Co-Rumination Exacerbates Stress Generation among Adolescents with Depressive Symptoms

Prevalence Increases as Treatments Improve: An Evolutionary Perspective on the Treatment-Prevalence Paradox in Depression

Depression is an eminently treatable disorder that responds to psychotherapy or medications; the efficacy of each has been established in hundreds of controlled trials. Nonetheless, the prevalence of depression has increased in recent years despite the existence of efficacious treatments-a phenomenon known as the treatment-prevalence paradox. We consider several possible explanations for this paradox, which range from a misunderstanding of the very nature of depression, inflated efficacy of the established treatments, and a lack of access to efficacious delivery of treatments. We find support for each of these possible explanations but especially the notion that large segments of the population lack access to efficacious treatments that are implemented as intended. We conclude by describing the potential of using lay therapists and digital technologies to overcome this lack of access and to reach historically underserved populations and simultaneously guarantee the quality of the interventions delivered.

Contexts Matter in 'a Distress Shared Is a Distress Halved': A Meta-Analysis of Distress Sharing-Psychological Distress Relations

Can 'a distress shared is a distress halved' be universally applied? The relationship between sharing distress with others and individuals' psychological health may oscillate depending on how and where it is shared. This meta-analysis aimed to examine (1) whether the relationship between sharing distress and psychological distress is moderated by the manner of sharing (i.e. general tendency to share distress with others [general distress sharing] vs. ruminatively fixating on the negatives during the sharing [co-rumination]) and (2) cultural context (Eastern vs. Western). A total of 110 effect sizes from 105 studies (91 articles on general distress sharing and 84 articles on co-rumination) were included in the analysis with sharing manner as a moderator. For the cross-cultural analyses, 61 studies were included with 47 studies conducted in Western cultures and 15 studies conducted in Eastern cultures. Whereas generally sharing distress was negatively related to psychological distress, co-rumination showed a positive correlation with psychological distress. Culture significantly moderated co-rumination but not general distress sharing in relation to psychological distress. General distress sharing was consistently associated with decreased psychological distress across cultures. In contrast, co-rumination was related to deleterious psychological health only among Westerners, while Easterners showed a non-significant association with psychological distress. Our results align with the increasing importance of taking contextual factors into account in the field of emotion regulation literature.

Communication modality matters: Co-rumination via in-person versus digital modalities has different prospective associations with depression and friendship quality

INTRODUCTION

Co-rumination is an interpersonal emotion regulation strategy in which negative feelings and problems are discussed perseveratively with another person. Although co-rumination is salient in adolescence, research to date has focused on co-rumination occurring in person and has not kept pace with the surge in digital communication that begins in adolescence. This study examined the degree, associations among, and consequences (i.e., depressive symptoms, and friendship quality) of adolescents' co-rumination via in-person, text, social media, and phone modalities.

METHODS

Adolescents (n = 109; 51 girls, 57 boys, 1 nonbinary; Mage = 12.83 years) residing in Canada, completed self-report questionnaires on co-rumination, depressive symptoms, and friendship quality for up to 2 years.

RESULTS

Adolescents engaged in co-rumination across all modalities, particularly in-person. Findings indicated a negative association between in-person co-rumination at baseline and in-person co-rumination over time. Whereas less text co-rumination was associated with increased depressive symptoms over time, greater phone co-rumination was associated with increased depressive symptoms over time. Although greater in-person co-rumination was positively associated with friendship quality concurrently, it was negatively associated with friendship quality prospectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, co-rumination outcomes may vary depending on communication modality. Implications for adolescents' mental and social wellbeing are discussed.

Effectiveness of a blended school-based mindfulness program for the prevention of co-rumination and internalizing problems in Dutch secondary school girls: a cluster randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

A growing body of literature indicates that adolescent girls who talk with close friends about interpersonal problems or worries in an excessive, speculative way, and with an intense focus on distress (i.e., co-rumination) are at heightened risk for developing internalizing symptoms and disorders as well as reduced friendship quality. However, to date, there are no prevention programs available that target high levels of co-rumination between adolescent girls. As such, we developed the blended school-based mindfulness prevention program Happy Friends, Positive Minds (HFPM) that targets co-rumination at the dyadic level, i.e., between two close female friends. The aim of this trial is to evaluate the effectiveness of HFPM to reduce co-rumination and internalizing problems and to enhance wellbeing and social-emotional behavior in Dutch adolescent girls.

METHODS

A cluster Randomized Controlled Trial (cRCT) will be conducted to evaluate HFPM effectiveness. We will recruit 160 female friendship dyads (n = 320 girls) aged 13 to 15 years who will be characterized by high levels of self-reported co-rumination. The cRCT has two arms: (1) an intervention condition in which 160 girls (80 friendship dyads) will receive the 14-week HFPM program in two consecutive cohorts (cohort 1 in academic year 2023/2024 and cohort 2 in academic year 2024/2025, and (2) a control condition in which 160 girls (80 dyads) will receive care-as-usual (CAU) in two consecutive cohorts (cohort 1 in academic year 2023/2024 and cohort 2 in academic year 2024/2025). Data will be collected at baseline (T0), during the program (T1;T2; T3), immediately after the program (T4), and at 1-year follow-up (T5). Participant-level self-reported risk for (early onset) depression and anxiety, self-reported and observed co-rumination, self- and friend-reported friendship quality, self-reported positive and negative affect, self-reported interpersonal responses to positive affect, and self-reported anhedonia symptoms will be the outcome variables.

DISCUSSION

This study will provide insights into the short-term and long-term effects of the HFPM program on girls' internalizing problems, wellbeing, and social-emotional behavior.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

International Standard Randomized Controlled Trials, identifier: ISRCTN54246670. Registered on 27 February 2023.

Communication profiles and sport experiences of collegiate track and field athletes

OBJECTIVES

Athletes often communicate with one another and exchange information, attitudes, and feelings that can influence their sport experiences. In an effort to better understand the sport communication context, the purpose of the current study was to (a) describe communication profiles of athletes (b) examine potential predictors (i.e., team identity, sex) of profile membership, and (c) examine the salience of these profiles by assessing profile group differences on athletes' perceptions of burnout, engagement, satisfaction, and enjoyment.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey-based study.

METHOD

Collegiate track and field athletes (N = 219) completed measures of demographic information, team communication, team identity, burnout, engagement, enjoyment, and satisfaction. Communication profiles were examined using latent profile analysis. Using the three-step method in Mplus, possible prediction of profile membership and profile differences in perceptions of sport experiences were examined.

RESULTS

Three profiles emerged: the Less Effective Communicators, the Supportive Communicators, and the Functional Communicators. Athletes with greater team identity were more likely to be in the Supportive Communicators profile (p < 0.001), male participants were more likely to be in the Functional Communicators profile (p < 0.05) than the other profiles, and female participants were less likely to be in the Less Effective Communicators profile than the Supportive Communicators profile (p < 0.05). The Less Effective Communicators had greater perceptions of burnout (ps < 0.01) and lower perceptions of engagement (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05), satisfaction (p < 0.001 and p = 0.001), and enjoyment (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05) than the Supportive and Functional Communicators. Supportive Communicators had greater satisfaction (p < 0.001) and enjoyment (p < 0.001) than the Functional Communicators.

CONCLUSIONS

Different profiles of communication in track and field athletes may have implications for athletes' sport experiences and warrant continued study.

The trade-offs of co-ruminating with friends: A profile analysis

Adolescents' co-ruminating with friends has been tied to trade-offs: having higher quality friendships but experiencing more depressive symptoms. To determine if individual youth experience these trade-offs, we applied a person-centered approach to Swedish adolescents' self-reports of co-rumination with friends, depressive symptoms, and friend support (n = 2767, aged 12-16, 52% girls; 88% Swedish). We found four latent profiles: Two high in co-rumination and two low. One high co-rumination profile exhibited the proposed trade-offs; the other reported high friendship support and fewer depressive symptoms. Comparisons indicated that the trade-offs profile were primarily girls and exhibited comparatively more difficulties with stress regulation, conceptions of their parents and themselves, and relations with peers. Focusing on the complexity of co-rumination could reveal further nuances.

Decomposing variance in co-rumination using dyadic daily diary data

It is unknown how co-rumination, or perseverating on problems or feelings with another person, unfolds in the daily lives of romantic couples. Using a variance decomposition procedure on data from a 14-day dyadic diary, we assessed how much variance in co-rumination was attributable to temporally stable and varying factors, as well as whether co-rumination is better measured as a couple-level or individual-level process. Within-person, within-couple fluctuations in co-rumination contributed most (~33%) to the total variance and summary scores based on these fluctuations were reliable. Stable between-couple differences accounted for ~14% of the total variance and could also be reliably assessed. However, within-couple agreement in co-rumination was low, such that the reliability at the level of within-couple change was inadequate. Research is needed to understand these divergent perceptions of co-rumination and potential downstream consequences. We conclude by considering how these results inform theory and can be applied to similar dyadic constructs.

Co-rumination and conversational self-focus: Adjustment implications of problem talk in adolescents' friendships

Friendships are central relationships during adolescence. Given the increased experience of stress during adolescence, friends are especially critical sources of support at this time. Although experiencing social support is related to well-being, adolescents' experiences sharing problems with friends is not always positive. In this chapter, we consider two forms of problematic talk, co-rumination and conversational self-focus. Co-rumination refers to conversations about problems that is excessive, repetitive, speculative, and focused on negative affect. Conversational self-focus refers to adolescents re-directing conversations about friends' problems to oneself. Both co-rumination and conversational self-focus are associated with depressive symptoms. However, whereas co-rumination draws friends together and is associated with positive friendship quality, adolescents who engage in conversational self-focus are increasingly rejected by friends. Directions for future research and applied implications of studying social support processes between friends are discussed.

Social Adjustment of Problem-Talk Partners Moderates Associations Between Self-Perceived Victimization and Depressive Symptoms

This paper examines the moderating role of problem-talk partnerships with peers who are rejected, victimized, or unpopular on links between self-perceived victimization by peers and depressive symptoms. Problem-talk partnerships are friendships that involve frequent discussion of problems and personal struggles. 267 adolescents (152 girls; mean age of 14.4 years) participated in a short-term prospective study with identical measures administered in two annual waves. The adolescents completed a battery of self-report questionnaires assessing peer victimization and depression. They also completed a peer nomination inventory and identified friends with whom they frequently discuss problems. High levels of peer nominated victimization, social rejection, and unpopularity among problem-talk partners were linked to elevated associations between self-reported victimization and depressive symptoms. The effects for unpopularity levels among problem-talk partners were moderated by gender. Compared to boys, girls' adjustment was more strongly influenced by unpopularity among problem-talk partners. Conversely, friendships with peers who were not problem-talk partners did not have a consistent moderating role. The full pattern of findings highlights the need to consider the social adjustment of dyadic partners when examining the psychosocial impact of perceived victimization.

The interactive effects of family violence and peer support on adolescent depressive symptoms: The mediating role of cognitive vulnerabilities

BACKGROUND

Family violence as an inducing factor of depressive symptoms has been confirmed in previous studies. However, the mechanisms underlying this association are not well understood, particularly in Chinese adolescents. Guided by the social-ecological diathesis-stress model, this three-wave longitudinal study aimed to examine the effects of an individual's cognitive vulnerabilities (rejection-sensitivity anxiety and negative cognitive error) and positive societal contexts (peer support) on the link between family violence and depressive symptoms in Chinese society.

METHODS

A total of 859 Chinese adolescents (44.35 % female; M_age = 12.73, SD = 0.43 at baseline) completed self-reporting surveys that assessed variables associated with study and peer-nominated peer support.

RESULTS

The results showed that family violence increased the incidence of depressive symptoms in adolescents after two years, resulting in rejection-sensitivity anxiety and negative cognitive error. Surprisingly, higher self-reported peer support, although not peer-nominated support, exacerbated rather than mitigated this indirect effect, supporting the reverse stress-buffering model and extending the healthy context paradox.

LIMITATIONS

Most of the measures were based on participants' self-reports.

CONCLUSIONS

These results emphasize the importance of individual cognition and societal contexts in adolescents with traumatic experiences and provide empirical evidence for the intervention and clinical treatment of depressive symptoms.

The associations of COVID-19 percent positivity rate, relationship quality, and season with daily anxiety and depression in couples living in NYC

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic changed nearly every aspect of daily life and had detrimental effects on mental health. Yet, impacts have been heterogeneous. We tested whether fluctuations in local COVID-19 percent positivity rates were associated with daily anxiety and depression in couples living in NYC, as well as whether these associations varied by relationship quality or season. We expected that adverse impacts of COVID-19 may be attenuated by high-quality relationships and during warmer months, or that people may habituate over time.

Methods

Data on seven-day rolling average COVID-19 percent positive rate each day in NYC were merged with a 14-day dyadic diary study of cohabiting couples living in NYC between August 2020 through April 2021 (232 individuals from 116 couples; mean age 28.42 years, 52.59% female, 53.02% White). Dyadic multilevel models estimated the association COVID-19 positivity rate, season (sine and cosine of the calendar date), baseline relationship quality, and all two-and three-way interactions of these variables with daily anxiety and depression. Covariates included weekend and COVID-positive case within the couple.

Results

Anxiety and depression mirrored COVID-19 positivity rates, and there was some evidence for habituation over time. Significant two-and three-way interactions suggested that being in a high-quality relationship buffered the association of COVID-19 positivity rate with both anxiety and depression during months when cases were low. Anxiety was elevated for individuals in high- (v. low-) quality relationships during the December-January surge.

Conclusion

Seven-day rolling average COVID-19 percent positivity rate was associated with daily anxiety and depression among couples living in NYC. There was some evidence that individuals habituated to this stressor over time and that high-quality relationships were protective for mental well-being; however, there was some suggestion that couples in high-quality relationships may have engaged in processes such as co-rumination during surges, worsening their daily anxiety.

Parental support, marital conflict, and stress as predictors of depressive symptoms among African American adolescents

Given the increase of depressive symptoms among adolescents, it is essential to investigate familial and temperamental correlates of depressive symptoms such as parental support, marital conflict, and stress. Thus, using a cross-sectional design, the current study examined whether parental support, marital conflict, and stress predicted depressive symptoms. Then, using structural equation modeling, this study tested whether stress mediated the relationships among parental support, marital conflict, and depressive symptoms among African American adolescents while controlling for sex (N = 883). Results suggest that maternal support negatively related to depressive symptoms in contrast to stress and marital conflict. However, paternal support and sex were not statistically associated with depressive symptoms. Mediation results suggest that stress explained the relationships among parental support, marital conflict, and depressive symptoms. Family therapy and depression reduction implications are discussed.

Profiles of Anxious and Depressive Symptoms Among Adolescent Boys and Girls: Associations with Coping Strategies

Most existing studies investigating profiles of anxious and depressive symptoms in adolescent boys and girls do not consider the high cooccurrence between them, which prevents from identifying how heterogeneous groups might distinctly use coping strategies. To address this gap, the current study relies on a sample of 976 adolescents (56.0% girls (n = 547), aged 12-15 y.o., M = 12.92, SD = 0.75) to identify profiles of self-reported internalizing symptoms while properly disaggregating youth's global levels of internalizing symptoms from their specific levels of anxious and depressive symptoms. The study also assesses whether similar profiles will be identified with the same frequency among boys and girls, as well as the associations between profile membership and coping strategies (problem-solving, social support, cognitive restructuring, cognitive avoidance, and behavioral avoidance) and whether these associations vary between sexes. Bifactor-confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the presence of a global internalizing factor and six specific factors reflecting anxious and depressive symptoms. Latent profile analyses identified three similar profiles among boys and girls but with different prevalence: Low internalizing symptoms (29.97% (n = 164) girls; 70.77% (n = 304) boys), Internalizing and specific anxious symptoms (40.15% (n = 220) girls, 14.75% (n = 63) boys), and Internalizing and specific depressive symptoms (29.86% (n = 163) girls, 14.48% (n = 62) boys). Girls in the Internalizing and specific anxious profile reported more frequent use of four coping strategies compared to boys (problem-solving, social support, cognitive restructuring, and cognitive avoidance). Among boys and girls, the Internalizing and specific depressive profile was associated with the least strategic use of coping strategies (low problem-solving, social support, and cognitive restructuring, and high cognitive and behavioral avoidance). The Internalizing and specific anxious profile was associated with high levels of all coping strategies (except behavioral avoidance). Overall, the study demonstrates that disaggregating global and specific internalizing symptoms allow identifying qualitatively distinct profiles, which then raised questions on the efficacy of the coping strategies used by youth with an Internalizing and specific anxious profile. These results support the adoption of a transdiagnostic approach of treatment based on a holistic representation of all aspects of adolescent boys' and girls' internalizing symptoms to better accompany them in the selection of their coping strategies.

Worries About COVID-19 and Adolescents' Mental Health and Life Satisfaction: The Role of Sociodemographics and Social Support

Worries related to the COVID-19 pandemic are associated with mental health problems and reduced life satisfaction. However, the association between different types of worries about COVID-19 and adolescent mental health is unclear. Moreover, there is a lack of information about whether certain groups of adolescents are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of worries and how social support may moderate these effects. Adolescents (N = 12,686) completed a survey during the lockdown in spring 2020 in Oslo, Norway (37% response rate, 56.4% girls). The results showed that adolescent worries could be categorized into worries related to infection and those related to the general negative effects of the pandemic. Multivariate regression analyses showed that both types of worries were negatively related to positive affect and life satisfaction and positively related to depressive symptoms. Interaction analyses indicated that some associations with positive affect and depressive symptoms were stronger among adolescents with non-migrant backgrounds, higher family SES, and high reported levels of social support and physical contact during the pandemic. The findings suggest that COVID-19 worries may have negative effects on mental health and inform strategies to increase tailored psychological interventions to mitigate the effect of worry on adolescents' mental health and life satisfaction.

Adolescent girls' intrapersonal and interpersonal parasympathetic regulation during peer support is moderated by trait and state co-rumination

Effective emotion regulation (ER) is integral to adolescents' mental well-being and socioemotional development. During adolescence, peer interactions have an increasingly salient influence on the development of effective ER, but not all supportive peer interactions support adaptive ER. Co-rumination reflects the tendency to seek ER support by engaging with peers in negatively focused discussion of ongoing problems. We examined associations between co-rumination (state and trait) with measures of individual's autonomic (i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA) and affective regulation (self-report) among 30 female close-friend dyads (ages 11-17; 74% White) while engaged in a support-seeking discussion in the laboratory. We found that trait co-rumination corresponded with RSA withdrawal during peer support, suggesting a potential mechanism by which co-rumination contributes to dysregulated ER. We also examined dyadic patterns of physiological regulation via prospective change actor partner interdependence models (APIM). Partner effects were moderated by behaviorally coded state co-rumination. Dyads with high state co-rumination displayed coupled RSA movement in opposite directions, while dyads with low state co-rumination exhibited coupled RSA movement in the same direction. These findings are consistent with similar physiologic linkages in close relationships observed in other developmental periods. Results highlight the importance of multimodal assessment for characterizing social ER processes across development.

Problem Talk in Adolescence: Temperament and Attachment as Predictors of Co-Rumination Trajectories in Boys and Girls

Co-rumination has consistently been shown to be maladaptive in the context of emotional well-being. However, not much is known about factors that predict one's tendency to co-ruminate. The current study investigated temperament, attachment, and gender as predictors of co-rumination trajectories in a sample of 1549 early and middle adolescents from fifth to ninth grade (53.4% girls; M_age = 12.93). Analyses were performed on four waves of data with one-year intervals using multi-level modeling. First, girls were found to be more likely to co-ruminate. Second, high positive affectivity in boys and girls and high effortful control in boys was related to higher co-rumination. Third, high attachment anxiety and high general trust in the availability and support of a mother were predictive of higher co-rumination levels. High attachment avoidance was negatively related to co-rumination in boys. High positive affectivity in boys and girls and high trust in boys predicted decreases in reported co-rumination levels over time. Results highlight differences between boys and girls in factors that predict the tendency to co-ruminate. The current study adds to the literature by helping to identify factors associated with the development of co-rumination, which is a well-established risk factor of internalizing symptoms. Monitoring youth affected with these vulnerabilities may be recommended for prevention efforts.

Zusammenhänge zwischen dissozialen Verhaltensweisen und Stresserleben bei Jugendlichen

Zusammenfassung. Dissoziale Verhaltensweisen wie Wutanfälle, Lügen und Stehlen bis hin zu gewaltsamen Übergriffen gegenüber Peers, Lehrpersonen und Eltern stellen hohe Belastungen für die soziale Umwelt der Jugendlichen dar. Obwohl kognitiv-emotionale Stressverarbeitungsprozesse eine zentrale Bedeutung für die Erklärung von Verhaltensproblemen haben, analysiert bislang keine Studie systematisch das Stresserleben bei Jugendlichen mit dissozialem Verhalten in unterschiedlichen Lebensbereichen. Diese Studie geht der Fragestellung nach, inwiefern Jugendliche mit dissozialem Verhalten in verschiedenen Lebensbereichen (u. a. Eltern, Schule, Zukunftsplanung, Freizeit, Peerbeziehungen) Stress empfinden. Die Stichprobe umfasst N = 91 Jugendliche (Altersrange 12 – 16, 39 Mädchen), von denen N = 44 dissoziale Verhaltensweisen aufweisen. Verhaltensprobleme und Stresserleben wurden mittels standardisierter Instrumente erfasst. In hierarchischen Regressionsanalysen erklären dissoziale Verhaltensweisen bedeutsame Varianz des Stresserlebens. In Bezug auf die Zukunft (z. B. Angst vor Arbeitslosigkeit) sowie schulische Stressoren (z. B. Leistungsversagen) ist das Stresserleben dissozialer Jugendlicher erhöht, im Freizeitbereich sowie im Umgang mit Peers bestehen keine bedeutsamen Unterschiede zur Kontrollgruppe. Die Ergebnisse implizieren spezifische kognitiv-emotionale Stressverarbeitungsprozesse bei dissozialen Jugendlichen, deren mögliche Bedeutung für Verhaltensänderungen in schulischen und anderen pädagogischen Kontexten diskutiert wird.

The endocrinology of female friendships: Cortisol and progesterone attunement after separation

Friendships constitute important relationships, and often function to reduce stress, but have been under-studied. In mother-child dyads, infants coordinate their stress response with their caregivers without experiencing the stressor themselves. The current study used a modified version of the Trier Social Stress Test to examine whether i) friends are physiologically attuned (i.e., cortisol and progesterone); ii) attunement differs as a function of social acceptance or rejection external to the dyad; and, iii) friends can 'catch' a stress response only through non-verbal cues. Friends showed both cortisol and progesterone attunement at the beginning of the study. Friends showed cortisol attunement across time and conditions. Friends' progesterone levels were significantly, but negatively associated across time and conditions. They did not, however, show a stress contagion as a result of one friend experiencing stress. These findings suggest that cortisol and progesterone play different roles in the attunement of stress and subsequent affiliation.

Why Family Communication Matters: the Role of Co-rumination and Topic Avoidance in Understanding Post-Disaster Mental Health

Although families can be a source of support post-disaster, depending on how they communicate about their stress, their attempts at support can be helpful or harmful. This study explored the moderating role of topic avoidance and co-rumination on post-disaster mental health (MH) in a sample of 485 parent-child dyads following severe floods affecting Texas. Parents (69.0% female) and their oldest child between the ages of 10-19 years (M = 13.75 years, SD = 2.56) completed online surveys approximately one-year post-flooding. Participants reported their flood exposure, life stressors since the disaster, topic avoidance, co-rumination, and MH symptoms (posttraumatic stress symptoms [PTSS], depression, anxiety). Structural equation models tested a moderated-mediation model of whether communication processes moderated the associations of flood exposure and life stressors on MH. They did not moderate the association of flood exposure to PTSS, but did have a moderating role for depression and anxiety. At low levels of topic avoidance, there was no association between flood exposure and child anxiety or depression. However, at mean and high levels of topic avoidance, there was a significant, positive association between flood exposure and child anxiety and depression. Co-rumination impacted both parents and children. For parents, there was no association between flood exposure and depression or anxiety when co-rumination was low or mean-level. However, flood exposure increased risk for depression and anxiety at high levels of co-rumination. A similar pattern emerged for children. Results for life stressors were nuanced. Overall, this suggests that communication can influence post-disaster MH.

Co-Rumination Moderates the Relation between Emotional Competencies and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents: a Longitudinal Examination

Research suggests co-rumination during adolescence has developmental tradeoffs that result in elevated self-disclosure and intimacy between friends but also can be associated with increases in depression (Rose et al. 2007; Rose 2002). The current study further examined this paradox by assessing the role of emotional competencies in co-rumination as they predict depressive symptoms over a 2-year period. We tested whether co-rumination moderated the relation between emotional awareness and emotion regulation and depressive symptoms in reciprocated best friend dyads. At Time 1, 202 adolescents (101 same-sex best friend dyads; M_age = 12.68, 52.5% girls, 76.6% White, middle-class) reported on their emotional competencies (i.e., emotional awareness and perceptions of their friend's anger and sadness regulation), and depressive symptoms as well as engaged in a discussion task where co-rumination was observed. Multilevel modeling (Actor-Partner Interdependence Modeling) was used to account for similarity within friend dyads. The results indicated that when girls engaged in high levels of co-rumination, poor emotional awareness was related to greater depressive symptoms in their friend. Regarding the analyses of emotion regulation, at high levels of co-rumination, Friend A's perceptions of stronger anger regulation by Friend B predicted fewer depressive symptoms in Friend A. Stronger sadness regulation in Friend B at high levels of co-rumination predicted fewer depressive symptoms in Friend B. Our findings highlight the potentially adaptive nature of emotional competencies that may ameliorate the negative sequelae of co-rumination as adolescents are afforded the opportunity to discuss problems, better understand their emotions, skills that are then associated with fewer depressive symptoms over time.

The relative impacts of disclosure and secrecy: the role of (perceived) target response

This review examines the current trends in understanding the impact of individuals' decisions to either disclose information or continue to conceal it. As a whole, the evidence points to a relative benefit of disclosure over secret-keeping, but with clear cases, in which disclosure may be harmful. Advances in knowledge about factors that shape that impact, new research on the role verbal rumination with a partner following disclosure, and attention to the role of communal coping as an outcome of traumatic disclosures are addressed. In addition, recent re-conceptualization of secret-keeping, and investigations into the burden experienced by confidants are reviewed. Finally, a call for greater attention to the culture-specific impacts of disclosure decisions is made.

Does Despair Really Kill? A Roadmap for an Evidence-Based Answer

Two seemingly associated demographic trends have generated considerable interest: income stagnation and rising premature mortality from suicides, drug poisoning, and alcoholic liver disease among US non-Hispanic Whites with low education. Economists interpret these population-level trends to indicate that despair induced by financial stressors is a shared pathway to these causes of death. Although we now have the catchy term "deaths of despair," we have yet to study its central empirical claim: that conceptually defined and empirically assessed "despair" is indeed a common pathway to several causes of death. At the level of the person, despair consists of cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and biological domains. Despair can also permeate social relationships, networks, institutions, and communities. Extant longitudinal data sets feature repeated measures of despair-before, during, and after the Great Recession-offering resources to test the role that despair induced by economic decline plays in premature morbidity and mortality. Such tests must also focus on protective factors that could shield individuals. Deaths of despair is more than a phrase; it constitutes a hypothesis that deserves conceptual mapping and empirical study with longitudinal, multilevel data.

Talking Together, Thinking Alone: Relations among Co-Rumination, Peer Relationships, and Rumination

Girls are more likely to engage in rumination, associated with the development of mental health problems, as well as report higher levels of friendship quality, hypothesized to protect against these disorders. The current study examined whether co-rumination may drive simultaneous increases in rumination and changes in friendship quality among adolescents. The project included 360 participants (43% boys), ages 9.8 to 15.8 years, and analyses revealed that co-rumination mediated the link between female sex and both rumination and negative friendship quality. There was also a bidirectional relation between co-rumination and positive friendship quality. These findings highlight several pathways by which co-rumination mediates the relation between sex and both maladaptive (i.e. rumination, negative friendship quality) and adaptive (i.e. positive friendship quality) outcomes.

Talking Together, Thinking Alone: Relations among Co-Rumination, Peer Relationships, and Rumination

Girls are more likely to engage in rumination, associated with the development of mental health problems, as well as report higher levels of friendship quality, hypothesized to protect against these disorders. The current study examined whether co-rumination may drive simultaneous increases in rumination and changes in friendship quality among adolescents. The project included 360 participants (43% boys), ages 9.8 to 15.8 years, and analyses revealed that co-rumination mediated the link between female sex and both rumination and negative friendship quality. There was also a bidirectional relation between co-rumination and positive friendship quality. These findings highlight several pathways by which co-rumination mediates the relation between sex and both maladaptive (i.e. rumination, negative friendship quality) and adaptive (i.e. positive friendship quality) outcomes.

The role of co-rumination and adrenocortical attunement in young women's close friendships

Attunement, or synchrony, of behavior and physiology has been well documented in family, mother-child, and romantic relationships. This study aimed to determine whether attunement of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis occurs in women's close friendships, and the role of a common social style, co-rumination in that attunement. Saliva samples (later assayed for cortisol) were collected from 37 dyads (74 individuals) during a laboratory task in which they were either asked to work together toward a common goal (control task) or discuss interpersonal problems, providing opportunity for co-rumination. Findings suggest that friends demonstrated adrenocortical attunement prior to engaging in either task, and that the level of attunement prior to the task predicted co-rumination and its components for both groups. Co-rumination, in turn, predicted adrenocortical attunement after the task. These findings suggest that bidirectional attunement of HPA activity may serve a bonding function within women's close friendships. Implications for how these findings fit with the tend-and-befriend hypothesis are discussed.

Associations between friend conflict and affective states in the daily lives of adolescents

This study examined the associations between friend conflict, defined as arguments with friends, and affective states using a daily diary design in a community sample of adolescents. Participants were 100 U.S. adolescents (13-17 years; 40% girls; 79% white). Adolescents completed an online survey on 14 consecutive evenings. Adolescents reported significantly higher anger/hostility, confusion, and tension/anxiety and less friendliness on days during which they experienced friend conflict relative to no-conflict days. However, no same-day associations for depressed affect, fatigue, or vigor were found. Adolescents experiencing friend conflict reported increased next-day anger/hostility, depressed affect, and tension/anxiety, but not other affective states. Higher levels of anger/hostility and depressed affect predicted an increased likelihood of next-day friend conflict. Conversely, higher levels of friendliness and vigor predicted a decreased likelihood of next-day friend conflict. These findings suggest that directional relationships between adolescents' friend conflicts and their affective states vary by affective domain.

The buddy system: A randomized controlled experiment of the benefits and costs of dieting in pairs

A total of 67 pairs of female roommates were randomized into a diet condition: (1) both ate normally; (2) one dieted, the other ate normally; and (3) both dieted. Adherence, weight loss, anxiety, depression, disordered eating symptoms, and stress were measured. Dieters lost more weight than non-dieters, but average loss was <1 pound. Pairs where both dieted reported higher anxiety, depression, and disordered eating than one-dieter pairs. Structural equation models revealed an interrelated network of stress, anxiety, depression, and disordered eating. This was weakest when one roommate dieted. The “buddy system” may not promote weight loss, but living with a non-dieting partner may buffer consequences.

Cognitive Vulnerabilities to Depression for Adolescents in Single-Mother and Two-Parent Families

Although research consistently suggests that adolescents in single-mother families are at increased risk for depression, the mechanisms that explain this relationship are unclear. In a community sample of adolescents (N = 368; ages 12-16; 50 % female; 50 % White) and their mothers (42 % single), adolescents completed measures of depressive symptoms, rumination, and depressogenic inferential style at baseline and two yearly follow-ups. Mothers reported on stressful events that occurred in the child's life from birth until baseline. Adolescents raised by single mothers, relative to partnered mothers, experienced more childhood stressors and higher rumination levels at 1-year follow-up. Additionally, higher rumination mediated the relationship between single motherhood and greater youth depressive symptoms at the 2-year follow-up. Clinical implications and developmental considerations are discussed.