Magnetic nanoparticles for cancer diagnosis and therapy

Simultaneous therapeutic and diagnostic applications of magnetic PLGA nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin in rabbit

In this study, DOX (Doxorubicin) and Fe3O4 magnetic nanocrystals (SPIONs (Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanocrystals)) were encapsulated in the PLGA-PEG: poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-b-poly(ethylene glycol) nanoparticles for theranostic purposes. The final prepared formulation which is called NPs (Nanoparticles) exhibited a particle size with a mean diameter of ~ 209 nm and a sufficient saturation magnetization value of 1.65 emu/g. The NPs showed faster DOX release at pH 5.5 compared to pH 7.4. Also, the cytotoxicity effect of NPs increased compared to Free-DOX alone in C6 glioma cancer cells. For in vivo investigations, the 2.2 Kg rabbits were injected with NPs formulations via a central articular anterior vein in their ears. Furthermore, the images of rabbit organs were depicted via MR (Magnetic resonance) and fluorescent imaging techniques. A negative contrast (dark signal) was observed in T2 (Relaxation Time) weighted MR images of IV (Intravenously)-injected rabbits with NPs compared to the control ones. The organ's florescent images of NPs-injected rabbits showed a high density of red color related to the accumulation of DOX in liver and kidney organs. These data showed that the NPs have no cytotoxicity effect on the heart. Also, the results of histopathological tests of different organs showed that the groups receiving NPs and Free-DOX were almost similar and no significant difference was seen, except for the cardiac tissue in which the pathological effects of NPs were significantly less than the Free-DOX. Additionally, pharmacokinetic studies were also conducted at the sera and whole bloods of IV-injected rabbits with NPs and Free-DOX. The pharmacokinetic parameters showed that NPs could enhance the DOX retention in the serum compared to the Free-DOX. Altogether, we aimed to produce a powerful delivery nanosystem for its potential in dual therapeutic and diagnostic applications which are called theranostic agents.

The Advancing Role of Nanocomposites in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

The relentless pursuit of effective cancer diagnosis and treatment strategies has led to the rapidly expanding field of nanotechnology, with a specific focus on nanocomposites. Nanocomposites, a combination of nanomaterials with diverse properties, have emerged as versatile tools in oncology, offering multifunctional platforms for targeted delivery, imaging, and therapeutic interventions. Nanocomposites exhibit great potential for early detection and accurate imaging in cancer diagnosis. Integrating various imaging modalities, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and fluorescence imaging, into nanocomposites enables the development of contrast agents with enhanced sensitivity and specificity. Moreover, functionalizing nanocomposites with targeting ligands ensures selective accumulation in tumor tissues, facilitating precise imaging and diagnostic accuracy. On the therapeutic front, nanocomposites have revolutionized cancer treatment by overcoming traditional challenges associated with drug delivery. The controlled release of therapeutic agents from nanocomposite carriers enhances drug bioavailability, reduces systemic toxicity, and improves overall treatment efficacy. Additionally, the integration of stimuli-responsive components within nanocomposites enables site-specific drug release triggered by the unique microenvironment of the tumor. Despite the remarkable progress in the field, challenges such as biocompatibility, scalability, and long-term safety profiles remain. This article provides a comprehensive overview of recent developments, challenges, and prospects, emphasizing the transformative potential of nanocomposites in revolutionizing the landscape of cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. In Conclusion, integrating nanocomposites in cancer diagnosis and treatment heralds a new era for precision medicine.

Targeting ferroptosis for leukemia therapy: exploring novel strategies from its mechanisms and role in leukemia based on nanotechnology

The latest findings in iron metabolism and the newly uncovered process of ferroptosis have paved the way for new potential strategies in anti-leukemia treatments. In the current project, we reviewed and summarized the current role of nanomedicine in the treatment and diagnosis of leukemia through a comparison made between traditional approaches applied in the treatment and diagnosis of leukemia via the existing investigations about the ferroptosis molecular mechanisms involved in various anti-tumor treatments. The application of nanotechnology and other novel technologies may provide a new direction in ferroptosis-driven leukemia therapies. The article explores the potential of targeting ferroptosis, a new form of regulated cell death, as a new therapeutic strategy for leukemia. It discusses the mechanisms of ferroptosis and its role in leukemia and how nanotechnology can enhance the delivery and efficacy of ferroptosis-inducing agents. The article not only highlights the promise of ferroptosis-targeted therapies and nanotechnology in revolutionizing leukemia treatment, but also calls for further research to overcome challenges and fully realize the clinical potential of this innovative approach. Finally, it discusses the challenges and opportunities in clinical applications of ferroptosis.

Imaging of Endometriotic Lesions Using cRGD-MN Probe in a Mouse Model of Endometriosis

Approximately 10% of women suffer from endometriosis during their reproductive years. This disease is a chronic debilitating condition whose etiology for lesion implantation and survival heavily relies on adhesion and angiogenic factors. Currently, there are no clinically approved agents for its detection. In this study, we evaluated cRGD-peptide-conjugated nanoparticles (RGD-Cy5.5-MN) to detect lesions using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in a mouse model of endometriosis. We utilized a luciferase-expressing murine suture model of endometriosis. Imaging was performed before and after 24 h following the intravenous injection of RGD-Cy5.5-MN or control nanoparticles (Cy5.5-MN). Next, we performed biodistribution of RGD-Cy5.5-MN and correlative fluorescence microscopy of lesions stained for CD34. Tissue iron content was determined using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Our results demonstrated that targeting endometriotic lesions with RGD-Cy5.5-MN resulted in a significantly higher delta T2* upon its accumulation compared to Cy5.5-MN. ICP-OES showed significantly higher iron content in the lesions of the animals in the experimental group compared to the lesions of the animals in the control group. Histology showed colocalization of Cy5.5 signal from RGD-Cy5.5-MN with CD34 in the lesions pointing to the targeted nature of the probe. This work offers initial proof-of-concept for targeting angiogenesis in endometriosis which can be useful for potential clinical diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for treating this disease.

Progress in the treatment of drug-loaded nanomaterials in renal cell carcinoma

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is a common urinary tract tumor that arises from the highly heterogeneous epithelium of the renal tubules. The incidence of kidney cancer is second only to the incidence of bladder cancer, and has shown an upward trend over time. Although surgery is the preferred treatment for localized RCC, treatment decisions should be customized to individual patients considering their overall health status and the risk of developing or worsening chronic kidney disease postoperatively. Anticancer drugs are preferred to prevent perioperative and long-term postoperative complications; however, resistance to chemotherapy remains a considerable problem during the treatment process. To overcome this challenge, nanocarriers have emerged as a promising strategy for targeted drug delivery for cancer treatment. Nanocarriers can transport anticancer agents, achieving several-fold higher cytotoxic concentrations in tumors and minimizing toxicity to the remaining parts of the body. This article reviews the use of nanomaterials, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, nanocomposites, carbon nanomaterials, nanobubbles, nanomicelles, and mesoporous silica nanoparticles, for RCC treatment, and discusses their advantages and disadvantages.

MicroRNAs as Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets for Acute Kidney Injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a clinical syndrome where a rapid decrease in kidney function and/or urine output is observed, which may result in the imbalance of water, electrolytes and acid base. It is associated with poor prognosis and prolonged hospitalization. Therefore, an early diagnosis and treatment to avoid the severe AKI stage are important. While several biomarkers, such as urinary L-FABP and NGAL, can be clinically useful, there is still no gold standard for the early detection of AKI and there are limited therapeutic options against AKI. miRNAs are non-coding and single-stranded RNAs that silence their target genes in the post-transcriptional process and are involved in a wide range of biological processes. Recent accumulated evidence has revealed that miRNAs may be potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for AKI. In this review article, we summarize the current knowledge about miRNAs as promising biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for AKI, as well as the challenges in their clinical use.

MicroRNA: trends in clinical trials of cancer diagnosis and therapy strategies

As a type of short noncoding RNAs, microRNA (miRNA) undoubtedly plays a crucial role in cancer development. Since the discovery of the identity and clinical functions of miRNAs, over the past few decades, the roles of miRNAs in cancer have been actively investigated. Numerous pieces of evidence indicate that miRNAs are pivotal factors in most types of cancer. Recent cancer research focused on miRNAs has identified and characterized a large cohort of miRNAs commonly dysregulated in cancer or exclusively dysregulated in specific types of cancer. These studies have suggested the potential of miRNAs as biomarkers in the diagnosis and prognostication of cancer. Moreover, many of these miRNAs have oncogenic or tumor-suppressive functions. MiRNAs have been the focus of research given their potential clinical applications as therapeutic targets. Currently, various oncology clinical trials using miRNAs in screening, diagnosis, and drug testing are underway. Although clinical trials studying miRNAs in various diseases have been reviewed before, there have been fewer clinical trials related to miRNAs in cancer. Furthermore, updated results of recent preclinical studies and clinical trials of miRNA biomarkers and drugs in cancer are needed. Therefore, this review aims to provide up-to-date information on miRNAs as biomarkers and cancer drugs in clinical trials.

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles for their application in the human body: Influence of the surface

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) are of great interest in nanomedicine for imaging, drug delivery, or for hyperthermia treatment. Although many research groups have focused on the synthesis and application of IONs in nanomedicine, little is known about the influence of the surface properties on the particles' behavior in the human body. This study analyzes the impact of surface coatings (dextran, polyvinyl alcohol, polylactide-co-glycolide) on the nanoparticles' cytocompatibility, agglomeration, degradation, and the resulting oxidative stress induced by the particle degradation. All particles, including bare IONs (BIONs), are highly cytocompatible (>70%) and show no significant toxicity towards smooth muscle cells. Small-angle X-ray scattering profiles visualize the aggregation behavior of nanoparticles and yield primary particle sizes of around 20 nm for the investigated nanoparticles. A combined experimental setup of dynamic light scattering and phenanthroline assay was used to analyze the long-term agglomeration and degradation profile of IONs in simulated body fluids, allowing fast screening of multiple candidates. All particles degraded in simulated endosomal and lysosomal fluid, confirming the pH-dependent dissolution. The degradation rate decreased with the shrinking size of particles leading to a plateau. The fastest Fe²⁺ release could be measured for the polyvinyl-coated IONs. The analytical setup is ideal for a quick preclinical study of IONs, giving often neglected yet crucial information about the behavior and toxicity of nanoparticles in the human body. Moreover, this study allows for the development and evaluation of novel ferroptosis-inducing agents.

Integration of miRNA's Theranostic Potential with Nanotechnology: Promises and Challenges for Parkinson's Disease Therapeutics

Despite the wide research going on in Parkinson's disease (PD), the burden of PD still remains high and continues to increase. The current drugs available for the treatment of PD are only aimed at symptomatic control. Hence, research is mainly focused on identifying the novel therapeutic targets that can be effectively targeted in order to slow down or culminate the disease progression. Recently the role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in the regulation of various pathological mechanisms of PD has been thoroughly explored and many of them were found to be dysregulated in the biological samples of PD patients. These miRNAs can be used as diagnostic markers and novel therapeutic options to manage PD. The delivery of miRNAs to the target site in brain is a challenging job owing to their nature of degradability by endonucleases as well as poor blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Nanoparticles appear to be the best solution to effectively encase the miRNA in their core as well as cross the BBB to deliver them into brain. Functionalisation of these nanoparticles further enhances the site-specific delivery.

Glass-embedded PDMS microfluidic device for enhanced concentration of nanoparticles using an ultrasonic nanosieve

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) driven devices typically employ polymeric microfluidic channels of low acoustic impedance mismatch to the fluid in contact, to allow precise control of the wave field. Several of these applications, however, can benefit from the implementation of an acoustically reflective surface at the microfluidic channel's ceiling to increase energy retention within the fluid and hence, performance of the device. In this work, we embed a glass insert at the ceiling of the PDMS microfluidic channel used in a SAW activated nanosieve, which utilises a microparticle resonance for enrichment of nanoparticles. Due to the system's independence of performance on channel geometry and wave field pattern, the glass-inserted device allowed for a 30-fold increase in flow rate, from 0.05 μl min^-1 to 1.5 μL min^-1, whilst maintaining high capture efficiencies of >90%, when compared to its previously reported design. This effectively enables the system to process larger volume samples, which typically is a main limitation of these type of devices. This work demonstrates a simple way to increase the performance and throughput of SAW-based devices, especially within systems that can benefit from the energy retention.

Impact of Nanotechnology on Differentiation and Augmentation of Stem Cells for Liver Therapy

The liver is one of the crucial organs of the body that performs hundreds of chemical reactions needed by the body to survive. It is also the largest gland of the body. The liver has multiple functions, including the synthesis of chemicals, metabolism of nutrients, and removal of toxins. It also acts as a storage unit. The liver has a unique ability to regenerate itself, but it can lead to permanent damage if the injury is beyond recovery. The only possible treatment of severe liver damage is liver transplant which is a costly procedure and has several other drawbacks. Therefore, attention has been shifted towards the use of stem cells that have shown the ability to differentiate into hepatocytes. Among the numerous kinds of stem cells (SCs), the mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are the most famous. Various studies suggest that an MSC transplant can repair liver function, improve the signs and symptoms, and increase the chances of survival. This review discusses the impact of combining stem cell therapy with nanotechnology. By integrating stem cell science and nanotechnology, the information about stem cell differentiation and regulation will increase, resulting in a better comprehension of stem cell-based treatment strategies. The augmentation of SCs with nanoparticles has been shown to boost the effect of stem cell-based therapy. Also, the function of green nanoparticles in liver therapies is discussed.

Chitosan: A versatile bio-platform for breast cancer theranostics

Breast cancer is considered one of the utmost neoplastic diseases globally, with a high death rate of patients. Over the last decades, many approaches have been studied to early diagnose and treat it, such as chemotherapy, hormone therapy, immunotherapy, and MRI and biomarker tests; do not show the optimal efficacy. These existing approaches are accompanied by severe side effects, thus recognizing these challenges, a great effort has been done to find out the new remedies for breast cancer. Main finding: Nanotechnology opened a new horizon to the treatment of breast cancer. Many nanoparticulate platforms for the diagnosis of involved biomarkers and delivering antineoplastic drugs are under either clinical trials or just approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It is well known that natural phytochemicals are successfully useful to treat breast cancer because these natural compounds are safer, available, cheaper, and have less toxic effects. Chitosan is a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer. Further, it has outstanding features, like chemical functional groups that can easily modify our interest with an exceptional choice of promising applications. Abundant studies were directed to assess the chitosan derivative-based nanoformulation's abilities in delivering varieties of drugs. However, the role of chitosan in diagnostics and theranostics not be obligated. The present servey will discuss the application of chitosan as an anticancer drug carrier such as tamoxifen, doxorubicin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, etc. and also, its role as a theranostics (i.e. photo-responsive and thermo-responsive) moieties. The therapeutic and theranostic potential of chitosan in cancer is promising and it seems that to have a good potential to get to the clinic.

A review on engineered magnetic nanoparticles in Non-Small-Cell lung carcinoma targeted therapy

There are growing appeals forthe design of efficacious treatment options for non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) as it accrues to ~ 85% cases of lung cancer. Although platinum-based doublet chemotherapy has been the main therapeutic intervention in NSCLC management, this leads to myriad of problems including intolerability to the doublet regimens and detrimental side effects due to high doses. A new approach is therefore needed and warrants the design of targeted drug delivery systems that can halt tumor proliferation and metastasis by targeting key molecules, while exhibiting minimal side effects and toxicity. This review aims to explore the rational design of magnetic nanoparticles for the development of tumor-targeting systems for NSCLC. In the review, we explore the anticancer merits of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and provide a concise incursion into its application for the invention of functionalized magnetic nanoparticles in the targeted treatment of NSCLC. Recent nanoparticle-based targeted chemotherapies for targeting angiogenesis biomarkers in NSCLC will also be reviewed to further highlight versatility of magnetic nanoparticles. These developments through molecular tuning at the nanoscale and supported by comprehensive pre-clinical studies could lead to the establishment of precise nanosystems for tumor-homing cancer therapy.

A Review on Nuclear Imaging as a Promising Modality for Efficient Diagnosis of Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease and is declared a global health issue by the World Health Organization in 1993. Due to the complex pathophysiology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, it remains a global threat. This article reviews the conventional diagnostic modalities for tuberculosis, their limitations to detect latent TB, multiple drug-resistant TB, human immunodeficiency virus co-infected TB lesions, and TB in children. Moreover, this review illustrates the importance of nuclear medicine imaging for early, non-invasive diagnosis of TB to detect disease stages and monitor therapy response. Currently, single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography with their specific radionuclides have been extensively used for a thorough assessment of TB.

Concept for using magnetic particle imaging for intraoperative margin analysis in breast-conserving surgery

Breast-conserving surgery (BCS) is a commonly utilized treatment for early stage breast cancers but has relatively high reexcision rates due to post-surgical identification of positive margins. A fast, specific, sensitive, easy-to-use tool for assessing margins intraoperatively could reduce the need for additional surgeries, and while many techniques have been explored, the clinical need is still unmet. We assess the potential of Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI) for intraoperative margin assessment in BCS, using a passively or actively tumor-targeted iron oxide agent and two hardware devices: a hand-held Magnetic Particle detector for identifying residual tumor in the breast, and a small-bore MPI scanner for quickly imaging the tumor distribution in the excised specimen. Here, we present both hardware systems and demonstrate proof-of-concept detection and imaging of clinically relevant phantoms.

Hydrophobic Interaction: A Promising Driving Force for the Biomedical Applications of Nucleic Acids

The comprehensive understanding and proper use of supramolecular interactions have become critical for the development of functional materials, and so is the biomedical application of nucleic acids (NAs). Relatively rare attention has been paid to hydrophobic interaction compared with hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interaction of NAs. However, hydrophobic interaction shows some unique properties, such as high tunability for application interest, minimal effect on NA functionality, and sensitivity to external stimuli. Therefore, the widespread use of hydrophobic interaction has promoted the evolution of NA-based biomaterials in higher-order self-assembly, drug/gene-delivery systems, and stimuli-responsive systems. Herein, the recent progress of NA-based biomaterials whose fabrications or properties are highly determined by hydrophobic interactions is summarized. 1) The hydrophobic interaction of NA itself comes from the accumulation of base-stacking forces, by which the NAs with certain base compositions and chain lengths show properties similar to thermal-responsive polymers. 2) In conjugation with hydrophobic molecules, NA amphiphiles show interesting self-assembly structures with unique properties in many new biosensing and therapeutic strategies. 3) The working-mechanisms of some NA-based complex materials are also dependent on hydrophobic interactions. Moreover, in recent attempts, NA amphiphiles have been applied in organizing macroscopic self-assembly of DNA origami and controlling the cell-cell interactions.

Nanotechnology for angiogenesis: opportunities and challenges

Angiogenesis plays a critical role within the human body, from the early stages of life (i.e., embryonic development) to life-threatening diseases (e.g., cancer, heart attack, stroke, wound healing). Many pharmaceutical companies have expended huge efforts on both stimulation and inhibition of angiogenesis. During the last decade, the nanotechnology revolution has made a great impact in medicine, and regulatory approvals are starting to be achieved for nanomedicines to treat a wide range of diseases. Angiogenesis therapies involve the inhibition of angiogenesis in oncology and ophthalmology, and stimulation of angiogenesis in wound healing and tissue engineering. This review aims to summarize nanotechnology-based strategies that have been explored in the broad area of angiogenesis. Lipid-based, carbon-based and polymeric nanoparticles, and a wide range of inorganic and metallic nanoparticles are covered in detail. Theranostic and imaging approaches can be facilitated by nanoparticles. Many preparations have been reported to have a bimodal effect where they stimulate angiogenesis at low dose and inhibit it at higher doses.

Switchable Fluorescence of Doxorubicin for Label-Free Imaging of Bioorthogonal Drug Release

Monitoring the release and activation of prodrug formulations provides essential information about the outcome of a therapy. While the prodrug delivery can be confirmed by using different imaging techniques, confirming the release of active payload by using imaging is a challenge. Here, we have discovered that the switchable fluorescence of doxorubicin can validate drug release upon its uncaging reaction with a highly specific chemical partner. We have observed that the conjugation of doxorubicin with a trans-cyclooctene (TCO) diminishes its fluorescence at 595 nm. This quenched fluorescence of the doxorubicin prodrug is recovered upon its bond-cleaving reaction with tetrazine. Clinically assessed iron oxide nanoparticles were used to formulate a doxorubicin nanodrug. The release of doxorubicin from the nanodrug was studied under various experimental conditions. A fivefold increase in doxorubicin fluorescence is observed after complete release. The studies were carried out in vitro in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. An increase in Dox signal was observed upon tetrazine administration. This switchable fluorescence mechanism of Dox could be employed for fundamental studies, that is, the reactivity of various tetrazine and TCO linker types under different experimental conditions. In addition, the system could be instrumental for translational research where the release and activation of doxorubicin prodrug payloads can be monitored by using optical imaging systems.

Poly[oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate]-b-poly[(vinyl benzyl trimethylammonium chloride)] Based Multifunctional Hybrid Nanostructures Encapsulating Magnetic Nanoparticles and DNA

We report on the preparation of novel and multifunctional hybrid spherical-shaped nanostructures involving a double-hydrophilic block copolymer, namely the neutral cationic poly[oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate]-b-poly[(vinyl benzyl trimethylammonium chloride)] (POEGMA-b-PVBTMAC) diblock copolymer, initially complexed with hydrophilic anionic magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), and subsequently, with short deoxyribonucleic acid (113 bases DNA). The POEGMA-b-PVBTMAC copolymer, the copolymer/MNPs and the copolymer/MNPs/DNA tricomponent hybrid electrostatic complexes were studied by dynamic/electrophoretic light scattering (DLS/ELS) and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) techniques for the determination of their structure and solution properties. The MNPs were complexed efficiently with the oppositely charged diblock chains, leading to well-defined hybrid organic–inorganic spherical-shaped nanostructures. A significant aggregation tendency of the MNPs is noticed in cryo-TEM measurements after the electrostatic complexation of DNA, implying an accumulation of the DNA macromolecules on the surface of the hybrid tricomponent complexes. Magnetophoretic experiments verified that the MNPs maintain their magnetic properties after the complexation initially with the copolymer, and subsequently, within the block polyelectrolyte/MNPs/DNA nanostructures.

Magnetometer with nitrogen-vacancy center in a bulk diamond for detecting magnetic nanoparticles in biomedical applications

We developed a novel magnetometer that employs negatively charged nitrogen-vacancy (NV^-) centers in diamond, to detect the magnetic field generated by magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) for biomedical applications. The compact probe system is integrated into a fiber-optics platform allowing for a compact design. To detect signals from the MNPs effectively, we demonstrated, for the first time, the application of an alternating current (AC) magnetic field generated by the excitation coil of several hundred microteslas for the magnetization of MNPs in diamond quantum sensing. In the lock-in detection system, the minimum detectable AC magnetic field (at a frequency of 1.025 kHz) was approximately 57.6 nT for one second measurement time. We were able to detect the micromolar concentration of MNPs at distances of a few millimeters. These results indicate that the magnetometer with the NV^- centers can detect the tiny amounts of MNPs, thereby offering potential for future biomedical applications.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Breast Cancer Theranostics

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death in women worldwide. The extremely fast rate of metastasis and ability to develop resistance mechanism to all the conventional drugs make them very difficult to treat which are the causes of high morbidity and mortality of breast cancer patients. Scientists throughout the world have been focusing on the early detection of breast tumor so that treatment can be started at the very early stage. Moreover, conventional treatment processes such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and local surgery suffer from various limitations including toxicity, genetic mutation of normal cells, and spreading of cancer cells to healthy tissues. Therefore, new treatment regimens with minimum toxicity to normal cells need to be urgently developed.

METHODS

Iron oxide nanoparticles have been widely used for targeting hyperthermia and imaging of breast cancer cells. They can be conjugated with drugs, proteins, enzymes, antibodies or nucleotides to deliver them to target organs, tissues or tumors using external magnetic field.

RESULTS

Iron oxide nanoparticles have been successfully used as theranostic agents for breast cancer both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, their functionalization with drugs or functional biomolecules enhance their drug delivery efficiency and reduces the systemic toxicity of drugs.

CONCLUSION

This review mainly focuses on the versatile applications of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles on the diagnosis, treatment, and detecting progress of breast cancer treatment. Their wide application is because of their excellent superparamagnetic, biocompatible and biodegradable properties.

Near infrared fluorogenic probe as a prodrug model for evaluating cargo release by nanoemulsions

We developed Pro-HD, a NIR fluorogenic prodrug model. We evaluated its efficient cell delivery using biocompatible nanoemulsions and its hydrolysis into the fluorescent HD drug model once delivered in cancer cells.

Thermo-responsive Fluorescent Nanoparticles for Multimodal Imaging and Treatment of Cancers

Theranostic systems capable of delivering imaging and therapeutic agents at a specific target are the focus of intense research efforts in drug delivery. To overcome non-degradability and toxicity concerns of conventional theranostic systems, we formulated a novel thermo-responsive fluorescent polymer (TFP) and conjugated it on the surface of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) for imaging and therapeutic applications in solid tumors. Methods: TFP-MNPs were synthesized by copolymerizing poly(N-isopropylacrylamide), allylamine and a biodegradable photoluminescent polymer, and conjugating it on MNPs via a free radical polymerization reaction. Physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, and vibrational sample magnetometry. Nanoparticle cytocompatibility, cellular uptake and cytotoxicity were evaluated using in vitro cell assays. Finally, in vivo imaging and therapeutic efficacy studies were performed in subcutaneous tumor xenograft mouse models. Results: TFP-MNPs of ~135 nm diameter and -31 mV ζ potential maintained colloidal stability and superparamagnetic properties. The TFP shell was thermo-responsive, fluorescent, degradable, and released doxorubicin in response to temperature changes. In vitro cell studies showed that TFP-MNPs were compatible to human dermal fibroblasts and prostate epithelial cells. These nanoparticles were also taken up by prostate and skin cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner and exhibited enhanced killing of tumor cells at 41°C. Preliminary in vivo studies showed theranostic capabilities of the nanoparticles with bright fluorescence, MRI signal, and therapeutic efficacy under magnetic targeting after systemic administration in tumor bearing mice. Conclusion: These results indicate the potential of TFP-MNPs as multifunctional theranostic nanoparticles for various biological applications, including solid cancer management.

Nanomaterials and nanocomposite applications in veterinary medicine

Nowadays, nanotechnology has made huge, significant advancements in biotechnology and biomedicine related to human and animal science, including increasing health safety, production, and the elevation of national income. There are various fields of nanomaterial applications in veterinary medicine such as efficient diagnostic and therapeutic tools, drug delivery, animal nutrition, breeding and reproduction, and valuable additives. Additional benefits include the detection of pathogens, protein, biological molecules, antimicrobial agents, feeding additives, nutrient delivery, and reproductive aids. There are many nanomaterials and nanocomposites that can be used in nanomedicine such as metal nanoparticles, liposomes, carbon nanotubes, and quantum dots. In the near future, nanotechnology research will have the ability to produce novel tools for improving animal health and production. Therefore, this chapter was undertaken to spotlight novel methods created by nanotechnology for application in the improvement of animal health and production. In addition, the toxicity of nanomaterials is fully discussed to avoid the suspected health hazards of toxicity for animal health safety.

Cancer immunotherapy with immunoadjuvants, nanoparticles, and checkpoint inhibitors: Recent progress and challenges in treatment and tracking response to immunotherapy

Chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation are accepted as the preferred treatment modalities against cancer, but in recent years the use of immunotherapeutic approaches has gained prominence as the fourth treatment modality in cancer patients. In this approach, a patient's innate and adaptive immune systems are activated to achieve clearance of occult cancerous cells. In this review, we discuss the preclinical and clinical immunotherapeutic (e.g., immunoadjuvants (in-situ vaccines, oncolytic viruses, CXC antagonists, device activated agents), organic and inorganic nanoparticles, and checkpoint blockade) that are under investigation for cancer therapy and diagnostics. Additionally, the innovations in imaging of immune cells for tracking therapeutic responses and limitations (e.g., toxicity, inefficient immunomodulation, etc.) are described. Existing data suggest that if immune therapy is optimized, it can be a real and potentially paradigm-shifting cancer treatment frontier.

Laser-driven radiation: Biomarkers for molecular imaging of high dose-rate effects

Recently developed short‐pulsed laser sources garner high dose‐rate beams such as energetic ions and electrons, x rays, and gamma rays. The biological effects of laser‐generated ion beams observed in recent studies are different from those triggered by radiation generated using classical accelerators or sources, and this difference can be used to develop new strategies for cancer radiotherapy. High‐power lasers can now deliver particles in doses of up to several Gy within nanoseconds. The fast interaction of laser‐generated particles with cells alters cell viability via distinct molecular pathways compared to traditional, prolonged radiation exposure. The emerging consensus of recent literature is that the differences are due to the timescales on which reactive molecules are generated and persist, in various forms. Suitable molecular markers have to be adopted to monitor radiation effects, addressing relevant endogenous molecules that are accessible for investigation by noninvasive procedures and enable translation to clinical imaging. High sensitivity has to be attained for imaging molecular biomarkers in cells and in vivo to follow radiation‐induced functional changes. Signal‐enhanced MRI biomarkers enriched with stable magnetic nuclear isotopes can be used to monitor radiation effects, as demonstrated recently by the use of dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) for biomolecular observations in vivo. In this context, nanoparticles can also be used as radiation enhancers or biomarker carriers. The radiobiology‐relevant features of high dose‐rate secondary radiation generated using high‐power lasers and the importance of noninvasive biomarkers for real‐time monitoring the biological effects of radiation early on during radiation pulse sequences are discussed.

68Ga-radiolabeled bombesin-conjugated to trimethyl chitosan-coated superparamagnetic nanoparticles for molecular imaging: preparation, characterization and biological evaluation

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted much attention in biomedical imaging due to their unique magnetic and optical characteristics. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are the prosperous group of NPs with the capability to apply as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents. Radiolabeling of targeted SPIONs with positron emitters can develop dual positron emission tomography (PET)/MRI agents to achieve better diagnosis of clinical conditions.

METHODS

In this work, N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan (TMC)-coated magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) conjugated to S-2-(4-isothiocyanatobenzyl)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane tetraacetic acid (DOTA) as a radioisotope chelator and bombesin (BN) as a targeting peptide (DOTA-BN-TMC-MNPs) were prepared and validated using fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) tests. Final NPs were radiolabeled with gallium-68 (68Ga) and evaluated in vitro and in vivo as a potential PET/MRI probe for breast cancer (BC) detection.

RESULTS

The DOTA-BN-TMC-MNPs with a particle size between 20 and 30 nm were efficiently labeled with 68Ga (radiochemical purity higher than 98% using thin layer chromatography (TLC)). The radiolabeled NPs showed insignificant toxicity (>74% cell viability) and high affinity (IC50=8.79 µg/mL) for the gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)-avid BC T-47D cells using competitive binding assay against 99mTc-hydrazinonicotinamide (HYNIC)-gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-BN (7-14). PET and MRI showed visible uptake of NPs by T-47D tumors in xenograft mouse models.

CONCLUSION

68Ga-DOTA-BN-TMC-MNPs could be a potential diagnostic probe to detect BC using PET/MRI technique.

RNAi-Mediated PD-L1 Inhibition for Pancreatic Cancer Immunotherapy

The recent past has seen impressive progress in the treatment of various malignancies using immunotherapy. One of the most promising approaches involves immune checkpoint inhibitors. However, the clinical results with these agents have demonstrated variability in the response. Pancreatic cancer, in particular, has proven resistant to initial immunotherapy approaches. Here, we describe an alternative strategy that relies on combining gemcitabine and a novel programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitor, termed MN-siPDL1. MN-siPDL1 incorporates small interfering RNA against PD-L1 (siPDL1) conjugated to a magnetic nanocarrier (MN). We show that noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) could be used to monitor therapeutic response. Combination therapy consisting of gemcitabine and MN-siPDL1 in a syngeneic murine pancreatic cancer model resulted in a significant reduction in tumor growth and an increase in survival. Following optimization, a 90% reduction in tumor volume was achieved 2 weeks after the beginning of treatment. Whereas 100% of the control animals had succumbed to their tumors by week 6 after the beginning of treatment, there was no mortality in the experimental group by week 5, and 67% of the experimental animals survived for 12 weeks. This method could provide therapeutic benefit against an intractable disease for which there are no effective treatments and which is characterized by a mere 1% 5-year survival.

A Library of Potential Nanoparticle Contrast Agents for X-Ray Fluorescence Tomography Bioimaging

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been used as contrast agents for several bioimaging modalities. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) tomography can provide sensitive and quantitative 3D detection of NPs. With spectrally matched NPs as contrast agents, we demonstrated earlier in a laboratory system that XRF tomography could achieve high-spatial-resolution tumor imaging in mice. Here, we present the synthesis, characterization, and evaluation of a library of NPs containing Y, Zr, Nb, Rh, and Ru that have spectrally matched K-shell absorption for the laboratory scale X-ray source. The K-shell emissions of these NPs are spectrally well separated from the X-ray probe and the Compton background, making them suitable for the lab-scale XRF tomography system. Their potential as XRF contrast agents is demonstrated successfully in a small-animal equivalent phantom, confirming the simulation results. The diversity in the NP composition provides a flexible platform for a better design and biological optimization of XRF tomography nanoprobes.

Doxorubicin release by magnetic inductive heating and in vivo hyperthermia-chemotherapy combined cancer treatment of multifunctional magnetic nanoparticles

Multifunctional nanosystems help to control drug release and highly improve the cancer treatment efficacy in in vivo models.

Therapeutic nanoplatforms and delivery strategies for neurological disorders

The major neurological disorders found in a central nervous system (CNS), such as brain tumors, Alzheimer's diseases, Parkinson's diseases, and Huntington's disease, have led to devastating outcomes on the human public health. Of these disorders, early diagnostics remains poor, and no treatment has been successfully discovered; therefore, they become the most life-threatening medical burdens worldwide compared to other major diseases. The major obstacles for the drug discovery are the presence of a restrictive blood-brain barrier (BBB), limiting drug entry into brains and undesired neuroimmune activities caused by untargeted drugs, leading to irreversible neuronal damages. Recent advances in nanotechnology have contributed to the development of novel nanoplatforms and effective delivering strategies to improve the CNS disorder treatment while less disturbing brain systems. The nanoscale drug carriers, including liposomes, dendrimers, viral capsids, polymeric nanoparticles, silicon nanoparticles, and magnetic/metallic nanoparticles, enable the effective drug delivery penetrating across the BBB, the aforementioned challenges in the CNS. Moreover, drugs encapsulated by the nanocarriers can reach further deeper into targeting regions while preventing the degradation. In this review, we classify novel disease hallmarks incorporated with emerging nanoplatforms, describe promising approaches for improving drug delivery to the disordered CNS, and discuss their implications for clinical practice.

Chlorotoxin-A Multimodal Imaging Platform for Targeting Glioma Tumors

Chlorotoxin (CTX) is a 36-amino-acid disulfide-containing peptide derived from the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus. CTX alters physiology in numerous ways. It interacts with voltage gated chloride channels, Annexin-2, and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2). CTX-based bioconjugates have been widely subjected to phase I/II clinical trials and have shown substantial promise. Many studies have demonstrated that CTX preferentially binds to neuroectodermal tumors, such as glioblastoma, without cross-reactivity to normal brain cells. With its ability to penetrate the blood-brain-barrier (BBB) and its tyrosine residue allows covalent conjugation with functional moieties, CTX is an attractive platform to explore development of diagnostic and therapeutic agents for gliomas. In this review, we outline CTX structure and its molecular targets, summarize molecular variations of CTX developed for glioma imaging, and discuss future trends and perspectives for CTX conjugates as a theranostic agent.

High-spatial-resolution x-ray fluorescence tomography with spectrally matched nanoparticles

Present macroscopic biomedical imaging methods provide either morphology with high spatial resolution (e.g. CT) or functional/molecular information with lower resolution (e.g. PET). X-ray fluorescence (XRF) from targeted nanoparticles allows molecular or functional imaging but sensitivity has so far been insufficient resulting in low spatial resolution, despite long exposure times and high dose. In the present paper, we show that laboratory XRF tomography with metal-core nanoparticles (NPs) provides a path to functional/molecular biomedical imaging with ~100 µm resolution in living rodents. The high sensitivity and resolution rely on the combination of a high-brightness liquid-metal-jet x-ray source, pencil-beam optics, photon-counting energy-dispersive detection, and spectrally matched NPs. The method is demonstrated on mice for 3D tumor imaging via passive targeting of in-house-fabricated molybdenum NPs. Exposure times, nanoparticle dose, and radiation dose agree well with in vivo imaging.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Innovative Tool in Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Although cancer is one of the most dangerous and the second most lethal disease in the world, current therapy including surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, etc., is highly insufficient not in the view of therapy success rate or the amount of side effects. Accordingly, procedures with better outcomes are highly desirable. Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) present an innovative tool-ideal for innovation and implementation into practice. This review is focused on summarizing some well-known facts about pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and the types of IONPs, and furthermore, provides a survey of their use in cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Fusion Proteins of NKG2D/NKG2DL in Cancer Immunotherapy

NKG2D (natural killer group 2, member D) is an important activating receptor in natural killer (NK) cells and some T cells. NKG2D ligands (NKG2DLs) are specifically expressed on most tumor cells. The engagement of these ligands on tumor cells to NKG2D on NK cells will induce cell-mediated cytotoxicity and have target cells destroyed. This gives NKG2D/NKG2DLs great potential in cancer therapeutic application. The creation of NKG2D/NKG2DL-based multi-functional fusion proteins is becoming one of the most promising strategies in immunotherapy for cancer. Antibodies, cytokines, and death receptors have been fused with NKG2D or its ligands to produce many powerful fusion proteins, including NKG2D-based chimeric antigen receptors (CARs). In this article, we review the recent developments of the fusion proteins with NKG2D/NKG2DL ligands in cancer immunotherapy.

Targeted Magnetic Nanotheranostics of Cancer

Current advances in targeted magnetic nanotheranostics are summarized in this review. Unique structural, optical, electronic and thermal properties of magnetic materials in nanometer scale are attractive in the field of biomedicine. Magnetic nanoparticles functionalized with therapeutic molecules, ligands for targeted delivery, fluorescent and other chemical agents can be used for cancer diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. High selectivity, small size, and low immunogenicity of synthetic nucleic acid aptamers make them attractive delivery agents for therapeutic purposes. Properties, production and functionalization of magnetic nanoparticles and aptamers as ligands for targeted delivery are discussed herein. In recent years, magnetic nanoparticles have been widely used in diagnostic methods, such as scintigraphy, single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and Raman spectroscopy. Therapeutic purposes of magnetic nanoconstructions are also promising. They are used for effective drug delivery, magnetic mediated hypertermia, and megnetodynamic triggering of apoptosis. Thus, magnetic nanotheranostics opens a new venue for complex differential diagnostics, and therapy of metastatic cancer.

Magnetic Lateral Flow Strip for the Detection of Cocaine in Urine by Naked Eyes and Smart Phone Camera

Magnetic lateral flow strip (MLFS) based on magnetic bead (MB) and smart phone camera has been developed for quantitative detection of cocaine (CC) in urine samples. CC and CC-bovine serum albumin (CC-BSA) could competitively react with MB-antibody (MB-Ab) of CC on the surface of test line of MLFS. The color of MB-Ab conjugate on the test line relates to the concentration of target in the competition immunoassay format, which can be used as a visual signal. Furthermore, the color density of the MB-Ab conjugate can be transferred into digital signal (gray value) by a smart phone, which can be used as a quantitative signal. The linear detection range for CC is 5–500 ng/mL and the relative standard deviations are under 10%. The visual limit of detection was 5 ng/mL and the whole analysis time was within 10 min. The MLFS has been successfully employed for the detection of CC in urine samples without sample pre-treatment and the result is also agreed to that of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). With the popularization of smart phone cameras, the MLFS has large potential in the detection of drug residues in virtue of its stability, speediness, and low-cost.

The Emerging Role of Nanotechnology in Cell and Organ Transplantation

Transplantation is often the only choice many patients have when suffering from end-stage organ failure. Although the quality of life improves after transplantation, challenges, such as organ shortages, necessary immunosuppression with associated complications, and chronic graft rejection, limit its wide clinical application. Nanotechnology has emerged in the past 2 decades as a field with the potential to satisfy clinical needs in the area of targeted and sustained drug delivery, noninvasive imaging, and tissue engineering. In this article, we provide an overview of popular nanotechnologies and a summary of the current and potential uses of nanotechnology in cell and organ transplantation.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of anti-nucleolin-targeted magnetic PLGA nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin as a theranostic agent for enhanced targeted cancer imaging and therapy

A superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs)/doxorubicin (Dox) co-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based nanoparticles targeted with AS1411 aptamer (Apt) against murine C26 colon carcinoma cells is successfully developed via a modified multiple emulsion solvent evaporation method for theranostic purposes. The mean size of SPIO/Dox-NPs (NPs) was 130nm with a narrow particle size distribution and Dox loading of 3.0%. The SPIO loading of 16.0% and acceptable magnetic properties are obtained and analyzed using thermogravimetric and vibration simple magnetometer analysis, respectively. The best release profile from NPs was observed in PBS at pH 7.4, in which very low burst release was observed. Nucleolin is a targeting ligand to facilitate anti-tumor delivery of AS1411-targeted NPs. The Apt conjugation to NPs (Apt-NPs) enhanced cellular uptake of Dox in C26 cancer cells. Apt-NPs enhance the cytotoxicity effect of Dox followed by a significantly higher tumor inhibition and prolonged animal survival in mice bearing C26 colon carcinoma xenografts. Furthermore, Apt-NPs enhance the contrast of magnetic resonance images in tumor site. Altogether, these Apt-NPs could be considered as a powerful tumor-targeted delivery system for their potential as dual therapeutic and diagnostic applications in cancers.

Study and evaluation of nucleolin-targeted delivery of magnetic PLGA-PEG nanospheres loaded with doxorubicin to C6 glioma cells compared with low nucleolin-expressing L929 cells

Magnetic nanoparticulate systems based on polymeric materials such as poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA1) are being studied for their potential applications in targeted therapy and imaging of malignant tumors. In the current study, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanocrystals (SPIONs2) and doxorubicin (Dox3) were entrapped in the PLGA-based nanoparticles via a modified multiple emulsion solvent evaporation method. Furthermore, SPIO/Dox-NPs4 were conjugated to anti-nucleolin AS1411 aptamer (Apt5) and their targeting ability was investigated in high nucleolin-expressing C6 glioma cells compared to low nucleolin-expressing L929 cells. The NPs exhibited a narrow size distribution with mean diameter of ~170nm and an appropriate SPION content (~18% of total polymer weight) with a sufficient saturation magnetization value of 5.9emu/g which is suitable for imaging objectives. They manifested an increased Dox release at pH5.5 compared to pH7.4, with initial burst release (within 24h) followed by sustained release of Dox for 36days. The Apt conjugation to NPs enhanced cellular uptake of Dox in C6 glioma cells compared to L929 cells. Similarly, the Apt-NPs increased the cytotoxicity effect of Dox compared with NPs and Dox solution (f-Dox) alone. In conclusion, the Apt-NPs were found to be a promising delivery system for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes.

Anti-HER2 VHH Targeted Magnetoliposome for Intelligent Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Breast Cancer Cells

The combination of liposomes with magnetic nanoparticles, because of their strong effect on T2 relaxation can open new ways in the innovative cancer therapy and diagnosis. In order to design an intelligent contrast agent in MRI, we chose anti-HER2 nanobody the smallest fully functional antigen-binding fragments evolved from the variable domain, the VHH, of a camel heavy chain-only antibody. These targeted magnetoliposomes bind to the HER2 antigen which is highly expressed on breast and ovarian cancer cells so reducing the side effects as well as increasing image contrast and effectiveness. Cellular iron uptake analysis and in vitro MRI of HER2 positive cells incubated with targeted nanoparticles show specific cell targeting. In vitro MRI shows even at the lowest density (200 Cells/μl), dark spots corresponding to labeled cells which were still detectable. These results suggest that this new type of nanoparticles could be effective antigen-targeted contrast agents for molecular imaging.