs are not ubiquitous across individuals as previously understood. Additionally, non-targeted metabolomics highlighted extended buildup of compounds tentatively associated with swimming in a chlorinated pool environment that may indicate airway responses to DBP exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam M Heaney
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Shuo Kang
- Centre for Analytical Science, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Matthew A Turner
- Centre for Analytical Science, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Martin R Lindley
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
- Translational Chemical Biology Research Group, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Charles L Paul Thomas
- Centre for Analytical Science, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
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14
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Gouveia P, Felgueiras F, Mourão Z, Fernandes EDO, Moreira A, Gabriel MF. Predicting health risk from exposure to trihalomethanes in an Olympic-size indoor swimming pool among elite swimmers and coaches. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2019; 82:577-590. [PMID: 31262237 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2019.1634383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection by-products (DBP) such as trihalomethanes (THM) are formed when chlorine and bromine interact with natural organic materials in chlorine-treated swimming pools. Epidemiological evidence demonstrated an association between exposure to swimming pool environment and adverse health effects. Therefore, this study aimed to assess carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk of long-term exposure of elite swimmers and their coaches. In an Olympic-size indoor chlorinated swimming pool, THM levels were determined in water (21-69 µg/L), in the boundary layer above the water surface (59-397 µg/m3), and in the air surrounding the pool (28-390 µg/m3). These values were used to predict multi-pathway chronic daily intake (CDI), cancer risk (CR) and hazard index (HI). Oral and dermal CDI for swimmers were 2.4 × 10-6 and 2.0 × 10-8, respectively. The swimmers' inhalation CDI (1.9 × 10-3 mg/kg/day) was estimated to be sixfold higher than levels obtained for coaches (3.3 × 10-4 mg/kg/day). According to guidelines, the HI was acceptable, but CR exceeded the recommended limit for both, coaches (CR: 5.5 × 10-7-8.5 × 10-5; HI: 6.5 × 10-4-1 × 10-1) and swimmers (CR: 1.4 × 10-5-3.6 × 10-4 HI: 1.6 × 10-2-4.3 × 10-1). Our findings provide further support to the need to develop comprehensive guidelines to safeguard the health of individuals involved in elite swimming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Gouveia
- a Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Fátima Felgueiras
- b Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering , Porto , Portugal
| | - Zenaida Mourão
- b Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering , Porto , Portugal
| | | | - André Moreira
- a Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto , Porto , Portugal
- d Serviço de Imunoalergologia, Centro Hospitalar São João , Porto , Portugal
- e EPIUnit - Instituto de Saúde Pública, Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Marta Fonseca Gabriel
- b Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering , Porto , Portugal
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Drinking Water Disinfection By-products and Their Carcinogenicity; A Review of an Unseen Crisis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CANCER MANAGEMENT 2019. [DOI: 10.5812/ijcm.88930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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16
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Nitter TB, Svendsen KVH. Modelling the concentration of chloroform in the air of a Norwegian swimming pool facility-A repeated measures study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 664:1039-1044. [PMID: 30901778 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Certain volatile disinfection by-products (DBPs) off-gassing from pool water can cause eye and skin irritations, respiratory problems, and even cancer. No guidelines or recommendations concerning DBPs in the air exist in Norway. Traditionally, ventilation strategies in indoor swimming pools are based on reducing condensation on the windows rather than ensuring proper air quality in the users' breathing zone. A total of 93 air samples of airborne concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) were collected via stationary sampling. We investigated the distribution of total THM (tTHM) 0.05 m and 0.60 m above the water surface at six different locations in the poolroom and the covariation between the water and air quality parameters. Based on a linear mixed effects model, the most important determinants in terms of predicting the air concentration of CHCl3 were height above water surface, air changes of fresh air per hour, concentration of combined chlorine in the water, relative humidity (RH) and day of the week. Approximately 36% of the total variability could be attributed to these variables; hence, to reduce the average exposure in the poolroom, hazard control should focus on these variables. Based on the identified predictor variables, the supplied air should be controlled based on water quality in addition to the traditional control censors for RH and air temperature used in the ventilation system of Norwegian swimming facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Therese B Nitter
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway; Center for Sports Facilities and Technology (SIAT), Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Kristin V H Svendsen
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway; Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management, Trondheim, Norway
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Nitter TB, Svendsen KVH. Determinants of Exposure and Variability of Trihalomethanes in the Air of Three Indoor Swimming Pools. Ann Work Expo Health 2019; 63:560-567. [DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxz024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Therese Bergh Nitter
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Centre for Sport Facilities and Technology (SIAT), Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Høgskoleringen, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Kristin v Hirsch Svendsen
- Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Sem Sælands vei, Trondheim, Norway
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18
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Pándics T, Hofer Á, Dura G, Vargha M, Szigeti T, Tóth E. Health risk of swimming pool disinfection by-products: a regulatory perspective. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2018; 16:947-957. [PMID: 30540269 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2018.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
While disinfection of swimming pools is indispensable for microbiological safety, it may lead to the formation of disinfection by-products. Most studies agree that inhalation exposure is the predominant pathway of the associated health risks, but assumptions are based on concentrations measured in water and evaporation models. Pool water and air were sampled in 19 swimming pools. Trihalomethanes were detected in all sites; chloroform being the most abundant species. Concentrations ranged between 12.8-71.2 μg/L and 11.1-102.2 μg/m3 in pool water and air, respectively. The individual lifetime carcinogenic risk associated with chloroform in swimming pools exceeded 10-6 in all age groups for recreational swimmers and 10-5 for elite swimmers and staff, even if the pool complied with the national standards. Inhalation exposure was estimated and found to be the most relevant, however, different mass transfer models from water measurements significantly under- or overestimated the health burden compared to direct calculation from the concentration in air. The observed health risks call for defining regulatory values and monitoring requirement of indoor air quality in swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamás Pándics
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Ádám Hofer
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Gyula Dura
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Márta Vargha
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Tamás Szigeti
- National Public Health Institute, Public Health Directorate, Albert Flórián út 2-6., H-1097 Budapest, Hungary E-mail:
| | - Erika Tóth
- Department of Microbiology, Eötvös Loránd University of Sciences, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C, H-1117, Hungary
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19
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Yang L, Chen X, She Q, Cao G, Liu Y, Chang VWC, Tang CY. Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:1039-1057. [PMID: 30392941 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The microbial safety of swimming pool waters (SPWs) becomes increasingly important with the popularity of swimming activities. Disinfection aiming at killing microbes in SPWs produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which has attracted considerable public attentions due to their high frequency of occurrence, considerable concentrations and potent toxicity. We reviewed the latest research progress within the last four decades on the regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of DBPs in the context of SPWs. This paper specifically discussed DBP regulations in different regions, formation mechanisms related with disinfectants, precursors and other various conditions, human exposure assessment reflected by biomarkers or epidemiological evidence, and the control and treatment of DBPs. Compared to drinking water with natural organic matter as the main organic precursor of DBPs, the additional human inputs (i.e., body fluids and personal care products) to SPWs make the water matrix more complicated and lead to the formation of more types and greater concentrations of DBPs. Dermal absorption and inhalation are two main exposure pathways for trihalomethanes while ingestion for haloacetic acids, reflected by DBP occurrence in human matrices including exhaled air, urine, blood, and plasma. Studies show that membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, biodegradation, thermal degradation, chemical reduction, and some hybrid processes are the potential DBP treatment technologies. The removal efficiency, possible mechanisms and future challenges of these DBP treatment methods are summarized in this review, which may facilitate their full-scale applications and provide potential directions for further research extension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Xueming Chen
- Process and Systems Engineering Center (PROSYS), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Qianhong She
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Guomin Cao
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yongdi Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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Marsà A, Cortés C, Hernández A, Marcos R. Hazard assessment of three haloacetic acids, as byproducts of water disinfection, in human urothelial cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2018; 347:70-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2018.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Revised: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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21
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Carter RAA, Joll CA. Occurrence and formation of disinfection by-products in the swimming pool environment: A critical review. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:19-50. [PMID: 28774608 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 06/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection of water for human use is essential to protect against microbial disease; however, disinfection also leads to formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), some of which are of health concern. From a chemical perspective, swimming pools are a complex matrix, with continual addition of a wide range of natural and anthropogenic chemicals via filling waters, disinfectant addition, pharmaceuticals and personal care products and human body excretions. Natural organic matter, trace amounts of DBPs and chlorine or chloramines may be introduced by the filling water, which is commonly disinfected distributed drinking water. Chlorine and/or bromine is continually introduced via the addition of chemical disinfectants to the pool. Human body excretions (sweat, urine and saliva) and pharmaceuticals and personal care products (sunscreens, cosmetics, hair products and lotions) are introduced by swimmers. High addition of disinfectant leads to a high formation of DBPs from reaction of some of the chemicals with the disinfectant. Swimming pool air is also of concern as volatile DBPs partition into the air above the pool. The presence of bromine leads to the formation of a wide range of bromo- and bromo/chloro-DBPs, and Br-DBPs are more toxic than their chlorinated analogues. This is particularly important for seawater-filled pools or pools using a bromine-based disinfectant. This review summarises chemical contaminants and DBPs in swimming pool waters, as well as in the air above pools. Factors that have been found to affect DBP formation in pools are discussed. The impact of the swimming pool environment on human health is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys A A Carter
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6102, Australia
| | - Cynthia A Joll
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Department of Chemistry, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6102, Australia.
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Chowdhury S, Mazumder AJ, Husain T. Predicting bromide incorporation in a chlorinated indoor swimming pool. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:12174-12184. [PMID: 26971516 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-6339-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The water in and air above swimming pools often contain high levels of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) due to chemical reactions between chlorine- or bromine-based disinfectants and organic/inorganic matter in the source water and released from swimmers. Exposure to these DBPs, though inevitable, can pose health threats to humans. In this study, DBPs in tap water (S1), and water from a chlorinated indoor swimming pool before (S2) and after swimming (S3) were measured. The brominated species constituted the majority of DBPs formed in S1, S2, and S3. Trihalomethanes (THMs) in S3 was 6.9 (range 2.9-11.1) and 1.4 (range 0.52-2.9) times those in S1 and S2, respectively; and the haloacetic acids (HAAs) in S3 was 4.2 (range 2.5-7.5) and 1.2 (range 0.6-2.6) times those in S1 and S2, respectively. The mean THMs in air above the swimming pool before (S2-A) and after swimming (S3-A) were 72.2 and 93.0 μg/m(3), respectively, and their ranges were 36.3-105.8 and 44.1-133.6 μg/m(3), respectively. The average percentages of bromide incorporation (BI) into THMs in S1, S2, and S3 were 3.0, 9.3, and 10.6 %, respectively; and the BI into HAAs in S1, S2, and S3 were 6.6, 12.0, and 12.2 %, respectively. Several models were trained for predicting the BI into THMs and HAAs. The results indicate that additional information is required to develop predictive models for BI in swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakhawat Chowdhury
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Water Research Group, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Abu Jafar Mazumder
- Department of Chemistry, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tahir Husain
- Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada, A1B 3X5
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