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Grammatikopoulou MG, Gkiouras K, Dardiotis E, Zafiriou E, Tsigalou C, Bogdanos DP. Peeking into the future: Transdermal patches for the delivery of micronutrient supplements. Metabol Open 2021; 11:100109. [PMID: 34337377 PMCID: PMC8318979 DOI: 10.1016/j.metop.2021.100109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Adhesive transdermal delivery devices (patches) are the latest advancement in the delivery of micronutrients. A common challenge in this mode of delivery includes surpassing the physical barrier of the skin, while the use of microneedle (MN) arrays, or pretreatment of the skin with MNs can be used for a more successful outcome. Limited evidence from human non-randomized trials point to a sub-optimal delivery of iron through skin patches, although no MNs were used in those trials. Moreover, the use of patches proved inefficient in reducing the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies in post-bariatric surgery patients. The delivery of minerals was tested in animals using reservoir-type patches, gel/foam patches, MNs and iontophoresis. Results from these studies indicate a possible interplay between the dietary manipulation of mineral intake and the trandermal delivery through patches, as reduced, or regular dietary intake seems to increase absorption of the delivered mineral. Moreover, intervention duration could be an additional factor affecting absorption. Possible adverse events from animal studies include redness or decolorization of skin. In vitro and ex vivo studies revealed an increase in vitamin K, vitamin D and iron delivery, however a variety of methodological discrepancies are apparent in these studies, including the models used, the length of the MNs, the duration of application, temperature control and total micronutrient load in the patches. Data indicate that pre-treating the skin with MNs might enhance delivery; however, a source of variability in the observed effectiveness might include the different molecular weights of the nutrients used, skin factors, the ideal tip radius and MN wall thickness. Non-human studies indicate a potential benefit in combining MN with iontophoresis. Presently, the transdermal delivery seems promising with regard to nutritional supplementation, however limited evidence exists for its efficacy in humans. Future research should aim to control for both intervention duration, possible deficiency status and for the dietary intake of participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria G Grammatikopoulou
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece.,Department of Nutritional Sciences & Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, International Hellenic University, Alexander Campus, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Gkiouras
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece.,Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Efthimios Dardiotis
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Efterpi Zafiriou
- Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Christina Tsigalou
- Department of Microbiology, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Dimitrios P Bogdanos
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
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Parmar PK, Wadhawan J, Bansal AK. Pharmaceutical nanocrystals: A promising approach for improved topical drug delivery. Drug Discov Today 2021; 26:2329-2349. [PMID: 34265460 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2021.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The barrier function of skin and non-optimal physicochemical properties of drug present a challenge to skin penetration of many drugs, thus motivating the development of novel drug delivery systems. Recently, nanocrystal-based formulations have been investigated for topical drug delivery and demonstrated improved skin penetration. This review highlights barriers in skin penetration, current techniques to improve topical delivery and application of nanocrystals in conquering obstacles for topical delivery. Nanocrystals can improve delivery through the skin by mechanisms like higher concentration gradient across skin resulting in increased passive diffusion, hair follicle targeting, diffusional corona and adhesion to skin. This would be of interest for formulation scientists for product development of molecules that are 'difficult-to-deliver' topically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prashantkumar K Parmar
- Solid State Pharmaceutics Lab, Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160 062, India.
| | - Jhanvi Wadhawan
- Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Limited, IPDO, Survey No. 54, Bachupally (V), Bachupally (M), Medchal- Malkajgiri, Telangana 500 090, India.
| | - Arvind K Bansal
- Solid State Pharmaceutics Lab, Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali, Punjab 160 062, India.
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3
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Transdermal drug delivery systems for fighting common viral infectious diseases. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2021; 11:1498-1508. [PMID: 34024014 PMCID: PMC8140753 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-021-01004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) have many advantages and represent an excellent alternative to oral delivery and hypodermic injections. TDDS are more convenient and less invasive tools for disease and viral infection treatment, prevention, detection, and surveillance. The emerging development of microneedles for TDDS has facilitated improved skin barrier penetration for the delivery of macromolecules or hydrophilic drugs. Microneedle TDDS patches can be fabricated to deliver virus vaccines and potentially provide a viable alternative vaccine modality that offers improved immunogenicity, thermostability, simplicity, safety, and compliance as well as sharp-waste reduction, increased cost-effectiveness, and the capacity for self-administration, which could improve vaccine distribution. These advantages make TDDS-based vaccine delivery an especially well-suited option for treatment of widespread viral infectious diseases including pandemics. Because microneedle-based bioassays employ transdermal extraction of interstitial fluid or blood, they can be used as a minimally invasive approach for surveying disease markers and providing point-of-care (POC) diagnostics. For cutaneous viral infections, TDDS can provide localized treatment with high specificity and less systemic toxicity. In summary, TDDS, especially those that employ microneedles, possess special attributes that can be leveraged to reduce morbidity and mortality from viral infectious diseases. In this regard, they may have considerable positive impact as a modality for improving global health. In this article, we introduce the possible role and summarize the current literature regarding TDDS applications for fighting common cutaneous or systemic viral infectious diseases, including herpes simplex, varicella or herpes zoster, warts, influenza, measles, and COVID-19.
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Duan W, Qiao S, Zhuo M, Sun J, Guo M, Xu F, Liu J, Wang T, Guo X, Zhang Y, Gao J, Huang Y, Zhang Z, Cheng P, Ma S, Chen Y. Multifunctional Platforms: Metal-Organic Frameworks for Cutaneous and Cosmetic Treatment. Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chempr.2020.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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5
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Applications and delivery mechanisms of hyaluronic acid used for topical/transdermal delivery – A review. Int J Pharm 2020; 578:119127. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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6
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Garcia-Bilbao A, Gómez-Fernández P, Larush L, Soroka Y, Suarez-Merino B, Frušić-Zlotkin M, Magdassi S, Goñi-de-Cerio F. Preparation, characterization, and biological evaluation of retinyl palmitate and Dead Sea water loaded nanoemulsions toward topical treatment of skin diseases. J BIOACT COMPAT POL 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0883911519885970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Millions of people suffer from different types of skin diseases worldwide. In the last decade, the development of nanocarriers has been the focus of the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries to enhance the performance of their products, and to meet consumers’ demands. Several delivery systems have been developed to improve the efficiency and minimize possible side effects. In this study, retinyl palmitate and Dead Sea water loaded nanoemulsions were developed as carriers to treat skin conditions such as photoaging, psoriasis, or atopic dermatitis. Toxicity profiles were carried out by means of viability, cell membrane asymmetry study, evaluation of oxidative stress induction (reactive oxygen species), and inflammation via cytokines production with a human keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT) and a mouse embryo fibroblasts cell line (BALB/3T3). Results showed that loaded nanoemulsions were found to be non-cytotoxic under the conditions of the study. Furthermore, no oxidative stress induction was observed. Likewise, an efficacy test of these loaded nanoemulsions was also tested on human skin organ cultures, before and after ultraviolet B light treatment. Viability and caspase-3 production assessment, in response to the exposure of skin explants to the loaded nanoemulsions, indicated non-toxic effects on human skin in culture, both with and without ultraviolet B irradiation. Further the ability of loaded nanoemulsions to protect the skin against ultraviolet B damage was assessed on skin explants reducing significantly the apoptotic activation after ultraviolet B irradiation. Our promising results indicate that the developed loaded nanoemulsions may represent a topical drug delivery system to be used as an alternative treatment for recurrent skin diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Liraz Larush
- The Casali Institute of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yoram Soroka
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Marina Frušić-Zlotkin
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Shlomo Magdassi
- The Casali Institute of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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7
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Kapoor B, Gupta R, Singh SK, Gulati M, Singh S. Prodrugs, phospholipids and vesicular delivery - An effective triumvirate of pharmacosomes. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2018; 253:35-65. [PMID: 29454464 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
With the advent from the laboratory bench to patient bedside in last five decades, vesicular systems have now come to be widely accepted as pragmatic means for controlled delivery of drugs. Their success stories include those of liposomes, niosomes and even the lately developed ethosomes and transferosomes. Pharmacosomes, which, as delivery systems offer numerous advantages and have been widely researched, however, remain largely unacknowledged as a successful delivery system. Though a large number of drugs have been derivatized and formulated into self-assembled vesicular systems, the term pharmacosomes has not been widely used while reporting them. Therefore, their relative obscurity may be attributed to the non-usage of the nomenclature of pharmacosomes by the researchers working in the area. We present a review on the scenario that lead to origin of these bio-inspired vesicles composed of self-assembling amphiphilic molecules. Various drugs that have been formulated into pharmacosomes, their characterization techniques, their properties relative to those of other vesicular delivery systems, and the success achieved so far are also discussed.
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8
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Abstract
Skin-mediated therapeutic delivery is a potential alternative to traditional drug delivery approaches. However, dermal drug delivery is limited to the molecules with optimal physico-chemical properties. To overcome this barrier for delivering ‘nonideal’ drug molecules across the skin, different drug carriers and penetration enhancement methods have been investigated. Conventional chemical and physical approaches for dermal drug delivery are limited by their skin irritation potential, complexity of application and poor patient compliance. In recent years, dendritic polymers have shown potential in improving the dermal delivery of various molecules. With minimal skin irritation potential and high drug loading capacity, dendrimers offer multiple advantages for improving delivery of drugs across the skin. The current review aims to provide an overview of dendritic polymers for dermal (topical and transdermal) drug delivery. [Formula: see text]
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9
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Abstract
Prodrugs continue to attract significant interest in the transdermal drug delivery field. These moieties can confer favorable physicochemical properties on transdermal drug delivery candidates. Alkyl chain lengthening, pegylation are some of the strategies used for prodrug synthesis. It is usually important to optimize partition coefficient, water and oil solubilities of drugs. In this review, progress made in the field of prodrugs for percutaneous penetration is highlighted and the challenges discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin B Ita
- a Department of Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences , College of Pharmacy, Touro University California , Vallejo , CA , USA
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10
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Uchida T, Yakumaru M, Nishioka K, Higashi Y, Sano T, Todo H, Sugibayashi K. Evaluation of a Silicone Membrane as an Alternative to Human Skin for Determining Skin Permeation Parameters of Chemical Compounds. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2016; 64:1338-46. [DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c16-00322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Uchida
- Skin Care Products Research, Kao Corporation
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai University
| | | | | | | | | | - Hiroaki Todo
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai University
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11
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Aghazadeh-Habashi A, Yang Y, Tang K, Lőbenberg R, Doschak MR. Transdermal drug delivery: feasibility for treatment of superficial bone stress fractures. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2015; 5:540-51. [DOI: 10.1007/s13346-015-0257-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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12
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Selzer D, Neumann D, Schaefer UF. Mathematical models for dermal drug absorption. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2015; 11:1567-83. [PMID: 26166490 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2015.1063615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Mathematical models of dermal transport offer the advantages of being much faster and less expensive than in vitro or in vivo studies. The number of methods used to create such models has been increasing rapidly, probably due to the steady rise in computational power. Although each of the various approaches has its own virtues and limitations, it may be difficult to decide which approach is best suited to address a given problem. AREAS COVERED Here we outline the basic ideas, drawbacks and advantages of compartmental and quantitative structure-activity relationship models, as well as of analytical and numerical approaches for solving the diffusion equation. Examples of special applications of the different approaches are given. EXPERT OPINION Although some models are sophisticated and might be used in future to predict transport through damaged or diseased skin, the comparatively low availability of suitable and accurate experimental data limits extensive usage of these models and their predictive accuracy. Due to the lack of experimental data, the possibility of validating mathematical models is limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Selzer
- a 1 Saarland University, Biopharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology , 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany.,b 2 Scientific Consilience GmbH, Saarland University , Bldg. 30, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany +49 681 302 71230 ; +49 681 302 64956 ;
| | - Dirk Neumann
- a 1 Saarland University, Biopharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology , 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany.,b 2 Scientific Consilience GmbH, Saarland University , Bldg. 30, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany +49 681 302 71230 ; +49 681 302 64956 ;
| | - Ulrich F Schaefer
- c 3 Saarland University, Biopharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology , 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
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Eke G, Goñi-de-Cerio F, Suarez-Merino B, Hasirci N, Hasirci V. Biocompatibility of Dead Sea Water and retinyl palmitate carrying poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) micro/nanoparticles designed for transdermal skin therapy. J BIOACT COMPAT POL 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/0883911515585183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this study, novel drug carriers were developed for the treatment of skin conditions such as psoriasis, aging, or ultraviolet damage using micro/nanocapsules and micro/nanospheres of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate). The sizes of the particles were in the micron range and were loaded with retinyl palmitate and Dead Sea Water. In some tests, MgCl2 was used as a substitute for Dead Sea Water for accurate determination of released ions of Dead Sea Water. Encapsulation efficiency and loading of water-soluble excipients Dead Sea Water and MgCl2 were almost eight times lower than the hydrophobic compound retinyl palmitate. The particles were not cytotoxic as determined with the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide test using L929 mouse fibroblasts, BALB/3T3 mouse embryo fibroblasts, and HaCaT human keratinocytes. Ames test showed that the carriers were not genotoxic. The particles penetrated the membrane of human osteosarcoma cells Saos 2 and accumulated in their cytoplasm. No reactive oxygen species production could be detected which indicated low or no inflammatory response toward the particles. In the tests with intact human skin, 1.2% of the retinyl palmitate–loaded poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) particles penetrated into the human skin, but when the skin was without stratum corneum and increased to 6.9%. In conclusion, these carriers have shown a significant potential as topical drug delivery systems in the personalized treatment of skin diseases because their contents could be modified according to a patient’s needs and several drugs could be loaded in one type of microparticle, or several populations, each carrying a different drug, can be used in the treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gozde Eke
- Department of Micro and Nanotechnology, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey
- BIOMATEN—Center of Excellence in Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Ahi Evran University, Kirsehir, Turkey
| | | | | | - Nesrin Hasirci
- Department of Micro and Nanotechnology, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey
- BIOMATEN—Center of Excellence in Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey
- Department of Chemistry, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey
| | - Vasif Hasirci
- Department of Micro and Nanotechnology, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey
- BIOMATEN—Center of Excellence in Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey
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14
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Al-Blewi FF, Al-Lohedan HA, Rafiquee MZA, Issa ZA. Micellar Effects upon the Alkaline Hydrolysis of Acetaminophen Prodrugs: Carboxylic and Carbonic Acid Esters. J SOLUTION CHEM 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10953-014-0258-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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15
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Eke G, Kuzmina AM, Goreva AV, Shishatskaya EI, Hasirci N, Hasirci V. In vitro and transdermal penetration of PHBV micro/nanoparticles. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE. MATERIALS IN MEDICINE 2014; 25:1471-1481. [PMID: 24510225 DOI: 10.1007/s10856-014-5169-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to develop micro and nano sized drug carriers from poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV), and study the cell and skin penetration of these particles. PHBV micro/nanospheres were prepared by o/w emulsion method and were stained with a fluorescent dye, Nile Red. The particles were fractionated by centrifugation to produce different sized populations. Topography was studied by SEM and average particle size and its distribution were determined with particle sizer. Cell viability assay (MTT) was carried out using L929 fibroblastic cell line, and particle penetration into the cells were studied. Transdermal permeation of PHBV micro/nanospheres and tissue reaction were studied using a BALB/c mouse model. Skin response was evaluated histologically and amount of PHBV in skin was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The average diameters of the PHBV micro/nanosphere batches were found to be 1.9 μm, 426 and 166 nm. Polydispersity indices showed that the size distribution of micro sized particles was broader than the smaller ones. In vitro studies showed that the cells had a normal growth trend. MTT showed no signs of particle toxicity. The 426 and 166 nm sized PHBV spheres were seen to penetrate the cell membrane. The histological sections revealed no adverse effects. In view of this data nano and micro sized PHBV particles appeared to have potential to serve as topical and transdermal drug delivery carriers for use on aged or damaged skin or in cases of skin diseases such as psoriasis, and may even be used in gene transfer to cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Eke
- Department of Micro and Nanotechnology, Middle East Technical University, 06800, Ankara, Turkey
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16
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Flux through silicone and human skin fitted to a series/parallel model. Ther Deliv 2014; 5:391-407. [DOI: 10.4155/tde.14.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Recent reports of the good correlation between maximum flux through human skin in vitro from water, JMHAQ, and maximum flux through silicone from water, JMPAQ, demand that the mechanism of maximum flux across these two apparently quite different membranes be compared to understand the bases of the correlation. Results/discussion: A n = 70 log JMPAQ database and a matched n = 55 log JMHAQ database of molecules were found to fit well to a series/parallel model where three parallel solubility dependent pathways existed: a lipid pathway, an aqueous pathway, and a series pathway of alternating lipid and aqueous phases. Conclusion: The results of this analysis surprisingly suggest that the architecture of the two membranes present similar solubility based pathways through which drugs diffuse.
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Our skin is exposed daily to substances; many of these are neutral and safe but others are potentially harmful. In order to estimate the degree of toxicity and damage to skin tissues when exposed to harmful substances, skin toxicology studies are required. If these studies are coupled with suitably designed mathematical models, they can provide a powerful tool that allows appropriate interpretation of data. This work reviews mathematical models that can be employed in skin toxicology studies. AREAS COVERED Two types of mathematical models and their suitability for assessing skin toxicology are covered in this review. The first is focused on predicting penetration rate through the skin from a solute's physicochemical properties, while the second type of models transport processes in skin layers using appropriate equations with the specific aim of predicting the concentration of a given solute in viable skin tissues. EXPERT OPINION Mathematical models are an important tool for accurate valuation of skin toxicity experiments, estimation of skin toxicity and for developing new formulations for skin disease therapy. Comprehensive mathematical models of drug transport in skin, especially those based on more physiologically detailed mechanistic considerations of transport processes, are required to further enhance their role in assessing skin toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri G Anissimov
- Griffith University, School of Biomolecular and Physical Sciences and Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre , Gold Coast Campus, Building G39 Room 3.36, Parklands Drive, Brisbane, QLD 4222 , Australia +617 55528496 ; +617 55528065 ;
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18
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Diblíková D, Kopečná M, Školová B, Krečmerová M, Roh J, Hrabálek A, Vávrová K. Transdermal Delivery and Cutaneous Targeting of Antivirals using a Penetration Enhancer and Lysolipid Prodrugs. Pharm Res 2013; 31:1071-81. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-013-1228-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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The Flux of Phenolic Compounds through Silicone Membranes. Pharmaceutics 2013; 5:434-44. [PMID: 24300516 PMCID: PMC3836618 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics5030434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Revised: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenols as a class of molecules have been reported to exhibit higher log maximum fluxes through human stratum corneum, SC, from water, log JMHAQ, than other classes of molecules. This suggests that their corresponding log maximum fluxes through silicone from water, log JMPAQ, may be useful to extend the existing n = 63 log JMPAQ database to include more log JMPAQ values greater than 0.0. The log JMPAQ values for n = 7 phenols predicted to give log JMPAQ values greater than 0.0 based on their log JMHAQ values have been experimentally determined. These n = 7 new log JMPAQ values have been added to the existing n = 63 log JMPAQ database to give a new n = 70 database and the n = 7 literature log JMHAQ values have been added to the existing n = 48 log JMHAQ database (matched to the n = 63 log JMPAQ database) to give a new n = 55 database. The addition of the n = 7 phenols improved the correlations of these flux databases when fitted to the Roberts-Sloan equation, RS, as well as the correlation between the matched experimental (Exp.) log JMPAQ with the Exp. log JMHAQ.
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20
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Roberts MS. Solute-vehicle-skin interactions in percutaneous absorption: the principles and the people. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2013; 26:356-70. [PMID: 23921122 DOI: 10.1159/000353647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
An appreciation of solute-vehicle-skin interactions underpins our current understanding of the processes of percutaneous absorption as well as in the prediction of the extent of absorption. This understanding has been reached through principles developed and validated over the last century through the work of a number of authors, including Dale Wurster, Takeru Higuchi, Irvin Blank, Robert Scheuplein, Gordon Flynn, Boyd Poulsen and Tom Franz, as well as by many scientists from my and younger generations. Their work has led to an appreciation of the rate-limiting steps in percutaneous penetration, the role played by the physicochemical properties of the solute, vehicle and skin and the variability that may arise from using various experimental/mathematical/pharmacokinetic models to quantify absorption as well as enabling the prediction of local and systemic efficacy and toxicity. In addition, unexpected behaviour may result from non-ideality in solute-vehicle-skin effects, including dehydration, chemical enhancement, supersaturation, metabolism, sequestration and vascular effects, including those of nanosystems on the local vasculature. In general, in vitro skin penetration profiles are predictive of in vivo profiles but a number of exceptions also exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Roberts
- Therapeutics Research Centre, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, S.A., Australia.
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21
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Abstract
We have identified, for any surrogate membrane and human skin in vitro, the maximum flux through the membrane (output) should be measured if a correlation between the two is to be obtained. We also identified from an analysis of the passive permeation process that molecular weight, lipid and aqueous solubilities (which are easily measured) constitute the physicochemical properties of the active (input), upon which prediction of flux through the surrogate membrane and through skin in vitro should be based. Besides providing the bases for predicting flux, changes in these physicochemical properties can be easily implemented by those wishing to optimize new cosmetics or topical products. Maximum flux values through silicone membrane (n = 70) and through human skin in vitro (n = 52) have been collected and a good correlation between the flux through human skin in vitro and flux through silicone membrane (for the same molecules) was found.
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Anissimov YG, Jepps OG, Dancik Y, Roberts MS. Mathematical and pharmacokinetic modelling of epidermal and dermal transport processes. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2013; 65:169-90. [PMID: 22575500 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2012.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Topical delivery to the various regions of the skin and underlying tissues, transdermal drug delivery and dermal exposure to environmental chemicals are important areas of research. Mathematical models of epidermal and dermal transport, involving penetration of a solute through various layers of the skin, metabolism in the skin and its subsequent distribution and clearance into systemic circulation from underlying tissues, play an essential role in this research area and are reviewed in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri G Anissimov
- Griffith University, School of Biomolecular and Physical Sciences and Queensland Micro- and Nanotechnology Centre, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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Yan Y, Chen JM, Lu TB. Simultaneously enhancing the solubility and permeability of acyclovir by crystal engineering approach. CrystEngComm 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ce41017j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Tsai CY, Chang CC. Auto-adhesive transdermal drug delivery patches using beetle inspired micropillar structures. J Mater Chem B 2013; 1:5963-5970. [DOI: 10.1039/c3tb20735h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Majumdar S, Mueller-Spaeth M, Sloan KB. Prodrugs of theophylline incorporating ethyleneoxy groups in the promoiety: synthesis, characterization, and transdermal delivery. AAPS PharmSciTech 2012; 13:853-62. [PMID: 22648150 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-012-9803-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Two different types of derivatives of theophylline (Th-H) incorporating ethyleneoxy groups into the promoiety have been synthesized. One is a soft alkyl type where N-methyl-N-methoxyethyleneoxycarbonylaminomethyl chlorides have been used to alkylate Th-H in the 7 position. The other is in an acyl type where methoxyethyleneoxycarbonyl chlorides have been used to acylate Th-H in the 7 position. All of the prodrugs were more soluble in the lipid isopropyl myristate (IPM) than Th-H, and three were more soluble in water (AQ) than Th-H. The most water-soluble prodrug gave the highest maximum delivery of total species containing Th-H through hairless mouse skin from IPM (maximum flux, J(MMIPM))-more than seven times that of Th-H, while the other two gave more than three times that of Th-H. The acyl-type prodrugs delivered only Th-H, while the soft alkyl types delivered 60-70% Th-H plus intact prodrug. The Roberts-Sloan equation was able to predict the best performer for each type with an average of the absolute difference between the experimental log J (MMIPM) and calculated log J (MMIPM) (Δlog J (MMIPM)) of 0.253 log units. The values for the present prodrugs and previously reported prodrugs that had not been previously included in the Roberts-Sloan data base (n = 23) were included in the previous n = 71 data base to give n = 94. New coefficients for the Roberts-Sloan equation have been obtained.
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Milewski M, Stinchcomb AL. Estimation of maximum transdermal flux of nonionized xenobiotics from basic physicochemical determinants. Mol Pharm 2012; 9:2111-20. [PMID: 22702370 PMCID: PMC3460035 DOI: 10.1021/mp300146m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
An ability to estimate the maximum flux of a xenobiotic across skin is desirable from the perspective of both drug delivery and toxicology. While there is an abundance of mathematical models describing the estimation of drug permeability coefficients, there are relatively few that focus on the maximum flux. This article reports and evaluates a simple and easy-to-use predictive model for the estimation of maximum transdermal flux of xenobiotics based on three common molecular descriptors: logarithm of octanol-water partition coefficient, molecular weight and melting point. The use of all three can be justified on the theoretical basis of their influence on the solute aqueous solubility and the partitioning into the stratum corneum lipid domain. The model explains 81% of the variability in the permeation data set composed of 208 entries and can be used to obtain a quick estimate of maximum transdermal flux when experimental data is not readily available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikolaj Milewski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0082, USA
| | - Audra L. Stinchcomb
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0082, USA
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Byun HJ, Cho KH, Eun HC, Lee MJ, Lee Y, Lee S, Chung JH. Lipid ingredients in moisturizers can modulate skin responses to UV in barrier-disrupted human skin in vivo. J Dermatol Sci 2012; 65:110-7. [PMID: 22209282 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2011.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2011] [Revised: 11/07/2011] [Accepted: 12/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chemicals with a molecular weight <500 and adequate lipid solubility can penetrate the intact human skin. As many lipid ingredients in moisturizers have molecular weights <500, the lipid ingredients may penetrate into the skin and affect skin responses to UV; however, little is known about this phenomenon. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effects of major lipid ingredients in moisturizers on skin responses to UV in tape-stripped human skin in vivo. METHODS We evaluated the effects of three major lipid ingredients in moisturizers (cholesterol, linoleic acid, and a synthetic ceramide, N-oleoyl-phytosphingosine) on skin responses to UV in the tape-stripped skin of healthy volunteers. After 2 days of lipid-application, the areas were irradiated with UV, and skin samples were obtained 24h after irradiation. Histologic features and the expression of the markers of collagen metabolism and inflammatory mediators were evaluated. RESULTS Compared to vehicle, topical cholesterol significantly decreased the degree of dermal inflammatory infiltrates and exocytosis, and also decreased the expression of MMP-1, IL-6, and IL-1ß mRNA. In contrast, topical linoleic acid increased the induction of apoptotic cells, and the expression of MMP-1 and IL-6 mRNA. N-oleoyl-phytosphingosine increased the expression of MMP-1 and IL-6 mRNA, while decreasing the expression of COX-2 mRNA. CONCLUSIONS Topical cholesterol can protect the barrier-disrupted skin against UV-induced damage, while linoleic acid or N-oleoyl-phytosphingosine alone has the potential to aggravate the damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee Jin Byun
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Abstract
The prodrug concept has been used to improve undesirable properties of drugs since the late 19th century, although it was only at the end of the 1950s that the actual term prodrug was introduced for the first time. Prodrugs are inactive, bioreversible derivatives of active drug molecules that must undergo an enzymatic and/or chemical transformation in vivo to release the active parent drug, which can then elicit its desired pharmacological effect in the body. In most cases, prodrugs are simple chemical derivatives that are only one or two chemical or enzymatic steps away from the active parent drug. However, some prodrugs lack an obvious carrier or promoiety but instead result from a molecular modification of the prodrug itself, which generates a new active compound. Numerous prodrugs designed to overcome formulation, delivery, and toxicity barriers to drug utilization have reached the market. In fact, approximately 20% of all small molecular drugs approved during the period 2000 to 2008 were prodrugs. Although the development of a prodrug can be very challenging, the prodrug approach represents a feasible way to improve the erratic properties of investigational drugs or drugs already on the market. This review introduces in depth the rationale behind the use of the prodrug approach from past to present, and also considers the possible problems that can arise from inadequate activation of prodrugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristiina M Huttunen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
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Devarajan-Ketha H, Sloan K. N , N ′-Dialkylaminoalkylcarbonyl (DAAC) prodrugs and aminoalkylcarbonyl (AAC) prodrugs of 4-hydroxyacetanilide and naltrexone with improved skin permeation properties. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:4078-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.04.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Revised: 04/21/2011] [Accepted: 04/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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31
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Snorradóttir BS, Gudnason PI, Thorsteinsson F, Másson M. Experimental design for optimizing drug release from silicone elastomer matrix and investigation of transdermal drug delivery. Eur J Pharm Sci 2011; 42:559-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2011.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2010] [Revised: 01/27/2011] [Accepted: 02/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Abstract
Attempts to deliver drugs into and through the skin (dermal and transdermal delivery) have not been very successful because the physicochemical properties of drugs are often not optimal. Prodrugs can be used to optimize those physicochemical properties of drugs and optimize their delivery by transiently masking their polar functional groups. For a drug to cross the rate-limiting barrier to delivery (the stratum corneum) it must dissolve in and cross multiple lipid and aqueous phases within the stratum corneum. Prodrugs can be designed to exhibit increased lipid and aqueous solubilities resulting in increased delivery. In order to identify the optimal prodrugs, they must be evaluated as saturated solutions where their thermodynamic activities are maximal in the solution and in the skin. If prodrugs are evaluated at concentrations less than at saturation, inaccurate conclusions about the optimal physicochemical properties may result. Prodrugs must be designed to optimize both their lipid and aqueous solubilities to optimize their delivery into and through the skin.
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Morrow DI, McCarron PA, Woolfson AD, Juzenas P, Juzeniene A, Iani V, Moan J, Donnelly RF. Hexyl Aminolaevulinate Is a More Effective Topical Photosensitiser Precursor than Methyl Aminolaevulinate and 5-Aminolaevulinic Acids When Applied in Equimolar Doses. J Pharm Sci 2010; 99:3486-98. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.22116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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34
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Wasdo SC, Juntunen J, Devarajan H, Sloan KB. A comparison of the fit of flux through hairless mouse skin from water data to three model equations. Int J Pharm 2009; 366:65-73. [PMID: 18824227 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2008.08.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2008] [Revised: 08/28/2008] [Accepted: 08/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Data for the delivery of total species containing parent drugs from water through hairless mouse skin by prodrugs, logJ(MMAQ), has been fitted to the Roberts-Sloan, RS, the Kasting-Smith-Cooper, KSC, and Magnusson-Anissimov-Cross-Roberts, MACR, equations. The RS model which contains a parameter for the dependence of flux on solubility in water, S(AQ), as well as solubility in the lipid isopropyl myristate, S(IPM), gave the best fit: logJ(MMAQ)=-2.30+0.575 logS(IPM)+0.425 logS(AQ)-0.0016MW, r(2)=0.903. The values for the coefficients to the parameters are quite similar to those obtained when the RS model was fit to flux of solutes from water through human skin, logJ(MHAQ). There was no trend in predicting the under or over-performance of prodrugs based on their fit to the RS model and whether they were more or less soluble than their parent drugs. There was an inverse dependence of logJ(MMAQ) on partition coefficients or permeability coefficients similar to that observed for logJ(MHAQ). The similarities in trends for results for logJ(MMAQ) and logJ(MHAQ) suggests that design directives obtained from mouse skin can be extended to design new prodrugs or select new drugs for delivery through human skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott C Wasdo
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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35
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Abstract
Transdermal drug delivery has made an important contribution to medical practice, but has yet to fully achieve its potential as an alternative to oral delivery and hypodermic injections. First-generation transdermal delivery systems have continued their steady increase in clinical use for delivery of small, lipophilic, low-dose drugs. Second-generation delivery systems using chemical enhancers, noncavitational ultrasound and iontophoresis have also resulted in clinical products; the ability of iontophoresis to control delivery rates in real time provides added functionality. Third-generation delivery systems target their effects to skin's barrier layer of stratum corneum using microneedles, thermal ablation, microdermabrasion, electroporation and cavitational ultrasound. Microneedles and thermal ablation are currently progressing through clinical trials for delivery of macromolecules and vaccines, such as insulin, parathyroid hormone and influenza vaccine. Using these novel second- and third-generation enhancement strategies, transdermal delivery is poised to significantly increase its impact on medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Prausnitz
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Dr., Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100, USA.
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36
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Abstract
Transdermal drug delivery has made an important contribution to medical practice, but has yet to fully achieve its potential as an alternative to oral delivery and hypodermic injections. First-generation transdermal delivery systems have continued their steady increase in clinical use for delivery of small, lipophilic, low-dose drugs. Second-generation delivery systems using chemical enhancers, noncavitational ultrasound and iontophoresis have also resulted in clinical products; the ability of iontophoresis to control delivery rates in real time provides added functionality. Third-generation delivery systems target their effects to skin's barrier layer of stratum corneum using microneedles, thermal ablation, microdermabrasion, electroporation and cavitational ultrasound. Microneedles and thermal ablation are currently progressing through clinical trials for delivery of macromolecules and vaccines, such as insulin, parathyroid hormone and influenza vaccine. Using these novel second- and third-generation enhancement strategies, transdermal delivery is poised to significantly increase its impact on medicine.
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37
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Thomas JD, Sloan KB. Evaluation of alkyloxycarbonyloxymethyl (AOCOM) ethers as novel prodrugs of phenols for topical delivery: AOCOM prodrugs of acetaminophen. Int J Pharm 2008; 371:25-32. [PMID: 19136050 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2008.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2008] [Revised: 12/10/2008] [Accepted: 12/11/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The maximum fluxes of a series of alkyloxycarbonyloxymethyl (AOCOM) ethers of acetaminophen (APAP) through hairless mouse skin from isopropyl myristate, IPM (J(MMIPM)) were measured. The J(MMIPM), solubilities in IPM (S(IPM)), water (S(AQ)) and pH 4.0 buffer (S4.0) and molecular weights MW were then fitted to the Roberts-Sloan (RS) equation: log JM = x + y log S(LIPID) + (1-y) log S(AQ)-zMW. Only one of the prodrugs gave an improvement in the flux obtained by APAP itself. The general lack of improvement in flux seems to be due to the fact that there was no improvement in the S(AQ) values of the AOCOM derivatives compared to APAP. When the n = 5 members of the AOCOM series were added to the n = 66 database of J(MMIPM) to give n = 71 and fitted to the RS equation where S(LIPID) was S(IPM), the following coefficients were obtained: x = -0.562, y = 0.501, z = 0.00248, r2 = 0.923. These results demonstrate the importance of improving S(AQ) for prodrugs to improve their solubilities in the skin and hence the flux of the parent drug. The RS equation, which is derived directly from Fick's law, explains this dependence of flux on S(AQ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D Thomas
- Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, NCI, NIH, NCI-Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
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38
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Wasdo S, Juntunen J, Devarajan H, Murray T, Nickels D, Singh S, Shanks T, Ulmer K, Sloan KB. Modeling of flux through silicone membranes from water. Eur J Pharm Sci 2008; 34:321-32. [PMID: 18588972 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2008.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2008] [Revised: 05/12/2008] [Accepted: 05/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Do the Roberts-Sloan (RS) or modified Kasting-Smith-Cooper (KSC) equations that provide good fit to data for maximum flux, from water through mouse or human skin also provide a good fit to data for maximum fluxes through silicone membranes (polydimethylsiloxane, PDMS). The maximum fluxes through silicone membranes from water (J(MPAQ)), molecular weights (MW), solubilities in isopropyl myristate (S(IPM)) and water (S(AQ)) of 31 prodrugs and one parent drug have been fitted to the RS equation, which includes a parameter for dependence on S(AQ), and the KSC equation, which does not, to determine which equation gave the better fit. In addition, the J(MPAQ), MW, S(AQ) and solubilities in octanol (S(OCT)) of 26 diverse molecules from other laboratories were collected and fitted to the RS and KSC equations to determine if the choice of lipid parameter (S(IPM) or S(OCT)) had an effect on which equation gave the better fit. RS gave the better fit to the present prodrug database where: logJ(MPAQ)=-2.454+0.716 logS(IPM)+0.284 logS(AQ)+0.00208 MW, r(2)=0.77. RS also gave the better fit to the database from other laboratories where: logJ(MPAQ)=-2.046+0.667 logS(OCT)+0.333 logS(AQ)-0.00374 MW, r(2)=0.878 after four obvious outliers were removed to give n=22. Thus, data for J(MPAQ) can be fitted to the RS equation, which also provides the best fit to maximum flux from water through mouse or human skin and includes a dependence on S(AQ).
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Wasdo
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, P.O. Box 100485, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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Abstract
Prodrugs are bioreversible derivatives of drug molecules that undergo an enzymatic and/or chemical transformation in vivo to release the active parent drug, which can then exert the desired pharmacological effect. In both drug discovery and development, prodrugs have become an established tool for improving physicochemical, biopharmaceutical or pharmacokinetic properties of pharmacologically active agents. About 5-7% of drugs approved worldwide can be classified as prodrugs, and the implementation of a prodrug approach in the early stages of drug discovery is a growing trend. To illustrate the applicability of the prodrug strategy, this article describes the most common functional groups that are amenable to prodrug design, and highlights examples of prodrugs that are either launched or are undergoing human trials.
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Zhang G, Flach CR, Mendelsohn R. Tracking the dephosphorylation of resveratrol triphosphate in skin by confocal Raman microscopy. J Control Release 2007; 123:141-7. [PMID: 17826862 PMCID: PMC2096630 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2007.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2007] [Revised: 07/18/2007] [Accepted: 08/02/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Polyphenolic resveratrol has been identified as a potent antioxidant acting as both a free radical scavenger and an inhibitor of enzyme oxidative activity. However, the reactive propensity of resveratrol also limits its use in topical formulations. A transient derivative of resveratrol, resveratrol triphosphate, has been designed to provide a means for the delayed delivery of the active compound in skin tissue where endogenous enzymes capable of dephosphorylation reside. Confocal Raman microscopy studies of intact pigskin biopsies treated with modified resveratrol provided information about the spatial distribution and time-dependence of permeation and conversion to the native active form. Conversion to the active form was not observed when skin samples were exposed to steam, a procedure that likely inactivates endogenous skin enzymes. In addition, treatment with the triphosphate compared to the parent compound revealed a more homogeneous distribution of resveratrol throughout the stratum corneum and viable epidermis when the former was applied. Thus, the bioavailability of resveratrol in the epidermis appears to be enhanced upon application of the pro-molecule compared to resveratrol.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carol R. Flach
- Corresponding author: Tel.:973-353-1330; Fax: 973-353-1264; e-mail:
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Thomas J, Majumdar S, Wasdo S, Majumdar A, Sloan KB. The effect of water solubility of solutes on their flux through human skin in vitro: An extended Flynn database fitted to the Roberts–Sloan equation. Int J Pharm 2007; 339:157-67. [PMID: 17412537 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.02.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2007] [Revised: 02/26/2007] [Accepted: 02/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The edited Flynn database (n=62) for determining the effect of the physicochemical properties of solutes on their skin absorption has been extended (n=114) to give a database for which solubilities of the solutes in water, S(AQ), and their maximum fluxes from water through human skin in vitro, J(MAQ), are known or can be calculated. Besides the six major contributors to the original and edited Flynn database, nine more contributors have been included in the extended database to give 15 contributors. As in the edited Flynn database, data for solutes that were significantly ionized or for experiments using different thicknesses of skin were not excluded from the extended database so that the diversity of the original database was maintained. The extended database was fit to five equations where the independent variables were solubility in octanol (S(OCT)), in water (S(AQ)) or molecular weight (MW) and combinations of those three variables; and the dependent variable was J(MAQ). The best fit was obtained from the Roberts-Sloan (RS) equation: logJ(MAQ) = x + ylogS(OCT) + (1 - y)logS(AQ) - z MW, x = -2.574, y = 0.586, z = 0.00440, r(2) = 0.887, S.D. = 0.399, F = 139. This result is comparable to the best fit published using permeability coefficients, P, as the dependent variable, but gives greater insight into the factors affecting permeation. J(MAQ) is more important clinically because it described how much is permeating per unit area and time, while P is in the units of speed (cmh(-1)). Because of the dependence of J(MAQ) on S(AQ), the selection of new drugs with improved topical delivery should include considerations of their S(AQ) in their design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Thomas
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, PO Box 100485, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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