Parental Modeling, Attachment, and Supervision as Moderators of Adolescent Gambling

How general functioning of family affects gambling-related beliefs: the mediating role of communication and the moderating role of impulsivity trait

Background

Gambling behaviors can be exhibited by individuals raised in families with impaired parent-child communication and individuals with more impulsive traits. However, it remains unclear how gambling-related beliefs are modulated by impulsivity traits and parent-child communication styles.

Methods

A total of 95 adult patients (age ≥ 18 years) diagnosed via DSM-5 criteria with gambling disorder (GD) completed our questionnaire. Participants filled out pen-and-paper questionnaires that included basic demographic information, the Family Assessment Device (FAD), Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS), Gambling Attitude and Belief Survey (GABS), and Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS). We used a moderation mediation model to explore the relationship between variables. The study results were considered statistically significant if p < 0.05, or the 95% confidence interval did not contain zero.

Results

The scores of the problems in communication with mother subscale (PCMS) of PACS were significantly positively correlated with the scores of GABS and the general functioning 12-item subscale (GF12) of FAD. The relationship between the scores of GF12 and GABS was completely mediated [β = 4.83, (1.12, 10.02)] by PCMS scores, and the BIS scores moderated this relationship: the predictive path between GF12 and PCMS scores [index of moderated was β = -0.25, (-0.60, -0.04)], and the indirect predictive front path between the scores of GF12 and GABS were significant only in subjects with low BIS scores.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that poor general functioning of the family may increase gambling-related beliefs as a result of communication problems with mothers, and this result is only significant for individuals with low impulsivity. When treating patients with GD, more treatment of mother-child communication issues and individual impulsivity may be more conducive to their recovery.

The Role of Attachment in Gambling Behaviors and Gambling Disorder: A Systematic Review

In recent years, a growing number of attachment-based studies have contributed to the understanding of both substance and behavioral addictions. Although gambling is a form of addictive behavior widespread all over the world, both among young people and adults, the evidence on the association between attachment-related phenomena and gambling has not yet been systematized in literature. The aim of the present study, therefore, is to provide a systematic literature review aimed at summarizing the empirical evidence on this topic. Following the updated 2020 PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search in four electronic scientific databases (Scopus, PubMed, PsycInfo and Web of Science) was conducted. After removing duplicates, 146 records were double-screened, with 12 articles meeting the inclusion criteria. Additionally, by means of a backward search a further article was selected. Altogether, 13 articles were selected for the present systematic review. With few exceptions, the results underline the significant role played by attachment-related phenomena in gambling behaviors, highlighting that specific attachment contexts have a different influence on gambling, also depending on whether gamblers are youths or adults. In particular, while secure attachment has proven to be a protective factor for the onset of gambling behavior, insecure attachment has emerged to be a vulnerability factor in two ways. On the one hand, it directly favors gambling behaviors; on the other, it affects coping strategies and the individual's ability to identify and regulate emotions, which in turn predict gambling. Limitations, strengths, and implications of the present systematic review are discussed.

Problem Gambling Among Adolescents in Uganda: A Cross-sectional Survey Study

In recent years, gambling has evolved and grown substantially with new gambling activities and facilities being introduced, making gambling products and opportunities more available than ever before in Uganda. While the growth of gambling industry is considered to have a beneficial impact on the economy, it is increasingly becoming a social and public health issue especially among a minority of young people who experience problem gambling, which can damage personal, family, vocational, and academic pursuits. The present study estimated the prevalence of problem gambling and identified the socio-demographic, school, environmental and health risks of problem gambling among secondary school students in Mbarara Municipality, Uganda. A cross-sectional study was conducted among secondary school students in Mbarara Municipality. A total of 921 students from 12 schools were recruited using cluster sampling. An ordinal logistic regression model was used to explore the relationship between problem gambling and the socio-demographic, academic, environmental and health variables. Of 905 participants, 362 reported having ever gambled (40%), and 160 were classified as problem gamblers (17.7%; 44.2% among those who had ever gambled). Problem gambling was significantly associated with being male, being non-religious, other religion (African traditional religion), having employment (outside of school), distance to nearest gambling venue, parental gambling, peer gambling, substance use, risky sexual behavior, and psychological distress. The present study found a very high prevalence of problem gambling among Ugandan secondary school students. Therefore, there is need to institute public health measures towards raising awareness, prevention and treatment of problem gambling among Ugandan adolescents.

Parental gambling frequency and adolescent gambling: A cross-sectional path model involving adolescents and parents

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, most of the research studies in the field of adolescent gambling are focused on individual factors related to problem gambling. The aim of this study was to test an integrated model to explain adolescent problem gambling involving both individual (i.e., correct gambling knowledge, superstitious thinking, and gambling-related cognitive distortions) and environmental factors (i.e., parental gambling frequency). In detail, the aim was to better understand the role of parental gambling behavior on adolescents' gambling frequency and problem gambling severity, to draw indications for prevention.

METHODS

Participants were 680 parents (36% men; Mage = 48.32, SD = 6.14 years) of 680 high school students (51% boys; Mage = 15.51, SD = .55 years) attending the second year of different high schools in Tuscany (Italy). Data collection occurred within the school prevention program PRIZE (Prevention of gambling risk among adolescents).

RESULTS

A path model showed was conducted to detect direct and indirect effects from individual and environmental factors to gambling problem severity. Analyses showed that correct gambling knowledge and superstitious thinking were directly related-respectively in a negative and a positive direction-both to gambling-related cognitive distortions and adolescents' gambling frequency. Parental gambling frequency was directly associated with adolescents' gambling frequency. Correct gambling knowledge and superstitious thinking were indirectly related to adolescents' gambling problem severity through the mediational role of gambling-related cognitive distortions and gambling frequency. Parental gambling frequency was indirectly linked to gambling problem severity by passing through adolescents' gambling frequency.

CONCLUSIONS

The current cross-sectional results confirm that parental gambling behavior has an important role for adolescents' gambling behavior and severity. Thus, results highlight the need for innovative prevention programs which involve adolescents' adult reference figures and integrate the individual risk and protective factors with the environmental ones.

“Death drive” scientifically reconsidered: Not a drive but a collection of trauma-induced auto-addictive diseases

Over the last 102 years, a lot of discussion was being held about the psychoanalytic conception of the “death drive,” but still with inconclusive results. In this paper, we start with a brief review of Freud’s conception, followed by a comprised overview of its subsequent support or criticisms. The core of our argument is a systematic review of current biochemical research about two proposed manifestations of the “death drive,” which could hopefully move the discussion to the realm of science. It was already established that drive satisfaction leads to the secretion of beta-endorphins, and research evidence also shows that the same biochemical mechanisms get activated in the case of masochism and the gambling disorder but only if they are preceded by chronic frustration of the essential drives. We conclude that the actual situation is more complex than Freud hypothesized, and that a fundamental revision of the psychoanalytic drive theory is necessary.

An Exploratory Study of Shopping to Relieve Tension or Anxiety in Adolescents: Health Correlates and Gambling-Related Perceptions and Behaviors

The desire to escape from pressures/anxiety represents an important motivation for problematic engagement with short-term rewarding behaviors that could contribute to the development of recognized and candidate behavioral addictions, including problematic shopping, a prevalent condition among youth in the U.S.A. characterized by excessive shopping cognitions/behaviors that lead to distress/impairment. However, to date, the specific correlates of shopping to relieve anxiety or tension have yet to be evaluated. We aimed at addressing this gap by analyzing data (N = 2556) from a high-school survey from Connecticut in an exploratory fashion. Adolescents who acknowledged experiencing a growing tension or anxiety that could only be relieved by shopping were classified as having negative-reinforcement shopping and compared to the remaining students. Data were analyzed in chi-square and logistic regression models to examine negative-reinforcement shopping in relation to socio-demographics, health correlates, gambling-related perceptions/attitudes, and problem-gambling severity/gambling behaviors. Negative-reinforcement shopping was more frequent in female and Hispanic students, was linked to more permissive gambling attitudes and at-risk/problematic gambling, and was associated with the use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and other drugs, dysphoria/depression, and weapon-carrying and physical fighting. Taken together, these findings highlight adverse measures of health and functioning linked to negative-reinforcement shopping that may be particularly relevant to girls and Hispanic youth. Additional efforts to prevent negative outcomes are warranted.

The Importance of Family and School Protective Factors in Preventing the Risk Behaviors of Youth

The aim of this study was to examine cross-sectional associations of protective factors within a family and school context with adolescent risk behaviors. The study was conducted among adolescents (n = 9682) from five cities in Croatia. Mean age of participants was 16.2 years (SD = 1.2), and 52.5% were female. Multigroup structural equation modeling was used to examine relations between school attachment, school commitment, family communication, and family satisfaction with gambling, substance use, violence, and sexual risk behavior. Data analyses were conducted in two sets, the first using the full sample, and the second using a subsample (excluding Zagreb) for which there was data on sexual risk behavior. In the first model, school attachment was negatively associated with gambling and violence, while school commitment was negatively associated with students' gambling, substance use, and violence. Gambling was also associated with family satisfaction in this model. Results from the subsample model were similar with regards to school and family factors associated with gambling, substance use, and violence, with a few exceptions. In this model, family protective factors were found not to be significantly related with any risk behavior. These study results emphasize the importance of strengthening school protective factors, school attachment, and school commitment in preventing risk behaviors in adolescents.

Proneness to Alcohol use Disorder or Pathological Gambling as Differentially Determined by Early Parental and Personality Factors

Owing to growing alcoholism and gambling, numerous variables have been the subject of study to better understand the causes of such addictions. This study aims to investigate personality factors, parental styles in upbringing and early exposure to alcoholism integratively to shed light on how such variables generally shape vulnerability for addictive behaviours and alcohol use disorder (AUD) as well as pathological gambling (PG), separately. The sample consisted of 150 for the inpatient groups (78 AUD and 72 PG) and 102 participants for the control group. The inpatient group comprised "pure" AUD (excluding gambling and other significant addictive disorders) and "pure" PG (excluding AUD and other significant addictive disorders). A random forest-trees analysis established a model accurately classifying 79% of participants from the addictive group and found low conscientiousness, an authoritarian father, a less-flexible mother and neuroticism to be predisposed factors for both addictions. Additionally, through structural equation modeling, a satisfying-index model shows higher extroversion and lower openness may be attributed to PG, as well as the father's authoritarian parenting style. The mother's authoritarian or permissive styles may be linked to AUD and the father's alcoholism. The research concludes AUD and PG have similarities in personality as vulnerable factors for addictive behaviours as well as essential differences in personality and early experiences from boundaries set by mothers and fathers and alcoholism in childhood. The results are applicable in preventive programs as well as working with patients and their parents to create more individualized treatment in relation to addiction type.

Lottery-Purchasing Adolescents: Gambling Perceptions, Problems, and Characteristics

Gambling on the lottery is a prevalent behavior, and lottery products are increasingly available in online and electronic formats. As lottery-purchasing is prevalent in adolescents, this study systematically examined relationships between lottery-purchasing and problem-gambling severity and gambling perceptions and attitudes, as well as differences in the relationships between problem-gambling severity and measures of health/functioning and gambling characteristics among lottery-purchasing groups. Participants were 1517 Connecticut high-school adolescents with past-year gambling. Chi-square and logistic regression models were conducted, and interactions between problem-gambling severity and lottery-purchasing status on multiple outcomes were determined. Lottery-purchasing, compared to non-lottery-purchasing, adolescents had greater problem-gambling severity and reported more permissive gambling attitudes and greater parental approval of gambling. Significant between-group differences were observed, with at-risk/problem-gambling more strongly associated with having friends and adult gambling partners among non-lottery-purchasing adolescents, and machine and online gambling, and gambling alone more strongly associated among lottery-purchasing adolescents. Greater problem-gambling severity, permissive gambling attitudes, and parental approval of gambling in lottery-purchasing adolescents suggest that parenting contexts are important considerations in prevention efforts targeting problem gambling in youths. Between-group differences in associations between problem-gambling severity and gambling types and partners may identify high-risk groups associated with more solitary gambling behaviors for whom targeted interventions may be adapted.

Skin gambling predicts problematic gambling amongst adolescents when controlling for monetary gambling

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Skin gambling uses in-game items (skins) acquired in video games, to gamble on esports, games of chance, other competitive events and privately with friends. This study examined characteristics of adolescent skin gamblers, their engagement in monetary gambling, and relationships between skin gambling and at risk/problem gambling.

METHODS

Two samples of Australian adolescents aged 12-17 years were recruited to an online survey through advertisements (n = 843) and an online panel provider (n = 826).

RESULTS

In both samples, past-month skin gamblers (n = 466 advertisements sample; n = 185 online panel sample) were more likely to have lower wellbeing, score as having an internet gaming disorder on the IGD, engage in more types of monetary gambling, and meet criteria for problem gambling on the DSM-IV-MR-J. Past-month skin gambling uniquely predicted problem gambling when controlling for past-month gambling on 11 monetary forms and the total number of monetary gambling forms.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Underage participation in skin gambling is a growing concern. The strong convergence between engagement in skin gambling and monetary gambling suggests common risk factors may increase the propensity of some adolescents to gamble on these multiple forms. Nonetheless, past-month skin gambling predicted problem gambling even when controlling for past-month monetary gambling, indicating its unique contribution to gambling problems and harm. While the study was based on non-probability samples, its results strengthen the case for regulatory reforms, age restrictions and public health education to prevent underage skin gambling and its potentially harmful consequences for children and young people.

Parental Acceptance/Rejection Perceptions and Attachment Styles of Men With Online Gambling Disorder

Online gambling disorder has recently emerged as a significant public health issue. Family dynamics play an important role in the development of online gambling disorder. In this research, the aimed to compare the parental acceptance/rejection and attachment styles of individuals with online gambling disorder with a healthy control group. Also, the relationship between parental acceptance/rejection and attachment styles was examined in individuals with online gambling disorder. The study group consisted of 53 male patients with online gambling disorder and 57 healthy controls. The individuals with online gambling disorder perceived more rejection from mothers but especially from fathers than the individuals in the control group. Paternal hostility/aggression and indifference/neglect are determinants of online gambling behavior. The individuals with online gambling disorder had lower levels of secure attachment and higher levels of dismissive and fearful attachment than the individuals in the control group. Both secure attachment style and dismissive attachment style are thought to be determinants of gambling behavior. Mother-father rejection and insecure attachment are important in terms of creating risk for online gambling. Assessment of the effects of maternal and especially paternal rejection in online gambling disorder will be beneficial within the scope of preventive mental health.

Casino Gambling in Adolescents: Gambling-Related Attitudes and Behaviors and Health and Functioning Relationships

Recreational and problem gambling have been linked with adverse health and functioning outcomes among adolescents. Youth may gamble and engage in other risk-taking behaviors in casinos. There are limited data available regarding casino gambling in high-school students, and factors linked to adolescent gambling in casinos have yet to be systematically investigated. To address this gap, we analyzed cross-sectional data from 2010 Connecticut high-school students with chi-square tests and logistic regression models to examine casino gambling in relation to at-risk/problem gambling (ARPG) with respect to sociodemographic characteristics, gambling perceptions & attitudes, health/functioning measures and gambling behaviors. Approximately 11 % of adolescents acknowledged gambling in casinos. ARPG was more frequent and gambling perceptions were more permissive among adolescents endorsing casino gambling. Stronger relationships between ARPG and heavy alcohol and drug use and weaker relationships between ARPG and engagement in extracurricular activities, gambling with friends, gambling with strangers and gambling for financial reasons were observed among adolescents endorsing casino gambling. In conclusion, gambling in casinos was endorsed by a sizable minority of adolescents who gamble, and prevention efforts should consider targeting permissive attitudes towards gambling, adolescent drinking and participation in extracurricular activities when addressing underage casino gambling.

The negative consequences of sports betting opportunities on human capital formation: Evidence from Spain

The proliferation of on-site betting shops has received enormous public attention, becoming one of the most alarming health policy issues in contemporary cities. However, there is little evidence on whether its growing presence nearby vulnerable populations produce social harm beyond its known adverse individual effects. This study provides new evidence on the negative societal effects of betting houses. Our research design takes advantage of a new wave of openings in Madrid (Spain), which created a sudden increase in the supply of on-site gambling. Using a differences-in-differences design, we find that new betting houses decline nearby high schools' educational performance, especially in public schools in less advantaged areas. This effect is neither trivial nor diminishing with time. This evidence suggests that betting houses increase inequality of educational opportunities. The ubiquity of betting houses around vulnerable populations in multiple regions drives us to think that these findings have relevant policy implications for many countries currently designing policies tackling the increase of problem gambling.

Loot Boxes and Gambling: Similarities and Dissimilarities in Risk and Protective Factors

Politicians, health officials, and scholars have argued that loot boxes (virtual items that can be redeemed to receive randomly selected other virtual items) in video games function as a type of gambling, and research has shown that loot box purchasing is correlated with gambling behaviors. Whether loot box purchasing shares other characteristics with gambling such as risk and protective factors, however, has not been explored empirically. This study uses data from large, random samples of American youth to regress both gambling and loot box purchasing (as well as purchasing other downloadable content) on previously established risk and protective factors of gambling. Results suggest that, aside from gender differences, loot boxes share little in common with traditional forms of gambling. The data also indicate that youth gamers are less likely to have purchased loot boxes in comparison to previously estimated adult gamer prevalence rates.

Excitement-Seeking Gambling in Adolescents: Health Correlates and Gambling-Related Attitudes and Behaviors

Motivational characteristics such as excitement-seeking are key components of models of addiction, including problem gambling. Previous studies have established associations between excitement-seeking and problem gambling in youth. However, these studies have employed dimensional psychological assessments which are unlikely to be routinely administered. Other approaches to conceptualize excitement-seeking could be of value. In the present study, we employed a single question (What are the reasons that you gamble?) to identify adolescents who reported excitement-seeking motivation for gambling. Cross-sectional data from 2030 adolescent gamblers who participated in a Connecticut high-school survey were examined. Gambling perceptions and correlates of problem-gambling severity were examined relative to excitement-seeking and non-excitement-seeking gambling. Gambling perceptions were more permissive and at-risk/problem gambling was more frequent among adolescents with excitement-seeking gambling versus non-excitement-seeking gambling. A weaker relationship between problem-gambling severity and moderate and heavy alcohol use was observed for excitement-seeking versus non-excitement-seeking gambling. Excitement-seeking gambling is associated with more permissive gambling-related attitudes and riskier gambling behaviors and may account for some variance in adolescent risk of heavy alcohol use. A single question may provide important information for identifying adolescents who are at elevated risk of problem gambling and associated negative outcomes, although the utility of the question in specific settings warrants direct examination, especially given the observed high prevalence of excitement-seeking motivations for gambling.

The Link between Attachment and Gambling in Adolescence: A Multiple Mediation Analysis with Developmental Perspective, Theory of Mind (Friend) and Adaptive Response

Introduction: Several studies have supported the evidence that attachment styles are a central factor in adolescent gambling problems. On this theoretical basis, the aim of the present study is to analyze a hypothesized mediation model exploring both the direct and indirect effects of insecure attachment on gambling disorder by investigating the role of the developmental perspective, theory of mind (friend) and adaptive response in that relationship. Method: The sample consists of 178 adolescents who underwent the Measures: South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised for Adolescents and Friends and Family Interview. Result: The mediation analysis was conducted following Hayes' (2018) procedure, using Model 6. The results showed a significant association between insecure attachment and gambling disorder (β = 0.669; p < 0.001). The findings also highlighted a significant chained mediation model in which insecure attachment negatively influenced the developmental perspective (β = -0.742; p < 0.001), which affected the theory of mind toward one's own best friend (β = 0.352; p < 0.001). Conclusions: The results highlighted a significant role of insecure attachment in predicting the symptomatic expression of gambling among adolescents, specifically impacting the development perspective, theory of mind toward one's best friend and adaptive response to stress, which were linked to each other by a sequential influence. Therefore, our results showed that a poor developmental self-vision predicted a dysfunctional theory of mind toward the best friend. This could hinder the formation of positive peer relationships, which are crucial for the development of one's identity.

Positive Youth Development Attributes and Parenting as Protective Factors Against Adolescent Social Networking Addiction in Hong Kong

This study examined the predictive effects of 15 positive youth development (PYD) attributes and parenting behavior on adolescent social networking addiction (SNA) in a representative sample of Hong Kong students. In total, 1,896 Hong Kong Secondary 1 students from 20 randomly selected schools (age = 13.19 ± 0.52 years) completed the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), the Chinese Positive Youth Development Scale, and the Chinese Parenting Behavior Scale. Of the participants, 11.4% could be classified as being addicted to Social Networking Sites (SNSs). Regression analyses showed that students' emotional competence (β = -0.09; p < 0.01), behavioral competence (β = -0.12; p < 0.001), beliefs in the future (β = -0.10; p < 0.01), and spirituality (β = -0.08; p < 0.01) were negatively associated with SNA, while social competence (β = 0.07; p < 0.05) and positive identity (β = 0.13; p < 0.001) were positively related to SNA. Paternal and maternal responsiveness showed indirect effects on students' SNA through the full mediation of PYD attributes. Specific PYD attributes and positive parenting behavior may serve as important protective factors against the development of SNA among Hong Kong adolescents.

Sensation Seeking and Gambling Behavior in Adolescence: Can Externalizing Problems Moderate This Relationship?

Gambling is a widespread phenomenon during adolescence. Among different risk factors involved in the onset of adolescent gambling behaviors, one factor that is studied is the sensation seeking personality trait. However, the literature is heterogeneous and a direct relationship between sensation seeking and gaming behaviors has not always been highlighted. This suggests that the relationship can be influenced by other factors. In particular, we explored the moderating role of externalizing problems in this relationship. A total of 363 adolescents (232 males and 131 females) aged 14 to 20 (M = 16.35, SD = 1.36) completed a battery of questionnaires aimed to assess their gambling behaviors, as well as the levels of externalizing problems and sensation seeking. The results showed that sensation seeking was associated with gambling severity, but this relationship was significant when externalizing problems were high and medium. On the contrary, when externalizing problems were low, the relationship between sensation seeking and gambling severity was not significant. Overall, sensation seeking in adolescence can favor the implementation of risk behaviors, such as gambling, but only in association with the presence of externalizing problems. Limitations, strengths, and social and clinical implications of the present study are discussed.

Perceived Parental Monitoring: A Systematic Review of Monitoring Instruments

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate parental monitoring instruments and the theoretical perspectives informing their development.

METHODS

Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, seven databases were searched for original studies using a monitoring instrument. The psychometric properties of each identified instrument were assessed using the "COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health status Measurement INstruments" (COSMIN) methodology.

RESULTS

Of 2,245 articles identified, 72 studies representing six parental monitoring instruments met inclusion criteria. Quality of reporting on psychometric properties varied widely across instruments with only three including content validation studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings of this review reveal inattention to the psychometric quality of child self-reported monitoring instruments. Future research must focus on the psychometric quality of instruments used to measure the parent-child relationship.

Gambling in adolescence: a narrative review of the last 20 years

BACKGROUND

Gambling has increasingly become a problem in adolescence over the last 20 years. Previous research has failed to identify exactly the level of involvement of adolescents in gambling, yet a relevant presence of addictive behaviors was noticed.

OBJECTIVE

This narrative review highlights the implications of adolescent gambling, taking into consideration the main risk and protection factors aimed at limiting gambling activity, as well as the main links with the impulse-control disorder, addiction, and behavioral addiction.

METHODS

The review process was conducted through Medline, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar search engines. The considered keywords were "Gambling" AND "Adolescence," "Behavioral addiction," AND "Adolescence." The articles related to gambling and adolescence in the last 20 years were included in compliance with inclusion and exclusion criteria, to perform a consistent analysis of the phenomenon and the related maintenance factors.

RESULTS

Starting from 1067 articles, 107 were selected to denote the main thematic areas involved in the gambling problem. The online search was completed on December 13, 2019.

CONCLUSIONS

The narrative review of literature can facilitate the analysis of gambling problems in adolescence, as the main studies in the last 20 years showed the complexity of the problem, the links between addiction, and the most effective methods of prevention and treatment.

Psychosocial risk factors in disordered gambling: A descriptive systematic overview of vulnerable populations

BACKGROUND

Gambling is a behaviour engaged in by millions of people worldwide; for some, gambling can become a severely maladaptive behaviour, and previous research has identified a wide range of psychosocial risk factors that can be considered important for the development and maintenance of disordered gambling. Although risk factors have been identified, the homogeneity of risk factors across specific groups thought to be vulnerable to disordered gambling is to date, unexplored.

METHODS

To address this, the current review sought to conduct a systematic overview of literature relating to seven vulnerable groups: young people and adolescents, older adults, women, veterans, indigenous peoples, prisoners, and low socio-economic/income groups.

RESULTS

Multiple risk factors associated with disordered gambling were identified; some appeared consistently across most groups, including being male, co-morbid mental and physical health conditions, substance use disorders, accessibility and availability of gambling, form and mode of gambling, and experience of trauma. Further risk factors were identified that were specific to each vulnerable group.

CONCLUSION

Within the general population, certain groups are more vulnerable to disordered gambling. Although some risk factors are consistent across groups, some risk factors appear to be group specific. It is clear that there is no homogenous pathway in to disordered gambling, and that social, developmental, environmental and demographic characteristics can all interact to influence an individual's relationship with gambling.

Gambling involvement and problem gambling correlates among European adolescents: results from the European Network for Addictive Behavior study

PURPOSE

Worldwide, concern has grown over the expansion of gambling among adolescents, who have an increased likelihood of developing risk-taking behaviors. This study aimed to increase knowledge of problem gambling among adolescents in seven European countries and to assess the effect of demographic and lifestyle factors recorded in the European Network for Addictive Behavior survey (https://www.eunetadb.eu).

METHODS

A cross-sectional school-based study (n = 13,284) was conducted in Germany, Greece, Iceland, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Spain. Anonymous self-completed questionnaires included socio-demographic data, internet usage characteristics, school achievement, parental control, the Internet Addiction Test, the South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised for Adolescents Test and Achenbach's Youth Self-Report.

RESULTS

12.5% of the participants reported last year gambling activities either online or offline. 3.6% of the study participants and 28.1% of gamblers (either online or offline) were at risk or had a gambling problem. The study results showed that a higher proportion of adolescents was either at risk or had a gambling problem among males, in the older age group, when the parental educational level was lower/middle, and in the absence of siblings. Furthermore, being at risk or having a gambling problem was associated with lower age at first use of the internet, lower school grades, using the internet 6-7 days per week, and problematic internet use. At risk or problem gamblers had higher scores on all scales of problem behavior and lower scores (lower competence) on activities and academic performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings underline the need for better gambling legislation and suggest the importance of developing social responsibility tools that may help diminish adolescent gambling involvement, with special attention to males.

Problem gambling in adolescents: what are the psychological, social and financial consequences?

BACKGROUND

The paper examines the roles of sociodemographic traits, family quality and risk behaviour in adolescent problem gambling, with focus on the psychological, social and financial consequences from the socio-ecological model approach. This model emphasizes the most important risk-protective factors in the development and maintenance of problem gambling on an individual level, a relationship level, as well as a community and societal level.

METHODS

The research was done using the Canadian Adolescent Gambling Inventory with a sample of 366 participants, 239 females (65.3%) using descriptive statistics and t-test, ANOVA, correlation and hierarchical regression analysis.

RESULTS

Males reported significantly higher gambling consequences on all scales (p < .001) and significantly more risk behaviour (p < .05). Age was significant for psychological consequences (p < .01), problem gambling (p < .01) and risk behaviour (p < .001) with older participants scoring higher. Students with lower school success reported significantly higher psychological consequences of gambling (p < .01), higher risk behaviour activity (p < .001) and lower family life satisfaction (p < .001). The psychological, financial and social consequences were positively correlated with problem gambling (p < .001). Age (p < .05), gender (p < .001), school success (p < .01) and the father's education level (p. < 05) were significant predictors of problem gambling, with older male adolescents who struggle academically and have lower educated fathers being at greater risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicate an important relation between adolescent gambling behaviour and very serious psychological, social and financial consequences. There is a constellation of risk factors that likely place certain individuals at high risk for problem gambling.

Weapon-carrying is associated with more permissive gambling attitudes and perceptions and at-risk/problem gambling in adolescents

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

A recent call to action highlighted the need to understand the relationship between problem gambling, violence, and health/functioning. As weapon-carrying and gambling behaviors are prevalent in adolescents, this study systematically examined relationships between weapon-carrying status and measures of problem gambling severity and gambling perceptions and attitudes, as well as how weapon-carrying status moderated relationships between problem gambling severity and measures of health/functioning and gambling behavior.

METHODS

Participants were 2,301 Connecticut high-school adolescents. χ² and logistic regression models were conducted.

RESULTS

Weapon-carriers reported greater problem gambling severity, more permissive gambling perceptions, greater parental approval of gambling, and more family gambling concerns, compared to non-weapon-carriers. At-risk/problem gambling was more strongly associated with family, peers, and adult gambling partners among non-weapon-carriers (vs. weapon-carriers) and with machine gambling among weapon-carriers (vs. non-weapon-carriers).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Greater problem gambling severity and more permissive gambling perceptions and perceived parental approval of gambling in weapon-carrying adolescents suggest that parent-child relationships are important to be considered in prevention efforts. The moderated relationship by weapon-carrying status between problem gambling severity and gambling partners suggests a problem gambling risk group that may be less linked to gambling with traditional social support groups, and this group may benefit from targeted interventions.

Attachment and behavioral addictions in adolescents: The mediating and moderating role of coping strategies

Gambling, video gaming, and Internet use are typically included as everyday activities that could potentially become behavioral addictions. There is growing evidence that views non-substance related addictions as coping mechanisms, and considers that attachment styles are likely to play a pivotal role on the development of such addictions, especially on young people. Therefore, the present study aimed to: (1) explore the association between attachment, coping, and behavioral addictions (i.e., gambling disorder, video game addiction, and problematic Internet use); and (2) to analyze the mediating/moderating effect that coping has in the relationship of attachment and these behavioral addictions. A sample consisting of 472 students from secondary education (Mean age = 15.6; SD = 1.33; 51.6% females) was recruited. The findings showed a negative association between attachment and behavioral addictions. Most coping strategies were found to be associated with attachment styles, except for self-critique and emotional avoidance. In particular, problem avoidance was significantly correlated to all behavioral addictions. In addition, self-blame and problem solving were significantly correlated to video game addiction and problematic Internet use. Finally, coping was found to act as a mediator and moderator between attachment and video game addiction and problematic Internet use.

Social influences normalize gambling-related harm among higher risk gamblers

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Social influences are key drivers of gambling, and can begin in youth through parental modeling and facilitation. Over time, social influence from friends and colleagues also becomes important. Social network analysis provides a method to measure the combined nature of these social influences. This study aimed to compare social influences across gambling risk groups, by examining key characteristics of the social networks, among Australian adults.

METHODS

A total of 784 respondents (egos) reported their demographics, gambling behavior and gambling risk, as well as those of the 20 most influential people in their lives (alters). Egos also reported the strength of the connection between themselves and each of their alters, and between each pair of alters. Data were analyzed using egocentric social network analysis approaches.

RESULTS

Egos in higher risk groups reported more alters who gamble, including a higher proportion experiencing gambling-related harm. Relationship strength indicated that egos in higher risk groups tended to feel closer to their alters, regardless of whether the alter gambles or not. Network density (interconnectedness between alters) was greater for egos in higher risk groups.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that both gambling behavior and gambling-related harm are normalized through social connections. Greater interconnectedness in the networks of higher risk gamblers indicates difficulties in reducing or removing these influences. The findings indicate limitations of individualised interventions, and instead highlight the important role of changing norms within society, which can be transmitted throughout these networks.

Factors associated with social casino gaming among adolescents across game types

Background

With the proliferation of social casino games (SCGs) online, which offer the opportunity to gamble without monetary gains and losses, comes a growing concern regarding the effects of these unregulated games on public health, particularly among adolescents. However, given the limited research pertaining to SCG use, little is currently known about the manner in which adolescents engage with this new gambling medium. The present study aims to identify the factors that characterize adolescent social casino gamers, and to determine whether these factors differ by SCG type. Moreover, the study examines the extent to which social casino gaming is associated with monetary gambling and problem gambling in this cohort.

Method

Data were obtained from students in Grades 9 to 12 (n = 10,035) residing in the Canadian provinces of Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Newfoundland and Labrador. Participants completed the Youth Gambling Survey (YGS), which is a supplementary instrument administered alongside the Canadian Student Tobacco, Alcohol and Drugs Survey (CSTADS). Logistic regression was used to assess the factors associated with SCG play.

Results

Overall, 12.4% of respondents reported having participated in SCGs in the past three months. Compared to adolescents who did not report playing SCGs, SCG players were typically more likely to participate in monetary gambling activities, and were more prevalently classified as problem gamblers of low-to-moderate severity or high severity. Although profiles of SCG players differed across SCG game types, factors significantly associated with the playing of SCGs were gender, weekly spending money, having friends and parents who gamble, and screen time. It was also shown that current smokers were significantly more likely to participate in simulated slots online relative to adolescents who did not play SCGs.

Conclusion

Significant associations exist between SCG play, monetary gambling, and problem gambling among adolescents. Gambling intervention efforts directed at this population should aim to identify personal and environmental factors associated with social casino gaming, and should be tailored to different types of SCGs.

Problematic Online Betting Among Turkish Adolescents

Problematic online betting among adolescents has attracted considerable public attention internationally for the last two decades. Although the online betting prevalence rate in Turkey is unclear, some reports indicate that it could be more pervasive than is currently estimated. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of problematic online betting, common behaviors of youth related to betting, and to identify the effect of family on online betting among Turkish adolescents. We surveyed 6116 adolescents aged between 12 and 18 in Istanbul to determine if they are problematic Internet users for betting. Although 756 (12.4%) adolescents reported that they play online betting, only 176 adolescents (2.9%) were classified as problematic Internet users. Thus, we collected further data from those 176 adolescents, 14.8% of which were female. A significant positive correlation was found between Internet Addiction (IA) and duration of betting. Almost 61% of participants expressed that they prefer to be online because they do not have better things to do. Almost a quarter of the participants started online betting between 10 and 12 years of age. All participants know someone who bets online. In terms of frequency, these are friends, relatives, siblings, and parents, respectively. Although there is no relationship between family structure and IA among adolescents who are problematic users, participants who live in an unstable family have higher IA scores than participants who live in a stable family.

Relationships Between Perceived Family Gambling and Peer Gambling and Adolescent Problem Gambling and Binge-Drinking

The study systematically examined the relative relationships between perceived family and peer gambling and adolescent at-risk/problem gambling and binge-drinking. It also determined the likelihood of at-risk/problem gambling and binge-drinking as a function of the number of different social groups with perceived gambling. A multi-site high-school survey assessed gambling, alcohol use, presence of perceived excessive peer gambling (peer excess-PE), and family gambling prompting concern (family concern-FC) in 2750 high-school students. Adolescents were separately stratified into: (1) low-risk, at-risk, and problem/pathological gambling groups; and, (2) non-binge-drinking, low-frequency-binge-drinking, and high-frequency-binge-drinking groups. Multinomial logistic regression showed that relative to each other, FC and PE were associated with greater likelihoods of at-risk and problem/pathological gambling. However, only FC was associated with binge-drinking. Logistic regression revealed that adolescents who endorsed either FC or PE alone, compared to no endorsement, were more likely to have at-risk and problem/pathological gambling, relative to low-risk gambling. Adolescents who endorsed both FC and PE, compared to PE alone, were more likely to have problem/pathological gambling relative to low-risk and at-risk gambling. Relative to non-binge-drinking adolescents, those who endorsed both FC and PE were more likely to have low- and high-frequency-binge-drinking compared to FC alone or PE alone, respectively. Family and peer gambling individually contribute to adolescent at-risk/problem gambling and binge-drinking. Strategies that target adolescents as well as their closely affiliated family and peer members may be an important step towards prevention of harm-associated levels of gambling and alcohol use in youths.

Adolescent Internet Abuse: A Study on the Role of Attachment to Parents and Peers in a Large Community Sample

Adolescents are the main users of new technologies and their main purpose of use is social interaction. Although new technologies are useful to teenagers, in addressing their developmental tasks, recent studies have shown that they may be an obstacle in their growth. Research shows that teenagers with Internet addiction experience lower quality in their relationships with parents and more individual difficulties. However, limited research is available on the role played by adolescents' attachment to parents and peers, considering their psychological profiles. We evaluated in a large community sample of adolescents (N = 1105) the Internet use/abuse, the adolescents' attachment to parents and peers, and their psychological profiles. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to verify the influence of parental and peer attachment on Internet use/abuse, considering the moderating effect of adolescents' psychopathological risk. Results showed that adolescents' attachment to parents had a significant effect on Internet use. Adolescents' psychopathological risk had a moderating effect on the relationship between attachment to mothers and Internet use. Our study shows that further research is needed, taking into account both individual and family variables.

Depression symptoms and reasons for gambling sequentially mediate the associations between insecure attachment styles and problem gambling

One of the central pathways to problem gambling (PG) is gambling to cope with negative moods, which is a cardinal feature of depression. Insecure attachment styles are also etiologically related to depression; and, therefore, by extension, those who are insecurely attached may engage in excessive gambling behaviors to cope with depression. In this study, we aimed to evaluate this and to this end predicted that depression severity and coping motives for gambling would conjointly mediate the relations between insecure attachment styles and PG. Data came from a larger investigation of PG within mood disorders. Participants exhibited a lifetime depressive or bipolar disorder and endorsed a mood episode within the past ten years. Participants (N=275) completed self-report measures during a two-day assessment. Path analysis supported two main indirect effects. First, anxious attachment predicted elevated depression, which in turn predicted increased coping motives for gambling, which subsequently predicted greater PG severity. Second, this double mediational pathway was also observed for avoidant attachment. Results suggest that insecure attachment relates to PG via depressive symptoms and coping-related gambling motives. Mood symptoms and associated gambling motives are malleable and are promising targets of gambling interventions for insecurely attached individuals.

Examining the Relationship Between Anxiogenic Parenting Practices and Cognitive Flexibility in Youth

Cognitive flexibility (CF), a subdomain of executive functioning (EF), involves abilities such as set shifting and reversal learning. Some variability in CF is normative across youth due to the gradual refinement of broader EF along with the prefrontal cortex. Prior research has suggested that a supportive parenting environment contributes to strong EF, whereas harsh/controlling parenting is associated with deficits. The current investigation explores whether certain parenting practices (e.g., parental accommodation, over-involvement, modeling) are associated with such deficits. Anxiogenic parenting and CF were assessed in 112 youth aged 9 to 17 years, with results demonstrating that parenting practices were not predictive of CF in these youth. Age accounted for the majority of differences in set shifting performance, potentially emphasizing the influence of parenting at different stages of development. Accordingly, future research is necessary to determine the potential impact of anxiogenic parenting at specific points in the development of CF.

How coping styles, cognitive distortions, and attachment predict problem gambling among adolescents and young adults

Background and aims Recent research suggests that youth problem gambling is associated with several factors, but little is known how these factors might influence or interact each other in predicting this behavior. Consequently, this is the first study to examine the mediation effect of coping styles in the relationship between attachment to parental figures and problem gambling. Methods A total of 988 adolescents and emerging adults were recruited to participate. The first set of analyses tested the adequacy of a model comprising biological, cognitive, and family variables in predicting youth problem gambling. The second set of analyses explored the relationship between family and individual variables in problem gambling behavior. Results The results of the first set of analyses demonstrated that the individual factors of gender, cognitive distortions, and coping styles showed a significant predictive effect on youth problematic gambling, and the family factors of attachment and family structure did not reveal a significant influence on this behavior. The results of the second set of analyses demonstrated that the attachment dimension of angry distress exerted a more indirect influence on problematic gambling, through emotion-focused coping style. Discussion This study revealed that some family variables can have a more indirect effect on youth gambling behavior and provided some insights in how some factors interact in predicting problem gambling. Conclusion These findings suggest that youth gambling is a multifaceted phenomenon, and that the indirect effects of family variables are important in estimating the complex social forces that might influence adolescent decisions to gamble.

Gambling and family: A two-way relationship

Background and aims Families play an important role in the evolution of gambling and are also adversely affected by the disordered gambling of any one of their members. The aims of this study were to explore both the role families play in gambling initiation, maintenance, and help-seeking, and the harm caused to families by the gambling behavior using a qualitative approach. Methods Regular older adult gamblers were included in the study. In-depth interviews were conducted with 25 older adults to gain an understanding of gambling from their perspective. Older adult gamblers described their lived experience of gambling ranging from initiation to harm and attempts to cut down or limit gambling. Data were analyzed using thematic network analysis. Results The mean age of the 25 participants was 66.2 years. The majority were male (n = 18), of Chinese ethnicity (n = 16), had secondary education (n = 9), were married (n = 20), and currently employed (n = 15). Four organizing themes related to the role of families in initiation and maintenance of gambling, harm caused to family members, and their role in help-seeking were identified. Discussion and conclusions The study emphasizes the role of Asian families in both initiation and maintenance of gambling. Hence, families must be involved in prevention and outreach programs. Family members must be educated, so that they can encourage help-seeking to ensure early treatment and recovery. There is a need for interventional studies for reducing stress and improving coping among family members.

Peer attachment, specific patterns of internet use and problematic internet use in male and female adolescents

Problematic internet use may lead to serious psychosocial dysfunction. Recent studies have found comparable prevalence in both male and female adolescents. We pursue the neglected questions how male and female adolescents differ regarding their patterns of internet use and how gender, peer attachment and patterns of use are related to pathological internet use. In 2410 adolescents (1307 girls and 1103 boys) aged 12-18 years from different types of school we assessed peer attachment, frequency and use of eight specific applications and indicators of pathological internet use. Three patterns of internet use, 'social'; 'sex and games" and 'functional' were identified and connections between variables were modeled by ordered sequences of regression. We found that problematic internet use-sex and games as well as social usage-was more prevalent in boys. Insecure peer attachment predicted problematic internet use in both sexes. Also, excessive usage of internet games and sex mediated the influence of peer attachment insecurity on problematic internet use, but only for boys. Our study identified that adolescents with insecure peer attachment are at higher risk for problematic internet use. With regard to specific types of internet use, the consumption of online games and sex was identified as risk factor in boys with increasing age. Further studies are needed to understand and possibly subgroup problematic internet use behavior in girls. Our findings suggest that increasing the quality of peer relationships may be promising approach in the prevention and treatment of problematic internet use.

A review of educational-based gambling prevention programs for adolescents

Educational-based problem gambling prevention programs are important avenues in targeting at-risk behaviors among adolescents to prevent an escalation of problematic behaviors into adulthood. The aim of this review is to examine features pertinent to effective educational-based programs in the area of adolescent problem gambling prevention in hopes of providing a foundation and future suggestions for preventive efforts. A stronger understanding of this research area will be essential in ensuring that past practical and theoretical advancements are integrated into the development of future programs.

Children's attitudes towards Electronic Gambling Machines: an exploratory qualitative study of children who attend community clubs

Background

This research sought to explore whether children’s visual and auditory exposure to Electronic Gambling Machines (EGMs) in community clubs contributed to shaping their attitudes towards these types of potentially harmful gambling products. This research also examined children’s knowledge of EGM behaviours in adults within their social networks.

Methods

Qualitative interviews were conducted with a convenience sample of 45 children in a regional area of New South Wales, Australia. All children had attended a club that contained gambling products in the previous 12 months. Face to face, semi-structured interviews explored a range of themes including recall of and attitudes towards EGMs. Data were analysed using thematic techniques. Four social learning theory concepts—attentional, retention, reinforcement and reproduction—were used to explore the range of processes that influenced children’s attitudes towards EGMs.

Results

In relation to attentional factors, children recalled having seen EGMs in clubs, including where they were located, auditory stimuli and the physical appearance of EGMs. Children also retained information about the behaviours associated with gambling on EGMs, most prominently why adults gamble on these machines. Attitudes towards EGMs were reinforced by the child’s knowledge of adults EGM behaviours. Some older children’s attitudes were positively reinforced by the perception that profits from the machines would go back to their local sporting teams. Finally, while some children expressed a desire to reproduce EGM behaviours when they were older, others were concerned about the negative consequences of engaging in this type of gambling.

Conclusions

Despite policies that try to prevent children’s exposure to EGMs in community venues, children have peripheral exposure to EGMs within these environments. This exposure and children’s awareness of gambling behaviours of adults appear to play a role in shaping their attitudes towards EGMs. While further research should explore the range of other ancillary factors that contribute to children’s knowledge about these machines, policy makers should consider more effective strategies to prevent children from being exposed to EGMs in community venues.

Factors that influence children's gambling attitudes and consumption intentions: lessons for gambling harm prevention research, policies and advocacy strategies

BACKGROUND

Harmful gambling is a public health issue that affects not only adults but also children. With the development of a range of new gambling products, and the marketing for these products, children are potentially exposed to gambling more than ever before. While there have been many calls to develop strategies which protect children from harmful gambling products, very little is known about the factors that may influence children's attitudes towards these products. This study aimed to explore children's gambling attitudes and consumption intentions and the range of consumer socialisation factors that may influence these attitudes and behaviours.

METHODS

Children aged 8 to 16 years old (n = 48) were interviewed in Melbourne, Australia. A semi-structured interview format included activities with children and open-ended questions. We explored children's perceptions of the popularity of different gambling products, their current engagement with gambling, and their future gambling consumption intentions. We used thematic analysis to explore children's narratives with a focus on the range of socialising factors that may shape children's gambling attitudes and perceptions.

RESULTS

Three key themes emerged from the data. First, children's perceptions of the popularity of different products were shaped by what they had seen or heard about these products, whether through family activities, the media (and in particular marketing) of gambling products, and/or the alignment of gambling products with sport. Second, children's gambling behaviours were influenced by family members and culturally valued events. Third, many children indicated consumption intentions towards sports betting. This was due to four key factors: (1) the alignment of gambling with culturally valued activities; (2) their perceived knowledge about sport; (3) the marketing and advertising of gambling products (and in particular sports betting); and (4) the influence of friends and family.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that there is a range of socialisation factors, particularly family and the media (predominantly via marketing), which may be positively shaping children's gambling attitudes, behaviours and consumption intentions. There is a need for governments to develop effective policies and regulations to reduce children's exposure to gambling products and ensure they are protected from the harms associated with gambling.

Social support as a mediator between problem behaviour and gambling: a cross-sectional study among 14-16-year-old Finnish adolescents

BACKGROUND

During the adolescent period, risk-taking behaviour increases. These behaviours can compromise the successful transition from adolescence to adulthood. The purpose of this study was to examine social support as a mediator of the relation between problem behaviour and gambling frequency among Finnish adolescents.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the national School Health Promotion Study (SHPS) from the years 2010 and 2011 (N=102 545). Adolescents were classified in the most homogeneous groups based on their problem behaviour via latent class analysis.

RESULTS

Path analysis indicated that social support was negatively associated with problem behaviour, and problem behaviour and social support were negatively related (except for social support from friends among boys) to gambling. Social support from parents and school mediated, albeit weakly, the relations between problem behaviour and gambling among girls and boys.

CONCLUSIONS

Problem behaviour may affect gambling through social support from school and parents. Thus prevention and intervention strategies should focus on strengthening adolescents' social support. In addition, because of the clustering of different problem behaviours instead of concentrating on a single form of problem behaviour multiple-behaviour interventions may have a much greater impact on public health.

Teacher Awareness and Attitudes Regarding Adolescent Risk Behaviours: a Sample of Finnish Middle and High School Teachers

Empirical evidence has shown that youth gamble on both regulated and unregulated games, despite legislative prohibitions. This study assesses middle and high school teachers' awareness and attitudes regarding adolescent gambling and other potentially high-risk behaviours in Finland. A convenience sample of teachers (N = 157) from 13 provinces participated in the survey. The results suggest that teachers in Finland were more knowledgeable of the age limits of other adolescent high-risk behaviours than the legal age for gambling. Teachers were somewhat familiar with the behaviours and consequences associated with adolescent gambling. All other risk behaviours were perceived as being more important than gambling. Teachers' awareness about gambling prevention material in Finnish schools was limited. Results suggest that initiatives are required to enhance teachers' knowledge of adolescent problem gambling and its harmful short- and long-term consequences. School policies and guidelines including gambling behavior should be implemented in middle and high schools globally.

Parental knowledge and adolescents' risk behaviors

In this paper we study whether parental knowledge of adolescents' activities varies according to socio-demographic variables, and we analyze the possible association between parental knowledge patterns and certain risk behaviors among adolescents. A cross-sectional study was performed with representative samples of high-school students in Peru and El Salvador. A questionnaire assessed risk behaviors, as well as possible determinants, including parental knowledge. The questionnaire was answered by 6208 adolescents. We observed that the greater the degree of knowledge, the lower the frequency of risk behaviors among youth. The degree of knowledge was inversely associated with children's age, and we observed that being female was associated with a greater degree of parental knowledge. The study shows that parents' supervision criteria might be influenced by gender stereotypes, which would have a harmful effect on young males, as the lower degree of knowledge puts them at higher odds of risk behaviors.

"I Am Becoming More and More Like My Eldest Brother!": The Relationship Between Older Siblings, Adolescent Gambling Severity, and the Attenuating Role of Parents in a Large-Scale Nationally Representative Survey Study

The present study examined the association between having older siblings who gamble and adolescent at-risk/problem gambling and how parents (i.e., parental knowledge of their whereabouts) and peers might moderate such effects. Data were drawn from the ESPAD^®Italia2012 survey (European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs) comprising a nationally representative Italian sample of adolescents. The analysis was carried out on a subsample of 10,063 Italian students aged 15-19 years (average age = 17.10; 55 % girls) who had at least one older sibling and who had gambled at some point in their lives. Respondents' problem gambling severity, older gambler sibling, gambler peers, parental knowledge, and socio-demographic characteristics were individually assessed. Multinomial logistic regression analyses including two- and three-way interactions were conducted. The odds of being an at-risk/problem gambler were higher among high school students with older siblings that gambled and those with peers who gambled. Higher parental knowledge (of who the adolescent was with and where they were in their leisure time) was associated with lower rates of at-risk/problem gambling. There was also an interaction between gamblers with older siblings and parental knowledge. The combination of having siblings who gambled and a greater level of parental knowledge was associated with lower levels of problem gambling. The present study confirmed the occurrence of social risk processes (older siblings and peers who gambled) and demonstrated that gambling among older siblings and peers represents an important contextual factor for increased at-risk/problem gambling. However, parental knowledge appears to be sufficient to counterbalance the influence of older siblings.