Anti-Asthmatic Effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 in a Mouse Model of Allergic Asthma Through Relegating Th1/Th2

Effects of Panax species and their bioactive components on allergic airway diseases

Panax species include Panax ginseng Meyer, Panax quinquefolium L., Panax notoginseng, Panax japonicum, Panax trifolium, and Panax pseudoginseng, which contain bioactive components (BCs) such as ginsenosides and polysaccharides. Recently, growing evidence has revealed the pharmacological effects of Panax species and their BCs on allergic airway diseases (AADs), including allergic asthma (AA) and allergic rhinitis (AR). AADs are characterized by damaged epithelium, sustained acquired immune responses with enforced Th2 responses, allergen-specific IgE production, and enhanced production of histamine and leukotrienes by activated mast cells and basophils. In this review, we summarize how Panax species and their BCs modulate acquired immune responses involving interactions between dendritic cells and T cells, reduce the pro-inflammatory responses of epithelial cells, and reduce allergenic responses from basophils and mast cells in vitro. In addition, we highlight the current understanding of the alleviative effects of Panax species and their BCs against AA and AR in vivo. Moreover, we discuss the unmet needs of research and considerations for the treatment of patients to provide basic scientific knowledge for the treatment of AADs using Panax species and their BCs.

Ginseng and ginsenosides on cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases; Pharmacological potentials for the coronavirus (COVID-19)

Since its outbreak in late 2019, the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has profoundly caused global morbidity and deaths. The COVID-19 pandemic caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has major complications in cardiovascular and pulmonary system. The increased rate of mortality is due to delayed detection of certain biomarkers that are crucial in the development of disease. Furthermore, certain proteins and enzymes in cellular signaling pathways play an important role in replication of SARS-CoV-2. Most cases are mild to moderate symptoms, however severe cases of COVID-19 leads to death. Detecting the level of biomarkers such as C-reactive protein, cardiac troponin, creatine kinase, creatine kinase-MB, procalcitonin and Matrix metalloproteinases helps in early detection of the severity of disease. Similarly, through downregulating Renin-angiotensin system, interleukin, Mitogen-activated protein kinases and Phosphoinositide 3-kinases pathways, COVID-19 can be effectively controlled and mortality could be prevented. Ginseng and ginsenosides possess therapeutic potential in cardiac and pulmonary complications, there are several studies performed in which they have suppressed these biomarkers and downregulated the pathways, thereby inhibiting the further spread of disease. Supplementation with ginseng or ginsenoside could act on multiple pathways to reduce the level of biomarkers significantly and alleviate cardiac and pulmonary damage. Therefore, this review summarizes the potential of ginseng extract and ginsenosides in controlling the cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases by COVID-19.

Inhibition of the pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathway: The important potential mechanism of ginsenosides in ameliorating diabetes and its complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and its complications have become an important global public health issue, affecting human health and negatively impacting life and lifespan. Pyroptosis is a recently discovered form of pro-inflammatory programmed cell death (PCD). To date, pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways have been identified primarily in the canonical and non-canonical inflammasome pathway, apoptotic caspase-mediated pathway, granzyme-mediated pathway, and streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B (SpeB)-mediated pathway. The activation of diabetes-mediated pyroptosis-associated factors play an important role in the pathophysiology of DM and its complications. Studies have shown that ginsenosides exert significant protective effects on DM and its complications. Through inhibiting the activation of pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways, and then the DM and its complications are improved. This review summarizes the subtypes of ginsenosides and their chemical characteristics, pharmacokinetics and side effects, the main pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways that have been discovered to date, and the potential mechanism of different subtypes of ginsenosides in the treatment of DM and its complications (such as diabetic cardiomyopathy, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic liver injury, diabetic retinopathy, and diabetic ischemic stroke) via anti-pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways. These findings may provide ideas for further research to explore ginsenoside mechanism in improving DM and its complications. However, many pyroptosis-associated inflammasome pathways and targets involved in the occurrence and development of DM and its complications are still unknown. In the future, further studies using in vitro cell models, in vivo animal models, and human disease models can be used to further elucidate the mechanism of ginsenosides in the treatment of DM and its complications.

Integration of transcriptomics and metabolomics to reveal the effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on allergic rhinitis in mice

Increasing studies have demonstrated that ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) plays an important role in the prevention and treatment of various diseases, including allergic lower airway inflammation such as asthma. To investigate the role of Rg3 in allergic upper airway disease, the effect and therapeutic mechanism of Rg3 in allergic rhinitis (AR) were studied. Ovalbumin-induced AR model mice were intragastrically administered with Rg3. Nasal symptoms, levels of IgE, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, SOD and MDA in serum, and histopathological analysis of nasal mucosa were used to evaluate the effect of Rg3 on ameliorating AR in mice. Moreover, nasal mucosa samples from the normal control group, AR model group and high dosage of Rg3 were collected to perform omics analysis. The differentially expressed genes and significantly changed metabolites were screened based on transcriptomics and metabolomics analyses, respectively. Integrative analysis was further performed to confirm the hub genes, metabolites and pathways. After Rg3 intervention, the nasal symptoms and inflammatory infiltration were effectively improved, the levels of IgE, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 and MDA were significantly reduced, and the level of SOD was obviously increased. The results of the qRT-PCR assay complemented the transcriptomic findings. Integrated analysis showed that Rg3 played an anti-AR role mainly by regulating the interaction network, which was constructed by 12 genes, 8 metabolites and 4 pathways. Our findings suggested that Rg3 had a therapeutic effect on ovalbumin-induced AR in mice by inhibiting inflammation development and reducing oxidative stress. The present study could provide a potential natural agent for the treatment of AR.

Recent advances in ginsenosides against respiratory diseases: Therapeutic targets and potential mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Respiratory diseases mainly include asthma, influenza, pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary hypertension, lung fibrosis, and lung cancer. Given their high prevalence and poor prognosis, the prevention and treatment of respiratory diseases are increasingly essential. In particular, the development for the novel strategies of drug treatment has been a hot topic in the research field. Ginsenosides are the major component of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (ginseng), a food homology and well-known medicinal herb. In this review, we summarize the current therapeutic effects and molecular mechanisms of ginsenosides in respiratory diseases.

METHODS

The reviewed studies were retrieved via a thorough analysis of numerous articles using electronic search tools including Sci-Finder, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Web of Science. The following keywords were used for the online search: ginsenosides, asthma, influenza, pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary hypertension (PH), lung fibrosis, lung cancer, and clinical trials. We summarized the findings and the conclusions from 176 manuscripts on ginsenosides, including research articles and reviews.

RESULTS

Ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, Rg3, Rh2, and CK, which are the most commonly reported ginsenosides for treating of respiratory diseases, and other ginsenosides such as Rh1, Rk1, Rg5, Rd and Re, all primarily reduce pneumonia, fibrosis, and inhibit tumor progression by targeting NF-κB, TGF-β/Smad, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, and JNK pathways, thereby ameliorating respiratory diseases.

CONCLUSION

This review provides novel ideas and important aspects for the future research of ginsenosides for treating respiratory diseases.

Therapeutic potency of curcumin for allergic diseases: A focus on immunomodulatory actions

In light of increasing research evidence on the molecular mechanisms of allergic diseases, the crucial roles of innate and acquired immunity in the disease's pathogenesis have been well highlighted. In this respect, much attention has been paid to the modulation of unregulated and unabated inflammatory responses aiming to suppress pathologic immune responses in treating allergic diseases. One of the most important natural compounds with a high potency of immune modulation is curcumin, an active polyphenol compound derived from turmeric, Curcuma longa L. Curcumin's immunomodulatory action mainly arises from its interactions with an extensive collection of immune cells such as mast cells, eosinophils, epithelial cells, basophils, neutrophils, and lymphocytes. Up to now, there has been no detailed investigation of curcumin's immunomodulatory actions in allergic diseases. So, the present review study aims to prepare an overview of the immunomodulatory effects of curcumin on the pathologic innate immune responses and dysregulated functions of T helper (T_H) subtypes, including T_H1, T_H2, T_H17, and regulator T cells (Tregs) by gathering evidence from several studies of In-vitro and In-vivo. As the second aim of the present review, we also discuss some novel strategies to overcome the limitation of curcumin in clinical use. Finally, this review also assesses the therapeutic potential of curcumin regarding its immunomodulatory actions in allergic diseases.

The Role and Mechanisms of Traditional Chinese Medicine for Airway Inflammation and Remodeling in Asthma: Overview and Progress

Asthma as an individual disease has blighted human health for thousands of years and is still a vital global health challenge at present. Though getting much progress in the utilization of antibiotics, mucolytics, and especially the combination of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and long-acting β-agonists (LABA), we are confused about the management of asthmatic airway inflammation and remodeling, which directly threatens the quality of life for chronic patients. The blind addition of ICS will not benefit the remission of cough, wheeze, or sputum, but to increase the risk of side effects. Thus, it is necessary to explore an effective therapy to modulate asthmatic inflammation and airway remodeling. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has justified its anti-asthma effect in clinical practice but its underlying mechanism and specific role in asthma are still unknown. Some animal studies demonstrated that the classic formula, direct exacts, and natural compounds isolated from TCM could significantly alleviate airway structural alterations and exhibit the anti-inflammatory effects. By investigating these findings and data, we will discuss the possible pathomechanism underlined airway inflammation and remodeling in asthma and the unique role of TCM in the treatment of asthma through regulating different signaling pathways.

Pharmacokinetics of Ginsenoside Rb1, Rg3, Rk1, Rg5, F2, and Compound K from Red Ginseng Extract in Healthy Korean Volunteers

Individual differences in ginsenoside pharmacokinetics following ginseng administration in humans are still unclear. We aimed to investigate the pharmacokinetic properties of various ginsenosides, including Rb1, Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, F2, and compound K (CK), after a single oral administration of red ginseng (RG) and bioconverted red ginseng extract (BRG). This was a randomized, open-label, single-dose, single-sequence crossover study with washout every 1 week, and 14 healthy Korean men were enrolled. All subjects were equally assigned to two groups and given RG or BRG capsules. The pharmacokinetic parameters of ginsenosides were measured from the plasma drug concentration-time curve of individual subjects. Ginsenosides Rg3, Rk1 + Rg5, F2, and CK in the BRG group showed a higher C _max, AUC_(0-t), and AUC_(0-∞) and shorter T _max (for CK) than those in the RG group. These results suggest that BRG may lead to a higher absorption rate of bioactive ginsenosides. This study provides valuable information on the pharmacokinetics of various bioactive ginsenosides, which is needed to enhance the therapeutic efficacy and pharmacological activity of ginseng.

Recent progress (2015-2020) in the investigation of the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of ginsenoside Rb1, a main active ingredient in Panax ginseng Meyer

Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), one of the most important ingredients in Panax ginseng Meyer, has been confirmed to have favorable activities, including reducing antioxidative stress, inhibiting inflammation, regulating cell autophagy and apoptosis, affecting sugar and lipid metabolism, and regulating various cytokines. This study reviewed the recent progress on the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of Rb1 against cardiovascular and nervous system diseases, diabetes, and their complications, especially those related to neurodegenerative diseases, myocardial ischemia, hypoxia injury, and traumatic brain injury. This review retrieved articles from PubMed and Web of Science that were published from 2015 to 2020. The molecular targets or pathways of the effects of Rb1 on these diseases are referring to HMGB1, GLUT4, 11β-HSD1, ERK, Akt, Notch, NF-κB, MAPK, PPAR-γ, TGF-β1/Smad pathway, PI3K/mTOR pathway, Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, Nrf2/ARE pathway, and MAPK/NF-κB pathway. The potential effects of Rb1 and its possible mechanisms against diseases were further predicted via Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway and disease ontology semantic and enrichment (DOSE) analyses with the reported targets. This study provides insights into the therapeutic effects of Rb1 and its mechanisms against diseases, which is expected to help in promoting the drug development of Rb1 and its clinical applications.

Ginsenoside Rg3 ameliorates allergic airway inflammation and oxidative stress in mice

Background

Ginsenoside Rg3, isolated from Panax ginseng, has anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activities. It is known to reduce inflammation in acute lung injury in mice, and to reduce the expression of inflammatory cytokines and COX-2 in human asthmatic airway epithelium. In this study, we attempted to determine whether ginsenoside Rg3 inhibits airway inflammation, oxidative stress, and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) in the lungs of asthmatic mice. We also investigated its effects on oxidative stress and the inflammatory response in tracheal epithelial cells.

Methods

Asthma symptoms were induced in female BALB/c mice sensitized with ovalbumin (OVA). Mice were divided into five groups: normal controls, OVA-induced asthmatic controls, and asthmatic mice treated with ginsenoside Rg3 or prednisolone by intraperitoneal injection. Inflammatory BEAS-2B cells (human tracheal epithelial cells) treated with ginsenoside Rg3 to investigate its effects on inflammatory cytokines and oxidative responses.

Results

Ginsenoside Rg3 treatment significantly reduced eosinophil infiltration, oxidative responses, airway inflammation, and AHR in the lungs of asthmatic mice. Ginsenoside Rg3 reduced Th2 cytokine and chemokine levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids and lung. Inflammatory BEAS-2B cells treated with ginsenoside Rg3 reduced the eotaxin and pro-inflammatory cytokine expressions, and monocyte adherence to BEAS-2B cells was significantly reduced as a result of decreased ICAM-1 expression. Furthermore, ginsenoside Rg3 reduced the expression of reactive oxygen species in inflammatory BEAS-2B cells.

Conclusion

Ginsenoside Rg3 is a potential immunomodulator that can ameliorate pathological features of asthma by decreasing oxidative stress and inflammation

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Ginsenoside Rg3 reduced eosinophil infiltration, and airway hyperresponsiveness in the lungs of asthmatic mice.

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Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibited oxidative responses in the lungs.

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Ginsenoside Rg3 reduced the levels of Th2 cytokines in BALF and lung.

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Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibited monocyte cell adherence to tracheal epithelial cells.

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Ginsenoside Rg3 reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in tracheal epithelial cells.

Natural immunomodulating substances used for alleviating food allergy

Food allergy is a serious health problem affecting more than 10% of the human population worldwide. Medical treatments for food allergy remain limited because immune therapy is risky and costly, and anti-allergic drugs have many harmful side effects and can cause drug dependence. In this paper, we review natural bioactive substances capable of alleviating food allergy. The sources of the anti-allergic substances reviewed include plants, animals, and microbes, and the types of substances include polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, polyphenols, phycocyanin, polyunsaturated fatty acids, flavonoids, terpenoids, quinones, alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, and probiotics. We describe five mechanisms involved in anti-allergic activities, including binding with epitopes located in allergens, affecting the gut microbiota, influencing intestinal epithelial cells, altering antigen presentation and T cell differentiation, and inhibiting the degranulation of effector cells. In the discussion, we present the limitations of existing researches as well as promising advances in the development of anti-allergic foods and/or immunomodulating food ingredients that can effectively prevent or alleviate food allergy. This review provides a reference for further research on anti-allergic materials and their hyposensitizing mechanisms.

Synergistic effects of black ginseng and aged garlic extracts for the amelioration of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in mice

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a chronic liver disease that can lead to carcinoma, cirrhosis, and death. Since no approved medications are available, dietary interventions that include bioactive compounds have been recommended. This study investigated the effects of black ginseng extracts (BGE) and aged black garlic extracts (AGE) on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice. Micrograph of liver tissues of mice fed with BGE and AGE showed less lipid droplets. The BGE and AGE supplements individually and in combination lowered the marker enzymes, aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels indicating their hepatoprotective effects. Compared to the plants extracts alone, the combination of the extracts resulted in lower total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoproteins cholesterol (LDL-C), which are risk markers for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Diets with the combination of BGE and AGE supplements had higher superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities, and lower malondialdehyde indicating the synergistic effects of the extracts. Irrespective of the diet type, all treated groups showed lower tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) values as compared to HFD, which indicated overall immunomodulatory effect of both extracts. Therefore, the innovative formulation formed by the combination of BGE and AGE can provide hepatoprotective effects via modulating glycometabolism, lipometabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation in mice.

Ginsenoside Rh1 attenuates ovalbumin-induced asthma by regulating Th1/Th2 cytokines balance

Ginsenoside Rh1 (Rh1) has anti-inflammatory effects in asthma mice, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. BALB/c mice were sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA) to construct asthma model. Mice received Rh1 or tiotropium bromide 0.5 h before OVA challenge. Airway morphology and airway remodeling were assessed by HE staining and Masson's trichrome staining, respectively. Th1/Th2 cytokines in serum or broncho alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were measured by ELISA kits. Rh1 significantly alleviated the lung resistance and airway resistance, and reduced the number of total inflammation cells, eosinophils, neutrophils, and lymphocytes in BALF of the asthmatic mice. The morphological changes and collagen deposition of airway were also reduced by Rh1 in asthmatic mice. The increase of Eotaxin, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and IL-33 and the decrease of IL-12 and IFN-γ in both BALF and serum of OVA exposed mice were reversed by Rh1. Rh1 attenuates OVA-induced asthma in the mice model by regulating Th1/Th2 cytokines balance.

Nanosystems as curative platforms for allergic disorder management

Allergy, IgE-mediated inflammatory disorders including allergic rhinitis, asthma, and conjunctivitis, affects billions of people worldwide. Conventional means of allergy management include allergen avoidance, pharmacotherapy, and emerging therapies. Among them, chemotherapeutant intake via oral, intravenous, and intranasal routes is always the most common mean. Although current pharmacotherapy exhibit splendid anti-allergic effects, short in situ retention, low bioavailability, and systemic side effects are inevitable. Nowadays, nanoplatforms have provided alternative therapeutic options to obviate the existing weakness via enhancing the solubility of hydrophobic therapeutic agents, achieving in situ drug accumulation, exhibiting controlled and long-time drug release at lesion areas, and providing multi-functional therapeutic strategies. Herein, we highlight the clinical therapeutic strategies and deal with characteristics of the nanoplatform design in allergy interventions via intratracheal, gastrointestinal, intravenous, and ocular paths. The promising therapeutic utilization in a variety of allergic disorders is discussed, and recent perspectives on the feasible advances of nanoplatforms in allergy management are also exploited.

Immuno-enhancement effects of Korean Red Ginseng in healthy adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background

Most clinical studies of immune responses activated by Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) have been conducted exclusively in patients. However, there is still a lack of clinical research on immune-boosting benefits of KRG for healthy persons. This study aims to confirm how KRG boosts the immune system of healthy subjects.

Methods

A total of 100 healthy adult subjects were randomly divided into two groups that took either a 2 g KRG tablet or a placebo per day for 8 weeks. The primary efficacy evaluation variables included changes in T cells, B cells, and white blood cells (WBCs) before and after eight weeks of KRG ingestion. Cytokines (TNF-α, INF-γ, IL-2 and IL-4), WBC differential count, and incidence of colds were measured in the secondary efficacy evaluation variables. Safety evaluation variables were used to identify changes in laboratory test results that incorporated adverse reactions, vital signs, hematological tests, blood chemistry tests, and urinalysis.

Results

Compared to the placebo group, the KRG intake group showed a significant increase in the number of T cells (CD3) and its subtypes (CD4 and CD8), B cells, and the WBC count before and after eight weeks of the intake. There were no clinically significant adverse reactions or other notable results in the safety evaluation factors observed.

Conclusion

This study has proven through its eight-week intake test and subsequent analysis that KRG boosts the immune system through an increase in T cells, B cells, and WBCs, and that it is safe according to the study's safety evaluation.

Antagonistic Peptides That Specifically Bind to the First and Second Extracellular Loops of CCR5 and Anti-IL-23p19 Antibody Reduce Airway Inflammation by Suppressing the IL-23/Th17 Signaling Pathway

Asthma is a heterogeneous chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways with a complex etiology, which involves a variety of cells and cellular components. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the effects and mechanisms of antagonistic peptides that specifically bind to the first and second extracellular loops of CCR5 (GH and HY peptides, respectively) and anti-interleukin-23 subunit p19 (anti-IL-23p19) in the airway and thereby mediate inflammation and the IL-23/T helper 17 (Th17) cell pathway in asthmatic mice. An experimental asthma model using BALB/c mice was induced by ovalbumin (OVA) and treated with peptides that are antagonistic to CCR5 or with anti-IL-23p19. The extents of the asthmatic inflammation and mucus production were assessed. In addition, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was collected, the cells were counted, and the IL-4 level was detected by ELISA. The IL-23/Th17 pathway-related protein and mRNA levels in the lung tissues were measured, and the positive production rates of Th17 cells in the thymus, spleen, and peripheral blood were detected. The groups treated with one of the two peptides and/or anti-IL-23p19 showed significant reductions in allergic inflammation and mucus secretion; decreased expression levels of IL-23p19, IL-23R, IL-17A and lactoferrin (LTF); and reduced proportions of Th17 cells in the thymus, spleen, and peripheral blood. Specifically, among the four treatment groups, the anti-IL-23p19 with HY peptide group exhibited the lowest positive production rate of Th17 cells. Our data also showed a significant and positive correlation between CCR5 and IL-23p19 protein expression. These findings suggest that the administration of peptides antagonistic to CCR5 and/or anti-IL-23p19 can reduce airway inflammation in asthmatic mice, most likely through inhibition of the IL-23/Th17 signaling pathway, and the HY peptide can alleviate inflammation not only through the IL-23/Th17 pathway but also through other mechanisms that result in the regulation of inflammation.

Effects of Red and Fermented Ginseng and Ginsenosides on Allergic Disorders

Both white ginseng (WG, dried root of Panax sp.) and red ginseng (RG, steamed and dried root of Panax sp.) are reported to exhibit a variety of pharmacological effects such as anticancer, antidiabetic, and neuroprotective activities. These ginsengs contain hydrophilic sugar-conjugated ginsenosides and polysaccharides as the bioactive constituents. When taken orally, their hydrophilic constituents are metabolized into hydrophobic ginsenosides compound K, Rh1, and Rh2 that are absorbable into the blood. These metabolites exhibit the pharmacological effects more strongly than hydrophilic parental constituents. To enforce these metabolites, fermented WG and RG are developed. Moreover, natural products including ginseng are frequently used for the treatment of allergic disorders. Therefore, this review introduces the current knowledge related to the effectiveness of ginseng on allergic disorders including asthma, allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and pruritus. We discuss how ginseng, its constituents, and its metabolites regulate allergy-related immune responses. We also describe how ginseng controls allergic disorders.

Biotransformation of ginsenoside Rb1 with wild Cordyceps sinensis and Ascomycota sp. and its antihyperlipidemic effects on the diet-induced cholesterol of zebrafish

Biotransformation major ginsenoside into minor ginsenoside via microbial fermentation has been proposed as a viable option to produce minor ginsenoside, because of its biological activity superior to major ginsenoside. Cordyceps sinensis contains a complex enzymatic system and many ingredients with medicinal value that could be useful tools for biotransformation applications in the ginseng industry. Wild C. sinensis and Ascomycota sp. were collected from Changbai Mountain and identified. Analysis by UPLC-MS and HPLC indicates that the underlying pathway of major ginsenoside Rb1 during fermentation with strains was Rb1→Rd→F2→CK and Rb1→Rd→Rg3. C. sinensis and Ascomycota sp. can be applied to minor ginsenoside preparation in the food and medical industries. The antihyperlipidemic effects of Rb1 were further screened from fermentation in larvae zebrafish based on the fluorescence intensity. In the adult zebrafish model, treatment with high-dose ginsenoside Rb1 group exhibited a significant decrease in the plasma total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) levels by 36.49% (p < .05) and 29.97% (p < .05), respectively, compared with high cholesterol group (HC). Furthermore, ginsenoside Rb1 treatment decreased the mRNA levels of LDLR and SREBP2 in the adult zebrafish liver. Ginsenoside Rb1 diet supplement significantly increased the mRNA expression of HMGCR and CYP7A1. These results suggest that ginsenoside Rb1 attenuates hypercholesterolemia via the downregulation of cholesterol synthesis and assembly or secretion of lipoproteins as well as the upregulation of cholesterol transport and efflux, providing a novel idea of ginsenoside keeping cholesterol levels down for the clinical application. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Wild Cordyceps sinensis has the potential to be applied to the preparation for minor ginsenoside. Furthermore, the final fermentation product has more functional characteristics, including cordyceps acid, cordycepin, and adenosine. Wild Cordyceps sinensis and Ascomycota sp. could potentially be employed in the food and medical industries.

Ginsenoside Rb 1: A novel therapeutic agent in Staphylococcusaureus-induced Acute Lung Injury with special reference to Oxidative stress and Apoptosis

Acute lung injury (ALI) is considered as an uncontrolled inflammatory response that can leads to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which limits the therapeutic strategies. Ginsenosides Rb1 (Rb1), an active ingredient obtained from Panax ginseng, possesses a broad range of pharmacological and medicinal properties, comprising the anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-tumor activities. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the protective effects of Rb1 against S. aureus-induced (ALI) through regulation of Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and mitochondrial-mediated apoptotic pathways in mice (in-vivo), and RAW264.7 cells (in-vitro). For that purpose, forty Kunming mice were randomly assigned into four treatment groups; (1) Control group (phosphate buffer saline (PBS); (2) S. aureus group; (3) S. aureus + Rb1 (20 mg/kg) group; and (4) Rb1 (20 mg/kg) group. The 20 μg/mL dose of Rb1 was used in RAW264.7 cells. In the present study, we found that Rb1 treatment reduced ALI-induced oxidative stress via suppressing the accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) and increase the antioxidant enzyme activities of superoxidase dismutase 1 (SOD1), Catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase 1 (Gpx1). Similarly, Rb1 markedly increased messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of antioxidant genes (SOD1, CAT and Gpx1) in comparison with ALI group. The histopathological results showed that Rb1 treatment ameliorated ALI-induced hemorrhages, hyperemia, perivascular edema and neutrophilic infiltration in the lungs of mice. Furthermore, Rb1 enhanced the antioxidant defense system through activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway. Our findings showed that Rb1 treated group significantly up-regulated mRNA and protein expression of Nrf2 and its downstream associated genes down-regulated by ALI in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, ALI significantly increased the both mRNA and protein expression of mitochondrial-apoptosis-related genes (Bax, caspase-3, caspase-9, cytochrome c and p53), while decreased the Bcl-2. In addition, Rb1 therapy significantly reversed the mRNA and protein expression of these mitochondrial-apoptosis-related genes, as compared to the ALI group in vivo and in vitro. Taken together, Rb1 alleviates ALI-induced oxidative injury and apoptosis by modulating the Nrf2 and mitochondrial signaling pathways in the lungs of mice.

Use of Natural Products in Asthma Treatment

Asthma, a disease classified as a chronic inflammatory disorder induced by airway inflammation, is triggered by a genetic predisposition or antigen sensitization. Drugs currently used as therapies present disadvantages such as high cost and side effects, which compromise the treatment compliance. Alternatively, traditional medicine has reported the use of natural products as alternative or complementary treatment. The aim of this review was to summarize the knowledge reported in the literature about the use of natural products for asthma treatment. The search strategy included scientific studies published between January 2006 and December 2017, using the keywords "asthma," "treatment," and "natural products." The inclusion criteria were as follows: (i) studies that aimed at elucidating the antiasthmatic activity of natural-based compounds or extracts using laboratory experiments (in vitro and/or in vivo); and (ii) studies that suggested the use of natural products in asthma treatment by elucidation of its chemical composition. Studies that (i) did not report experimental data and (ii) manuscripts in languages other than English were excluded. Based on the findings from the literature search, aspects related to asthma physiopathology, epidemiology, and conventional treatment were discussed. Then, several studies reporting the effectiveness of natural products in the asthma treatment were presented, highlighting plants as the main source. Moreover, natural products from animals and microorganisms were also discussed and their high potential in the antiasthmatic therapy was emphasized. This review highlighted the importance of natural products as an alternative and/or complementary treatment source for asthma treatment, since they present reduced side effects and comparable effectiveness as the drugs currently used on treatment protocols.

Ginsenoside Rb1 can ameliorate the key inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 in a cancer cachexia mouse model

Background

Cancer cachexia is a severe condition that leads to the death of advanced cancer patients, and approximately 50~80% of cancer patients have cancer cachexia. Ginseng extract has been reported to have substantial anticancer and immune-enhancing effects; however, no study has reported the use of ginseng alone to treat cancer cachexia. Our study’s purpose was to investigate the therapeutic effects of ginseng-related monomers or mixtures on a cancer cachexia mouse model.

Methods

We selected BALB/c mice and injected the mice subcutaneously with C26 colon cancer cells to construct a cancer cachexia experimental animal model. The water extract of ginseng (WEG), two types of ginseng extracts (ginsenosides at doses of 5 mg/kg (GE5) and 50 mg/kg (GE50)) and ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) were used to treat cancer cachexia mice. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) were used to analyze the inhibitory effects on two key inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6).

Results

Our experimental results show that GE5, GE50 and Rb1 significantly reduced the levels of TNF-α (P < 0.01) and IL-6 (P < 0.01), which are closely related to cancer cachexia; however, WEG, GE5, GE50 and Rb1 did not significantly improve the gastrocnemius muscle weight or the epididymal fat weight of mice with cancer cachexia.

Conclusions

These results indicate that GE5, GE50 and Rb1 may be useful for reducing symptoms due to inflammation by reducing the TNF-α and IL-6 cytokine levels in cancer cachexia mice, thereby ameliorating the symptoms of cancer cachexia. Our results may be beneficial for future studies on the use of Chinese herbal medicines to treat cancer cachexia.

A Recombinant Attenuated Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Vaccine Delivering a Y. pestis YopENt138-LcrV Fusion Elicits Broad Protection against Plague and Yersiniosis in Mice

In this study, a novel recombinant attenuated Yersinia pseudotuberculosis PB1+ strain (χ10069) engineered with ΔyopK ΔyopJ Δasd triple mutations was used to deliver a Y. pestis fusion protein, YopE amino acid 1 to 138-LcrV (YopENt138-LcrV), to Swiss Webster mice as a protective antigen against infections by yersiniae. χ10069 bacteria harboring the pYA5199 plasmid constitutively synthesized the YopENt138-LcrV fusion protein and secreted it via the type 3 secretion system (T3SS) at 37°C under calcium-deprived conditions. The attenuated strain χ10069(pYA5199) was manifested by the establishment of controlled infection in different tissues without developing conspicuous signs of disease in histopathological analysis of microtome sections. A single-dose oral immunization of χ10069(pYA5199) induced strong serum antibody titers (log10 mean value, 4.2), secretory IgA in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from immunized mice, and Yersinia-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells producing high levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), gamma interferon (IFN-γ), and interleukin 2 (IL-2), as well as IL-17, in both lungs and spleens of immunized mice, conferring comprehensive Th1- and Th2-mediated immune responses and protection against bubonic and pneumonic plague challenges, with 80% and 90% survival, respectively. Mice immunized with χ10069(pYA5199) also exhibited complete protection against lethal oral infections by Yersinia enterocolitica WA and Y. pseudotuberculosis PB1+. These findings indicated that χ10069(pYA5199) as an oral vaccine induces protective immunity to prevent bubonic and pneumonic plague, as well as yersiniosis, in mice and would be a promising oral vaccine candidate for protection against plague and yersiniosis for human and veterinary applications.

Fangxiao Formula alleviates airway inflammation and remodeling in rats with asthma via suppression of transforming growth factor-β/Smad3 signaling pathway

Asthma is a common obstructive airway disease characterized by inflammation and remodeling with a progressive decline in lung function. Fangxiao Formula (FXF) is an herbal medicine that has achieved significant clinical benefits toward asthma patients, but the relevant mechanism has not yet been clarified. The aim of this study was to determine the inhibitory effects of FXF on airway inflammation and remodeling, and investigate the activities of TGF‑β/Smads signaling pathway in the rat asthma model. Rats were sensitized by ovalbumin (OVA) for six weeks to establish the asthma experimental model. OVA-challenged animals were randomly divided into 5 groups and received different concentrations of FXF or dexamethasone. The animals in blank control group received saline only. Lung tissues were collected and analyzed for determining the inflammatory cells infiltration, HE and PAS staining, airway wall thickness and collagen deposition. The productions of inflammatory cytokine productions were analyzed by ELISA in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. Immunohistochemical analysis was performed to measure the expression of α-SMA and PCNA in lung tissue after the treatment of FXF. The levels of TGF-β were assessed by both immunohistology and western blotting, and the expression of p-Smad2/3 proteins were determined by western blotting analysis. Our results indicated that FXF attenuated the infiltration of inflammatory cells, decreased the production of Th2 cytokines and simultaneously increased the levels of Th1 cytokine in the asthma rat model. In addition, FXF reduced allergen-induced increased airway wall thickness, goblet cell hyperplasia and collagen deposition. Furthermore, the expression levels of TGF-β and p-Smad3 were obviously reduced after the treatment of FXF. These results indicate that FXF alleviates airway inflammation and remodeling by restoring the balance of Th1/Th2 cytokines and the TGF-β/Smad-3 pathway, therefor providing potential therapeutic approach for asthmatic patients.

KGC3P attenuates ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation through downregulation of p-PTEN in asthmatic mice

BACKGROUND

The roots of Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A.Mey.; KGC) have been used as an herbal supplement to enhance vital energy and immune capacity. Salvia plebeia R.Br. has been used to treat inflammatory diseases.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to examine the anti-asthmatic effects of a mixture of Korean red ginseng and Salvia plebeia R.Br. (KGC3P), its component nepetin, and their modes of action in alleviating ovalbumin (OVA)-induced asthma in mice.

METHOD

BALB/c mice were sensitized with OVA then subjected to intratracheal, intraperitoneal, and aerosol challenges. KGC3P and nepetin were administered orally for four weeks. Airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), OVA-specific IgE levels, and Th2 cytokine- and gene expression levels in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and splenocytes were measured. Histological and immune cell subtype analyses were performed. PTEN and Akt phosphorylation levels were also evaluated.

RESULTS

KGC3P reduced OVA-induced AHR, serum IgE levels, histological changes, and eosinophils infiltration but also the absolute number of immune cell subtypes including CD3⁺/CD4⁺, CD3⁺/CD8⁺, CD4⁺/CD69⁺, and Gr-1⁺/CD11b⁺ in the lungs, BALF, and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN). KGC3P also lowered the Th2 cytokines IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 in the BALF and splenocytes and downregulated the IL-4, IL-13, IL-17, TNF-α, and MUC5AC genes in the lung. KGC3P upregulated the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ gene but downregulated the p-Akt and p-PTEN phosphorylation. Similar results were obtained with nepetin treatment.

CONCLUSION

KGC3P and nepetin are anti-asthmatic because they reduce various immune cells such as eosinophils and Th2 cell as well as Th2 cytokines. These mechanisms may be accompanied by the regulation of PPARγ expression and the PTEN pathway. Taken together, our results indicate that KGC3P and nepetin may potentially prevent and treat asthma.

Glycitin alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury via inhibiting NF-κB and MAPKs pathway activation in mice

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a pulmonary diffuse dysfunction disease caused by immoderate inflammatory response breaking the coordination of physiological structures and functions, and there are very few effective treatments to reduce high morbidity of ALI in critical patients. Glycitin is a natural ingredient derived from the seeds of leguminous plants and may have potent anti-inflammation features. The purpose of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammation effect of glycitin on LPS-induced ALI in mice and elucidate its possible anti-inflammatory mechanisms. The results of histopathological changes, the wet/dry weight ratio as well as the myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity indicated that glycitin obviously alleviated the lung injury induced by LPS. In addition, qPCR and ELISA results found that glycitin could dose-dependently decrease the expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Western blotting was performed to revealed that glycitin inhibited the activation of NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways by suppressing the expression of TLR4 protein and the phosphorylation of IKKβ, IκBα, p65, p38, ERK, and JNK. All data indicated that glycitin could protect lung tissues from LPS-induced inflammation via inhibiting TLR4-mediated NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways.

miR-497a-5p attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory injury by targeting IRAK2

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a severe acute inflammatory reaction of the lungs caused by a variety of factors, which can lead to a high mortality rate. MicroRNAs are a novel therapeutic molecule that play a vital role in many diseases. However, its mechanism of action in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mouse ALI is not clear. The study aimed to investigate the mechanism of action of miR-497 in LPS-induced ALI. As a result, it was found that the expression of miR-497 in the inflammatory reaction showed a decrease in time and dose trends. Importantly, miR-497 reduced LPS-induced expression levels of related inflammatory factors. In addition, we also demonstrated that IRAK2 is a direct target molecule of miR-497. Interestingly, we further found that miR-497 inhibits the expression of IRAK2 by targeting IRAK2-3'UTR. Therefore, miR-497 can partially negatively regulate the activation of IRAK2-NF-κB pathway in LPS-induced inflammatory responses.

Ginsenoside Rb1 ameliorates Staphylococcus aureus-induced Acute Lung Injury through attenuating NF-κB and MAPK activation

Acute lung injury (ALI) is clinically characterized by excessive inflammation leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), having high morbidity and mortality both in human and animals. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1) is a major primary bioactive component extracted by Panax ginseng, which has numerous pharmacological functions such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant. However, the anti-inflammatory effects of Rb1 in Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)-induced ALI in mice have not been investigated. The aim of the current study was to determine the anti-inflammatory influence of Rb1 on S. aureus-induced ALI in mice, and to explore its possible underlying principle mechanisms in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. The results of physical morphology, histopathological variation and wet-to-dry weight ratio of lungs revealed that Rb1 significantly attenuated S. aureus-induced lung injury. Furthermore, qPCR results displayed that Rb1 inhibited IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α production both in vivo and in vitro. The activation of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) by S. aureus was inhibited by application of Rb1 as confirmed by results of immunofluorescence assay. The expression of NF-kB and MAPK signaling proteins revealed that Rb1 significantly attenuated the phosphorylation of p65, ERK, as well as JNK. Altogether, the results of this experiment presented that Rb1 has ability to protect S. aureus-induced ALI in mice by attenuating TLR-2-mediated NF-kB and MAPK signaling pathways. Consequently, Rb-1 might be a potential medicine in the treatment of S. aureus-induced lung inflammation.

Exacerbating effects of trimellitic anhydride in ovalbumin-induced asthmatic mice and the gene and protein expressions of TRPA1, TRPV1, TRPV2 in lung tissue

With the increasing morbidity and mortality of asthma, asthma aggravated by environmental pollution has drawn more attention. This study investigated the exacerbating effects of trimellitic anhydride (TMA), a typical pollutant, in ovalbumin (OVA)-induced asthmatic mice and the gene and protein expressions of TRPA1, V1, V2 in lung tissue. Female BALB/c mice were respectively administered for 42 days as follow: sensitized and challenged with OVA, sensitized and challenged with TMA, sensitized with OVA and challenged with OVA plus TMA, as well as sensitized and challenged with OVA plus TMA. 24 h after the last challenge, the changes in airway resistance (RI) and lung dynamic compliance (Cdyn) were tested. The levels of the inflammatory cells in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were determined. The gene and protein expressions of TRPA1, V1, V2 in lung tissue were examined, and levels of interleukin (IL)-4, -13, substance P (SP), prostaglandin D₂ (PGD₂), nerve growth factor (NGF) in BALF and the supernatant of lung homogenate were measured. The results indicated that OVA plus TMA significantly increased the amount of inflammatory cells in blood and BALF, enhanced RI while decreased Cdyn, and aggravated lung injury. Increased gene and protein expressions of TRPA1, V1, V2 in lung tissue, level of IL-4 in the supernatant of lung homogenate, levels of IL-13, SP, PGD₂, NGF in BALF and the supernatant of lung homogenate were observed. It was suggested that exacerbating effects of TMA in OVA-induced asthma might be related to the regulation of TRPA1, V1, V2 and relevant neurokines.

Ameliorative Effect of Dangguibuxue Decoction against Cyclophosphamide-Induced Heart Injury in Mice

Dangguibuxue decoction (DBD), a kind of Chinese herbal medicine, has been widely used to treat blood deficiency disease in China. In this experiment, we studied the effects of the Dangguibuxue decoction (DBD) on the myocardial injury induced by cyclophosphamide in mice. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine kinase (CK), and lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) in serum were detected by commercial kits. Total white blood cell (WBCs), platelets, and cytokines pathological changes of heart tissue were also examined. In addition, the protein levels of the NF-кB pathway were detected to reveal its mechanism. The results showed that DBD significantly decreased the levels of ALT, AST, CK, and LDH and increased WBCs in CTX-induced mice. In addition, DBD significantly alleviated pathological changes of heart tissue. DBD significantly reduced the protein expressions of NF-кB signaling pathway. In summary, DBD can be considered an effective drug to alleviate CTX-induced heart damage in mice.

Ginsenosides from Korean Red Ginseng ameliorate lung inflammatory responses: inhibition of the MAPKs/NF-κB/c-Fos pathways

BACKGROUND

Korean Red Ginseng (steamed and dried white ginseng, Panax ginseng Meyer) is well known for enhancing vital energy and immune capacity and for inhibiting cancer cell growth. Some clinical studies also demonstrated a therapeutic potential of ginseng extract for treating lung inflammatory disorders. This study was conducted to establish the therapeutic potential of ginseng saponins on the lung inflammatory response.

METHODS

From Korean Red Ginseng, 11 ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1, Rg2, Rg3, and Rh2) were isolated. Their inhibitory potential and action mechanism were evaluated using a mouse model of lung inflammation, acute lung injury induced by intranasal lipopolysaccharide administration. Their anti-inflammatory activities were also examined in lung epithelial cell line (A549) and alveolar macrophage (MH-S).

RESULTS

All ginsenosides orally administered at 20 mg/kg showed 11.5-51.6% reduction of total cell numbers in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Among the ginsenosides, Rc, Re, Rg1, and Rh2 exhibited significant inhibitory action by reducing total cell numbers in the BALF by 34.1-51.6% (n = 5). Particularly, Re showed strong and comparable inhibitory potency with that of dexamethasone, as judged by the number of infiltrated cells and histological observations. Re treatment clearly inhibited the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, nuclear factor-κB, and the c-Fos component in the lung tissue (n = 3).

CONCLUSION

Certain ginsenosides inhibit lung inflammatory responses by interrupting these signaling molecules and they are potential therapeutics for inflammatory lung diseases.

The protective effect of betulinic acid (BA) diabetic nephropathy on streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats

The present study was designed to investigate the protective effect of betulinic acid (BA) on streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. The rats were intraperitoneally injected with STZ (35 mg kg^-1). 7 days later, the animals were intragastrically administered with metformin (MET, 150 mg kg^-1), BA (20 mg kg^-1) or BA (40 mg kg^-1) once daily for consecutive 30 days. The blood glucose, the contents of insulin, interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in serum were examined. The levels of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in kidney tissues were measured. Moreover, the histopathological alteration and the protein expressions of the signaling pathway were detected by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and western blotting, respectively. BA significantly decreased the levels of serum insulin, IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and blood glucose. In addition, BA increased the activities of SOD, CAT and reduced the contents of MDA, IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α in kidney tissues. BA also ameliorated the histopathological condition. Furthermore, BA attenuated the phosphorylations of p-adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB), and an inhibitor of NF-κB (IκBα) and the expressions of NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase (HO)-1. These findings demonstrated that BA exhibited a protective effect on diabetic nephropathy in STZ-induced rats possibly through the AMPK/NF-κB/Nrf2 pathway.

Magnoflorine Ameliorates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury via Suppressing NF-κB and MAPK Activation

Acute lung injury (ALI) which is featured by a strong pulmonary inflammation, is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in critically ill patients. Magnoflorine, a quaternary alkaloid isolated from Chinese herb Magnolia or Aristolochia, has been reported to have potent anti-inflammatory properties. However, the effect of magnoflorine on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI in mice has not been reported. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of magnoflorine on LPS-induced ALI and elucidate its possible molecular mechanisms in RAW264.7 cells. The results of histopathological changes as well as the myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity indicated that magnoflorine significantly alleviated the lung injury induced by LPS. In addition, qPCR results showed that magnoflorine dose-dependently decreased the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Immunofluorescence assay also confirmed that the level of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) induced by LPS was inhibited by magnoflorine treatment. Further experiments were performed using Western blotting to detect the expression of related proteins in the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. The results showed that magnoflorine suppressed the levels of phosphorylated p65, IκBα, p38, ERK, and JNK. In conclusion, all data indicate that magnoflorine could protect against LPS-induced inflammation in ALI at least partially by inhibiting TLR4-mediated NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

Jinkui Shenqi Pills Ameliorate Asthma with "Kidney Yang Deficiency" by Enhancing the Function of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis to Regulate T Helper 1/2 Imbalance

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects and underlying mechanism of JKSQP in a rat model of asthma with kidney-yang deficiency (KYD). Materials and Methods. Hydrocortisone (HYD) was used to establish the rat model of KYD; rats were then sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin (OVA). JKSQP was administered to OVA-challenged rats, and the changes in signs and symptoms of KYD were observed. The leukocyte number and subpopulations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were counted and the cells were stained with Wright–Giemsa dye. Serum adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), corticosterone (CORT), corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), total immunoglobulin E (IgE), and OVA-specific IgE levels were determined using relevant enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) kits. Results. JKSQP not only reversed the phenomenon of KYD but also significantly inhibited the number of leukocyte and eosinophils in the BALF, increasing the level of interferon (IFN)-γ and decreasing the levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IgE in the serum compared with the OVA-challenged groups. Conclusions. Taken together, the antiasthma effects of JKSQP were likely mediated by the enhancement of the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the reversal of T helper 1/2 imbalance.

Screening of Sceptridium ternatum for antitussive and antiasthmatic activity and associated mechanisms

Objectives

Sceptridium ternatum is an expectorant in traditional Chinese medicine and is prescribed for the treatment of asthma. The study aim was to screen Sceptridium ternatum for ingredients with antitussive and antiasthmatic effects and to study their associated mechanisms.

Methods

Cough in mice was induced using ammonia. Cough latency and the number of coughs within 3 minutes were determined. Airway responsiveness was assessed using ovalbumin as a sensitizer and characteristic asthma indicators were measured.

Results

Chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts significantly reduced the number of coughs within 3 minutes, tidal volume, and the percentage of eosinophilic granulocytes, lymphocytes and neutrophils. All extracts decreased airway responsiveness in asthmatic mice compared with the untreated group. Petroleum ether, chloroform and n-butanol extracts lowered the Penh values of asthmatic mice. Petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts greatly reduced interleukin-4 expression and the interleukin-4/interferon gamma ratio. Compared with the model group, all extracts reduced mRNA expression of the cysteinyl leukotriene receptor-1 (CysLT₁).

Conclusions

Chloroform extract and ethyl acetate extract displayed obvious antitussive effects and reduced airway inflammation. Thus, these two extracts contain the effective ingredients of Sceptridium ternatum. The active mechanism was ascribed to inhibition of mRNA expression of the CysLT₁ receptor in mice with bronchial asthma.

Salidroside suppressing LPS-induced myocardial injury by inhibiting ROS-mediated PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in vitro and in vivo

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of salidroside (Sal) on myocardial injury in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‐induced endotoxemic in vitro and in vivo. SD rats were randomly divided into five groups: control group, LPS group (15 mg/kg), LPS plus dexamethasone (2 mg/kg), LPS plus Sal groups with different Sal doses (20, 40 mg/kg). Hemodynamic measurement and haematoxylin and eosin staining were performed. Serum levels of creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase, the activities of the antioxidant enzymes catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH‐px), glutathione, tumour necrosis factor‐α (TNF‐α), interleukin‐6 (IL‐6), and interleukin‐1β (IL‐1β) were measured after the rats were killed. iNOS, COX‐2, NF‐κB and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway proteins were detected by Western blot. In vitro, we evaluated the protective effect of Sal on rat embryonic heart‐derived myogenic cell line H9c2 induced by LPS. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) in H9c2 cells was measured by flow cytometry, and the activities of the antioxidant enzymes CAT, SOD, GSH‐px, glutathione‐S‐transferase, TNF‐α, IL‐6 and IL‐1β in cellular supernatant were measured. PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling was examined by Western blot. As a result, Sal significantly attenuated the above indices. In addition, Sal exerts pronounced cardioprotective effect in rats subjected to LPS possibly through inhibiting the iNOS, COX‐2, NF‐κB and PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway in vivo. Furthermore, the pharmacological effect of Sal associated with the ROS‐mediated PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway was proved by the use of ROS scavenger, N‐acetyl‐l‐cysteine, in LPS‐stimulated H9C2 cells. Our results indicated that Sal could be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

Discovery of a novel series of α-terpineol derivatives as promising anti-asthmatic agents: Their design, synthesis, and biological evaluation

A series of novel α-terpineol derivatives were designed and synthesized through structural derivatization of the tertiary hydroxyl moiety or reduction of the double bond. Of the resulting compounds, eight compounds enhanced relaxation of airway smooth muscle (ASM) compared to the α-terpineol precursor, and four compounds (4a, 4d, 4e, and 4i)were superior or comparable to aminophylline at a concentration of 0.75 mmol/L. Assays for 3'-5'-Cyclic adenosine monophpsphate (cAMP) activation revealed that some representative α-terpineol derivatives in this series were capable of upregulating the level of cAMP in ASM cells. Further in vivo investigation using the asthmatic rat model, illustrated that treatment with the compounds 4a and 4e resulted in significantly lowered lung resistance (RL) and enhanced dynamic lung compliance (Cldyn), two important parameters for lung fuction. Moreover, treatment with 4e downregulated the levels of both IL-4 and IL-17. Due to its several favorable physiological functions, including ASM relaxation activity, cAMP activation capability, and in vivo anti-asthmatic efficacy, 4e is a promising remedy for bronchial asthma, meriting extensive development.

Effects of Jiaotaiwan on depressive-like behavior in mice after lipopolysaccharide administration

Jiao-Tai-Wan (JTW), has been usually used for insomnia in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). The previous study shown that JTW was benefit for depression-like behavior, but the possible mechanism is not clear. This study is to determine whether JTW was benefit for the treatment of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced depression-like behavior in mice and explore its possible mechanism. All drugs were intragastrically administered once daily for 7 consecutive days. On the 7th day, LPS was injected into mice 30 min after drug administration. Behavioral tests were performed 24 h after LPS administration. Serum levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and nor-epinephrine (NE) levels in prefrontal cortex were determined by UPLC-MS. The protein expressions of NF-κB signaling in prefrontal cortex were determined by western blot. Behavioral tests were measured via tail suspension test (TST), forced swimming test (FST), sucrose preference test (SPT) and open field test (OFT). In addition, effects of JTW on the TNF-α induced depressive-like behavior were also examined. Pretreatment with JTW (4.2 and 8.4 g/kg) or fluoxetine (20 mg/kg) effectively attenuated LPS-induced upregulations of the serum TNF-α and IL-6 contents and JTW (4.2 and 8.4 g/kg) or fluoxetine (20 mg/kg) effectively increased the contents of 5-HT and NE compared with LPS-treated group. Meanwhile, the western blot analysis results indicated the correlation between the antidepressant activity of JTW and the regulation of NF-κB signaling in brain. Besides, JTW (4.2 and 8.4 g/kg) or fluoxetine (20 mg/kg) significantly shortened LPS-induced increases in immobility time of TST, FST and weakened the reduction of the sucrose preference in SPT without significant alterations of locomotor activity in OFT. Additionally, JTW effectively reversed the depressive-like behavior induced by TNF-α (0.1 fg/site, i.c.v.). Our findings indicated that Jiao-Tai-Wan (JTW) played an important role in monoaminergic response and anti-inflammation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced mouse model, which may be therapeutically exploited to alleviate depression-like behavior.

RETRACTED: Salidroside alleviates cigarette smoke-induced COPD in mice

This article has been retracted: please see Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/withdrawalpolicy). This article has been retracted at the request of the authors, who have informed the Editor-in-Chief that they had not obtained the necessary ethical approval for the animal studies before performing the experiments. It is the policy of the journal that all animal experiments should comply with the ARRIVE guidelines and should be carried out in accordance with the U.K. Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act, 1986 and associated guidelines, EU Directive 2010/63/EU for animal experiments, or the National Research Council's Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. The authors have also informed the editors that the results of the IL-1β ELISA are not reliable due to issues with the reagents. Concern was also raised about the reliability of the Western blot results in Figure 5, which appear to contain suspected similarities between the P-P38 and Iκ Bα blots, as detailed here: https://pubpeer.com/publications/C87E1CABF28D49C30B80A05DF2C3DB#1. The journal requested the corresponding author comment on these concerns and provide the raw data. The journal did not receive a response to this request.

Effects of ginseng on stress-related depression, anxiety, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

Ginseng effectively regulates the immune response and the hormonal changes due to stress, thus maintaining homeostasis. In addition to suppressing the occurrence of psychological diseases such as anxiety and depression, ginseng also prevents stress-associated physiological diseases. Recent findings have revealed that ginseng is involved in adjusting the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and controlling hormones, thus producing beneficial effects on the heart and brain, and in cases of bone diseases, as well as alleviating erectile dysfunction. Recent studies have highlighted the potential use of ginseng in the prevention and treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases such as diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and allergic asthma. However, the mechanism underlying the effects of ginseng on these stress-related diseases has not been completely established. In this review, we focus on the disease pathways caused by stress in order to determine how ginseng acts to improve health. Central to our discussion is how this effective and stable therapeutic agent alleviates the anxiety and depression caused by stress and ameliorates inflammatory diseases.

Esculetin Attenuates Th2 and Th17 Responses in an Ovalbumin-Induced Asthmatic Mouse Model

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the anti-asthmatic effect of esculetin (ES) and explore its potential mechanism with a mouse model of allergic asthma. A total number of 50 mice were randomly assigned to five groups: control, model, dexamethasone (Dex, 2 mg/kg), and ES (20 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg). Mouse asthma model was developed with the sensitization and challenge of ovalbumin (OVA). The levels of IgE in serum, eosinophilia infiltration, Th2/Th17 cytokines, Th17 cell frequency, histological condition, and the protein expressions of RORγt, GATA3 were detected. Our study demonstrated that ES inhibited, OVA-induced eosinophil count, interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, IL-13, and IL-17A levels were recovered in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Flow cytometry (FCM) studies revealed that ES substantially inhibited Th17 cells' percentage. Western blot study also indicated that ES downregulated RORγt and GATA3 expressions. Meanwhile, ES had beneficial effects on the histological alteration. These findings suggested that ES might effectively ameliorate the progression of asthma and could be used as a therapy for patients with allergic asthma.

Protective Effect of Astragaloside IV Against Paraquat-Induced Lung Injury in Mice by Suppressing Rho Signaling

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the protective effects of astragaloside IV (AS IV) against paraquat (PQ)-induced pulmonary injury in vivo. Fifty BALB/C mice were randomized into five groups: (1) control, (2) PQ, (3) PQ + dexamethasone (Dex, 5 mg/kg), (4) PQ + AS IV (50 mg/kg), and (5) PQ + AS IV (100 mg/kg). A single dose of PQ (50 mg/kg, i.p.) was intraperitoneally given to induced acute lung injury. Then, mice were treated with AS IV (50 and 100 mg/kg/day, orally) for 5 days. At the end of the experiment, animals were euthanized; then, the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissues were collected for histological observation, biochemical assay, and Western blot analysis. Malondialdehyde (MDA), myeloperoxidase (MPO), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in lung tissues, and interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels in BALF were determined. Histological examination indicated that AS IV attenuated lung damage caused by PQ. Biochemical results showed that AS IV treatment significantly reduced the levels of MDA, MPO, and inflammatory cytokines while increased the levels of SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px compared with those in PQ group. Western blot results revealed that AS IV attenuated the Txnip/Trx expressions and inhibited Rho/ROCK/nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) signaling pathway in PQ-challenged mice. These findings suggested the protective effect of AS IV as a natural product on PQ-induced pulmonary injury.

Liujunzi Tang, a famous traditional Chinese medicine, ameliorates cigarette smoke-induced mouse model of COPD

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Liujunzi Tang is a traditional herbal medicine widely used in East Asia and clinically applied to treat Phlegm-Heat Syndrome. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the protective effects of Liujunzi Tang on cigarette smoke-induced (CS) mouse model of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and explore its potential molecular mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The mice received 1h of cigarette smoke for 8 weeks. The serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were tested by biochemical methods. Histopathological alteration was observed by hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining. Additionally, the expressions of nuclear transcription factor-κB (NF-κBp65) and (inhibitor of NF-κB)IκB-α were determined by western blot and immunohistochemistry analysis.

RESULTS

Liujunzi Tang enhanced the activities of antioxidant enzymes and attenuated the levels of lipid oxidative production, meanwhile significantly inhibited the generations of inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting the phosphorylation of IκB-α and NF-κB.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicated that Liujunzi Tang exhibited the protective effect on cigarette smoke-induced COPD mice by anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative properties through the inhibition of NF-κB activation.

Betulin inhibited cigarette smoke-induced COPD in mice

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the protective effect of betulin (BE) on CS (cigarette smoke)-induced COPD in mice and explore its underlying mechanisms. 60 male ICR mice were randomly assigned to five groups: control group, model group, dexamethasone (2mg/kg) group, BE (20mg/kg) group and BE (40mg/kg) group. The COPD mice were induced by cigarette smoke exposure for 8 weeks. The result of H&E staining demonstrated that BE inhibited CS-induced pathological injury in lung tissue. Besides, BE could restore the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in serum and in lung, catalase (CAT) in serum and reduce the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) in serum and in lung. BE also inhibited the overproductions of pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). Furthermore, the administration of BE significantly inhibited the protein expression of ROCK/NF-κB pathway in CS-induced mice. Our findings suggested that BE might effectively ameliorate the progression of COPD via ROCK/NF-κB pathway in mice.

Atractylone, an active constituent of KMP6, attenuates allergic inflammation on allergic rhinitis in vitro and in vivo models

KMP6 (Pyeongwee-San) is a Korean Medicine used to treat gastrointestinal disorders. Recently, we reported KMP6 had beneficial effects on allergic inflammatory diseases. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of atractylone (Atr), a constituent of KMP6, on allergic rhinitis (AR) and to identify the mechanism responsible for these effects. The anti-allergic inflammatory effects of Atr were evaluated on phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate and calcium ionophore A23187 (PMACI)-stimulated human mast cell line, HMC-1 cells and in an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced AR animal model using Western blotting, quantitative real-time PCR, ELISA, and immunohistochemistry methods. In HMC-1 cells, Atr and KMP6 attenuated PMACI-caused proinflammatory cytokine production and mRNA expression. We found that PMACI induced caspase-1/nuclear factor (NF)-κB/mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) activation. PMACI-caused caspase-1/NF-κB/MAPKs activations were attenuated by Atr and KMP6. In AR animal model, Atr and KMP6 reduced AR clinical symptoms and biomarkers including rub scores, total IgE, histamine, prostaglandin D₂, thymic stromal lymphopoietin, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-13, tumor necrosis factor-α, cyclooxygenase-2, intercellular adhesion molecule-1, and macrophage inflammatory protein-2. In addition, Atr and KMP6 attenuated eosinophils and mast cells invasions into nasal mucosa tissues and diminished mast cell-derived caspase-1 activation. These results indicate that Atr is an active constituent of KMP6 and a potential therapeutic agent for AR.