The Relationship between Rape Myths and Sexual Scripts: The Social Construction of Rape

Motives for Sex and Sexual Perpetration in College Men: An Exploratory Study

OBJECTIVE

Prior research has rarely focused on sexual motives (e.g., motives for having sex) when studying sexual violence perpetration prevention. The current study examined the role of sexual motives alongside other risk factors like alcohol expectancies in predicting sexual violence.

METHOD

We analyzed data from 205 male college students; 36% reported sexual perpetration of some type. Participants completed a series of questionnaires in a randomized order, including: measures of prior sexual perpetration, sexual motives, rape myth acceptance, alcohol expectancies, and a measure of social desirability. Data were analyzed using a series of T-tests and logistic regressions.

RESULTS

With one exception (coping motives), all sexual motives (intimacy, enhancement, self-affirmation, peer approval, and partner approval) were endorsed at higher levels by individuals who perpetrated sexual violence than those who did not (p < .05, Cohen's d = .25-.56). The partner approval motive significantly predicted sexual violence perpetration on its own. The enhancement motive, both independently and in interaction with alcohol expectancies for aggression, predicted sexual violence perpetration. Two other motives, intimacy and self-affirmation, were only significant in interaction with alcohol expectancies for aggression.

CONCLUSION

All sexual motives were endorsed more frequently by those who perpetrated sexual violence than those who did not. Sexual motives had a complex interaction with alcohol expectancies in predicting sexual violence perpetration. The results suggest that intervention programs should emphasize healthy, consensual sexual relationships that do not involve alcohol.

"I Didn't Realize How Common it Was:" A Mixed-Methods Study Examining Changes in Perceptions of Sexual Assault, Sex and Consent, and Sexual Behavior as a Function of the #Metoo Movement

This mixed-methods study examined awareness and perceived legitimacy of the #MeToo movement and how #MeToo changed perceptions of sexual assault and consent, as well as sexual interactions, in the United States. Adults residing in the U.S. were recruited through CloudResearch to complete an online survey in 2021. Quantitative data from 680 participants (M age = 45.8, 60% women, 77.4% White) indicated moderate awareness and perceived legitimacy of the #MeToo movement; Black, LGBQ+, and more politically liberal respondents had greater #MeToo awareness while younger, more liberal respondents, and those with greater rejection of rape myths rated #MeToo more legitimate. Among 354 participants (M age = 45.0, 65.3% women, 76.4% White) who answered at least one open-ended question with regard to changes resulting from the #MeToo movement, thematic analysis revealed nine primary themes: (1) Describing change; (2) Change in understanding; (3) More cautious; (4) Wrong or requires reporting/punishment; (5) Gendered social norms; (6) Easier to talk about; (7) #MeToo rhetoric; (8) Consequences for survivors, and (9) Empowerment. Several sub-themes were identified among the primary themes and implications for sexual assault prevention and response were discussed. The study findings are contextualized by social constructionism, with a particular focus on gender-based power dynamics, contributing to a growing literature documenting the cultural impact of the #MeToo movement.

"It's Almost Boring When It Should Be Enjoyable and Fun": College Students' Definitions of Bad Sex

Some of the primary reasons for sexual activities among college students include self-focused motives such as pleasure, along with other-focused motives that facilitate relatedness such as intimacy and emotional connection. However, college students' motivations for sex (or lack thereof) may also be impacted by the meaning they make of their own or peers' experience of "bad sex" - sex that is consensual yet "bad" or "negative" in some way. Therefore, the current study qualitatively explored college students' definitions of "bad sex." A total of 300 college-attending emerging adults (ages 18-25) provided open-ended responses regarding their definition of "bad sex" that is not sexual assault or rape. Using a thematic analytic approach, we identified six main themes on how participants defined what constituted "bad sex": (1) Lack of Pleasure, (2) Negative Outcomes (3) Unmet Expectations, (4) Sexual Violence, (5) Lack of Connection, and (6) Bad Partner. Additionally, the themes were examined based on gender identity, sexual activity status, sexual orientation, and relationship status. Implications for college sex education along with areas of future research with diverse populations and qualitative methodology are discussed.

Predictors of Rape Myth Acceptance Among South Asian Students in Canada

Transmission of rape myths is expected in every culture, yet limited research exists on rape myth acceptance (RMA) within global South Asian (SA) diasporas. We examined whether gender, attitudes toward gender roles, and patriarchal beliefs contributed to RMA among young SA adults in Canada. An ethnically diverse sample of 116 (ages 17-25) students, comprising equal numbers of men and women and domestic and international students, completed an online survey. SA students were generally egalitarian with low RMA similar to the majority of North American samples. As predicted, male gender, traditional attitudes towards SA women, and patriarchal beliefs were strong predictors of RMA.

Examining the Roles of Prior Victimization, Perpetrator Identity and the Correlates of Female Rape Myth Acceptance Among Indian Females

This research attempts to address a widely under-explained phenomenon of female rape myth acceptance (RMA) among the female population. A total number of 500 literate women from India with a mean age of 28.89 years were selected to examine the different determinants of their RMA. The research explored the important correlates of RMA among women, where the stepwise regression model revealed the significant impact of sexual desires, rejection sensitivity, loneliness, and neuroticism/emotional stability on their RMA. This further implied that women high on these four constructs run a 17.7% chance of endorsing female rape myths. The model eliminated the construct of online pornography usage, owing to its non-significant impact on RMA. Further, it was revealed that the history of prior victimization had a significant effect on the rape myths endorsed by the women. The study also reflected on the identity of the perpetrators of the women with a prior victimization history, where 55.43% reported it was perpetrated by a "known" person in their last experienced assault (and 44.57% "stranger" perpetrator). Whereas most women were victimized by "known" perpetrators, there was no significant difference in the sample's RMA, between the perpetrator identity groups (known and stranger perpetrators). The research concretely adds novel knowledge on identifying and predicting the female rape supportive attitudes among females.

Alcohol Use Before Sexual Violence and Cognitive Appraisals: Differential Associations With Barriers to Help-Seeking

The current study examined two cognitive appraisals-labeling (identifying an unwanted sexual experience as sexual violence) and self-blame-as potential mechanisms between survivor alcohol use before sexual violence and three help-seeking barriers (minimization, negative treatment, and social-emotional barriers) among non-service-seeking sexual violence survivors. Participants were 141 undergraduate women who completed self-report measures. Three parallel mediation models were tested. Survivors who were drinking were more likely to label their victimization as sexual violence and, in turn, perceived fewer minimization and greater social-emotional barriers. Further, survivors who were drinking blamed themselves more and, in turn, perceived greater negative treatment and social-emotional barriers.

Forty Years of Rape Myth Acceptance Interventions: A Systematic Review of What Works in Naturalistic Institutional Settings and How this can be Applied to Educational Guidance for Jurors

A systematic review of research assessing rape myth acceptance (RMA) interventions within institutional settings was conducted. The aim of this review was to inform the development of an educational intervention for jurors in rape trials that addresses rape myths, given previous evidence that RMA can affect decision-making and verdicts (Dinos et al., 2015; Gravelin et al., 2019; Leverick, 2020). 12 databases were searched, filtered to return peer-reviewed journals, published from 1980 to 2020, written in English. After removing duplicates from the 5,093 search results returned, 2,676 studies were screened for inclusion. Research studies were included in the review if they assessed the impact of a naturalistic intervention on RMA within an institutional setting. Studies that did not compare an experimental condition to a control condition or did not randomly allocate participants to conditions were excluded. Studies were also excluded if they used a non-validated, or adapted, RMA measure. 20 Research studies were included within the review and were critically appraised according to an author-created critical appraisal tool. It was concluded that RMA interventions can have a short-term impact upon individuals' RMA. Intervention types that were effective in reducing RMA included those that presented RM information; those that contained an empathy component; and bystander programmes. With regards to duration and format, short interventions led to reductions in RMA, and most successful interventions were presented via videos. Implications for policy and practice, and recommendations for future research, are discussed.

“It is all her fault”: psychosocial correlates of the negative attitudes towards rape victims among the general population of Pakistan

Background

Rape myths are marked for being false beliefs about sexual assault. With the problem being quite prevalent around the world, research has shown that numerous factors such as rape proclivity and perpetuation of rape myths are critical. The present study assesses the role of rape myths acceptance, rape victim empathy, and causal attributions towards rape victims as significantly predicting attitudes towards rape victims among the general population of Pakistan. Rape myths acceptance and causal attributions would significantly and positively predict negative attitudes towards rape victims.

Method

A cross-sectional research design was used for the study. The online survey questionnaire was filled by 573 participants including 275 males and 298 females who were selected through purposive sampling from the general population of Pakistan. The sample size was estimated using G*Power analysis with 95% confidence intervals. Data collection was done using Illinois rape myths, attitudes towards rape victim’s scale, rape victim empathy, and causal attributions scale were used. Data analysis was done using Pearson product-moment correlation, hierarchical regression, MANOVA, and mediation analysis via AMOS, all of which were executed using SPSS 21.0.

Results

The findings showed that higher levels of rape myths acceptance, low empathy towards rape victims, and victim blaming are significantly associated with negative attitudes towards rape victims. There were no gender differences among the participants. However, rape victim empathy significantly mediated the association between rape myths acceptance and rape victim empathy. It was also found that rape myths acceptance, rape victim empathy, and causal attributions significantly predicted attitudes towards rape victims. Another core finding was that there were no gender differences among participants with regard to rape myths acceptance, rape victim empathy, causal attributions, and attitudes towards rape victims.

Conclusions

Therefore, the findings contribute towards a better understanding of the rape myths in the general population of Pakistan and how the prevalence of such myths may contribute towards social, cultural, and legal problems of rape myths. The study also provides policy implications for a region where rape victims experience higher levels of blame and limited legal backing and support.

Does Gender Affect Judges' Perceptions of Sexual Assault Cases?

There is growing recognition that females engage in harmful sexual behaviour that is similar in severity and type to males. Existing research, however, suggests that there is a bias towards leniency in judicial systems for female sexual offenders (FSOs) in comparison to male sexual offenders (MSOs). Specifically, FSOs receive shorter sentences than do MSOs and are less likely to be sentenced to prison. The majority of research examining disparity in sentence outcomes for FSOs have been analysed through a quantitative lens. Qualitative methodology is also needed to understand any subjective differences in the way that judges perceive case-relevant factors and whether these perceptions differ as a function of the offender's gender. The present study is a qualitative study that examined judges' perceptions and descriptions of FSO compared to MSO in 10 matched cases of sexual offending. The study found that although there were many similarities in how judges perceived FSO compared to MSO, there were also unique differences that could explain more lenient sentences for FSOs (i.e. the vulnerability, poor mental health and adverse backgrounds of FSOs). Other unique differences found were that judges' perception of FSOs behaviour was described as depraved and cruel, whereas MSOs similar behaviour was not described in such an emotive way. The present study provides additional insight into the reasons for a bias towards leniency for FSOs. In particular, it points towards judicial focus on particular personal circumstances that are seen as relevant in sentencing FSOs but not for MSOs.

Unacknowledged and missed cases of sexual victimization: A comparison of responses to broad versus behaviorally specific questions

From the beginning of systematic research on sexual victimization, it has been recognized that a substantial proportion of women report nonconsensual sexual experiences meeting the defining criteria of rape in response to behaviorally specific items, but do not acknowledge their experience as rape in response to broad questions about whether they have ever been raped. Recent studies suggest that rates of unacknowledged rape may be as high or even higher among men than among women. This study examined rates of unacknowledged female and male victims of rape and sexual assault by comparing responses to behaviorally specific items of the Sexual Aggression and Victimization Scale (SAV-S) with responses to broad questions using the labels of sexual assault and rape (SARA) in 593 participants (303 women) in Germany. As predicted, more women and men were classified as rape victims based on behaviorally specific items than on the basis of the broad rape item. The rates of unacknowledged rape were about 60% for women and 75% for men. The gender difference was not significant. Against our prediction, no significant differences in acknowledgement of sexual assault were found in relation to coercive strategy and victim-perpetrator relationship. Few cases of rape and sexual assault identified by the SARA items were missed by the behaviorally specific questions. The implications for establishing prevalence rates of rape and sexual assault and for comparing victims and nonvictims in terms of vulnerability factors and outcomes of sexual victimization are discussed.

Gender, Myths, and Assumptions: Correlates of Risk Perception in Sexual Assault Scenarios

Sexual violence continues to plague college campuses even with the implementation of bystander intervention programs. Previous research has demonstrated that diminished situational risk recognition increases the risk for sexual assault victimization. However, there is a paucity of research comparing men's and women's risk perception in sexual assault scenarios, risk perception from a victim or perpetrator perspective, or the role of previous sexual violence history, rape myth acceptance, and world assumptions on sexual risk perception. The current study examined male and female college students' risk perception while reading a sexual assault scenario. Participants also completed measures of victim and perpetrator blame, rape myth acceptance, and beliefs in a just world. The results suggested that men's and women's risk perception is influenced by different rape myths and world assumptions. Specifically, women's risk perception and victim blame are associated with sexual communication myths and beliefs in the randomness of the world, while men's risk perception and victim blame are related to the acceptance of myths that women ask for sexual assault and that the world is a just, cruel place. The results call for the incorporation of additional training on how rape myths and world assumptions may impact risk recognition and intervention in sexual assault education. It will also be important to target different barriers to intervention for men and women.

Study Title-Based Framing Effects on Reports of Sexual Violence and Associated Risk Factors in College Students

OBJECTIVE

There are many methodological issues in studying sexual violence, including potential framing effects. Framing effects refer to how researchers communicate the purpose of a study to participants, such as, how the study is advertised or explained. The aim of this study was to investigate if framing effects were associated with differences in participants' self-reported experiences of sexual violence and related correlates.

METHODS

College students (N = 782) were recruited to participate in one of four identical studies that differed in the title: "Questionnaires about Alcohol," "Questionnaires about Crime," "Questionnaires about Health," or "Questionnaires about Sexual Assault." Participants chose one of the four studies and completed measures of sexual violence as well as attitudinal and behavioral measures in randomized order.

RESULTS

We found significantly more reports of childhood sexual abuse (33.6% vs. 18.5%), rape (33.9% vs. 21.1%), higher frequency of victimization (M = 11.35 vs. 5.44), and greater acknowledged rape for bisexual people (46.2% vs. 0.0%) in the sexual assault (SA) condition compared to other conditions. There were no differences in sexual violence perpetration or attitudinal or behavioral measures.

CONCLUSION

These results revealed that framing effects, based on the study title, affect outcomes in sexual victimization research. Rape was reported 1.6× more in the "Sexual Assault" condition than in the "Health" condition. It is unclear whether these framing effects reflect self-selection bias or framing related increased reports in the SA condition, suppression of reports in other conditions, or a combination thereof.

Explaining the Why in #WhyIDidntReport: An Examination of Common Barriers to Formal Disclosure of Sexual Assault in College Students

Within the current study, we examined themes of college students' reasons for choosing not to formally disclose (report) sexual assault. To complete this objective, we examined tweets (n = 1,297) that used the WhyIDidntReport hashtag in which a user also made reference (within the same thread) to being enrolled at a college or university during the time (and aftermath) of the assault. We deemed Twitter a particularly valuable platform, offering insight into the hidden figure of crime, as users described events, feelings, and perceptions after the event that led to them not formally disclosing. Further, it provides a large sample of cases of women and men who recognize their assault as an assault (at least in hindsight), while also providing open-ended, unstructured explanations of their rationales and motivations. Using an inductive approach, we established broad themes that were then refocused into common barriers of formal disclosure or the continuation of formal disclosure. Subthemes included anticipated social reactions (stemming from vicarious and direct experiences), internalized emotions, often stemming from social reactions (normalization, shame, and blame), victim and offender status, and victim-offender relationship. Three overarching premises were developed from the analysis including (a) victims' internalizations of experiences and observations, (b) the interaction of social factors of the victim, offender, and the victim-offender relationship, and (c) the continual and compounded decision-making process of formal disclosure. These conclusions were then examined within theoretical models, including Black's Behavior of Law Theory (specifically morphology and stratification), Overstreet and Quinn's intimate partner violence stigmatization model, and Chaudoir and Fisher's disclosure process model. Lastly, we provide programmatic recommendations, which includes retailoring current bystander intervention curricula to include more focus on social reactions and social support in anticipation of college students being recipients of sexual assault disclosures by friends and acquaintances.

Negative Attitudes and Beliefs Toward the #MeToo Movement on Twitter

Given recent and growing societal movements focusing on sexual assault, such as the #MeToo Movement, it is imperative to understand current attitudes about sexual assault and these movements. The aim of this study was to examine negative attitudes and beliefs about sexual assault in the context of the #MeToo Movement by qualitatively analyzing social media posts (i.e., tweets) containing the hashtag "metoo" on Twitter, a popular social media platform. The initial sample consisted of 4,559 tweets that were publicly posted by Twitter users across a four-day timeframe and represented events and attitudes regarding both about an accuser and an accused. Data were cleaned and coded, and a remaining 508 tweets were included because they contained content that was categorized as negative in their attitudes or beliefs (either through attitudes of condemnation or ambivalence towards accusers and/or the #MeToo Movement). Results from a qualitative content analysis of tweets demonstrated that negative attitudes and beliefs about sexual assault within the context of the #MeToo Movement were conveyed through six main themes: (1) invalidating the accusations made as part of the #MeToo Movement; (2) insisting, and likely believing, that accusations made were false; (3) claiming that there were alternative motives for those accusations; (4) showing a concern for the harm that accusations may cause those accused; (5) exhibiting concerns about the effects of the Movement on male power, privilege, and status; and (6) questioning the integrity of the #MeToo Movement as a whole. These findings provide a deeper understanding of attitudes and beliefs about the #MeToo Movement, including novel beliefs not often addressed in the literature. Most importantly, these findings show that rape culture continues to persist despite current interventions and social movements. Results underscore the need for future interventions that aim to educate and improve societal attitudes towards sexual assault.

Rape Myth Acceptance of Police Officers in Portugal

This study intended to examine rape myth acceptance (RMA) among police officers and its relationship with sociodemographic data, length of service, specific training in the field, and professional experience with victims of rape. To this end, we applied the Sexual Violence Beliefs Scale (ECVS) and controlled for sociodemographic data, as well as professional experience and specific training in the field, through a self-report questionnaire. The sample was composed of 400 police officers from a city in the north of Portugal, aged between 29 and 54 years, and most were men (94.3%). We found that tolerance to overall sexual violence exhibits positive correlations with age and length of service, as well as negative correlations with education levels. Differences were also found regarding gender, with men exhibiting greater tolerance/acceptance of overall sexual violence. It was also found that officers who exhibit higher tolerance/acceptance for sexual violence, overall, are those who do not consider it relevant to receive specific training in the field of sexual violence to perform their duties, who report not having any professional experience with cases of sexual violence and also do not consider it necessary to have specific abilities for these types of cases. Implications for decision-making in legal proceedings are discussed, stressing the need for specific specialization in intervention with victims of sexual assault, with a strong practical component.

"You Should Have Known Better": The Social Ramifications of Victimization-Focused Sexual Assault Prevention Tips

Common sexual assault prevention strategies emphasize individuals' responsibility to protect themselves from victimization. Using a feminist theoretical approach, the present study was the first to assess the unintended, negative consequences that result when taking a victimization-focused approach to sexual assault prevention. Participants (N = 321) were primarily heterosexual, Caucasian undergraduate students from a Western postsecondary institution. A between-participants experimental design was employed, whereby participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (a) victimization-focused prevention tips (n = 114; e.g., "Be alert and aware of your surroundings"); (b) perpetration-focused prevention tips (n = 103; e.g., "Don't slip any unwanted substances into drinks at bars or parties"); or (c) study tips for control purposes (n = 104; e.g., "Take a ten-minute break every hour"). Following prevention tip exposure, participants read a sexual assault vignette and completed measures of victim culpability and several related constructs (i.e., ambivalent sexism, belief in a just world, and rape myth acceptance). Results indicated that participants who received victimization-focused prevention tips attributed significantly more blame to the victimized woman in the vignette than participants in both the control condition and perpetration-focused condition. Based on these results, it is recommended that social institutions further evaluate the efficacy and unintended consequences of prevalent victimization-focused sexual assault prevention strategies. Specifically, institutions should consider the implications of endorsing strategies that are evidenced to enhance victim blame, thereby perpetuating rape culture. Prevention strategies that engage bystanders and seek to prevent perpetration should be considered as an alternative approach.

Changes in Rape Myth Acceptance Among Undergraduates: 2010 to 2017

The objective of this study is to characterize changes in rape myth acceptance (RMA) among college students from 2010 to 2017. Two samples of undergraduates in a northeastern university in the United States participated in the study, consisting of 464 students in the fall semester of 2010 and 534 students in the spring semester of 2017. Participants took an anonymous web-based survey to measure levels of RMA. The instrument was a revised and updated version of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance scale. Data analysis was both descriptive and inferential. For all subscales and the overall total RMA, differences in scores by year of survey (2017 compared with 2010) were significant; 2017 scores were significantly lower than 2010 scores. The greatest differences were for the She asked for it and She lied subscales, 1.76 versus 2.62 (p < .001) and 2.26 versus 2.69 (p < .001), respectively. In both years, male students and younger students were significantly more likely to endorse rape myths. RMA among undergraduates at one northeastern university has lessened since 2010.

A Qualitative Analysis of Beliefs About Sexual Consent Among High School Students

Examining how adolescents understand the concept of sexual consent, and expect to garner or confer consent in sexual encounters, can contribute to the design of age- and developmentally appropriate prevention programs that promote healthy adolescent dating and sexual relationships. The current qualitative study utilized semi-structured in-depth interviews (N = 33) to explore perceptions of sexual consent among high school students (ages 14-18). Thematic analysis identified three salient themes pertaining to (a) the definition of consent as indicating a verbal "yes" to engage in sexual activity, (b) beliefs that an array of verbal and nonverbal strategies would be utilized to garner or convey consent in actual sexual encounters, and (c) expectations that consent would be communicated differently following an initial sexual encounter. Specifically, whereas consent was defined as a verbal provision of affirmative consent, both male and female adolescents believed girls typically conveyed consent nonverbally in sexual encounters. Adolescent girls indicated that they would convey sexual refusal through nonverbal cues, whereas adolescent boys reported they would proceed with sexual activity until they heard the verbal expression of "no." Regardless of gender, participants shared the perception that adolescents who previously engaged in sexual activity can expect that sexual activity will happen again without the need for verbal consent, particularly within established relationships. These findings highlight important discrepancies in adolescents' definition of sexual consent-primarily through verbal consent-and how they behaviorally indicated sexual consent and sexual refusal-primarily through nonverbal actions.

Intimate Partner Violence and Completion of Post-Sexual Assault Medical Forensic Examination Follow-Up Screening

Sexual assault is a major public health concern associated with significant mental health and medical symptoms. Follow-up screening post-sexual assault medical forensic examination (SAMFE) can be one method of determining needs and providing targeted prevention of mental health and medical symptoms among individuals who experienced a recent sexual assault. However, the factors associated with engagement in post-SAMFE follow-up screening have not been identified. The current study examined the association between intimate partner violence victimization and sexual assault-related characteristics and engagement in post-SAMFE follow-up screening. Participants were 193 individuals who received a SAMFE and indicated at the time of SAMFE that they were interested in follow-up by the hospital. It was found that individuals were less likely to engage in follow-up screening if the assault was perpetrated by an intimate partner. These findings suggest that other resources are needed to reach individuals who experience sexual assault perpetrated by an intimate partner due to the unique needs of that population.

Person- and Incident-Level Predictors of Blame, Disclosure, and Reporting to Authorities in Rape Scenarios

Rapes perpetrated during college are both common and underreported. Research highlights that several person- and incident-level factors relating to gender and sexuality may diminish reporting, by themselves and as they pertain to attributions of blame for the assault. In this study, male and female college students (N = 916) read vignettes describing a rape perpetrated by a man against a woman, a man against a man, or a woman against a man. Participants rated the blameworthiness of both perpetrator and victim and rated the likelihood that they would disclose the rape to social ties or health services or report it to authorities if they were in the victim's position. We found that male gender and heterosexual orientation predicted higher victim blame, lower perpetrator blame, and lower likelihood of disclosure, although relative endorsement of masculine gender ideology seemed to be driving these associations, as well as predicted lower likelihood of reporting to authorities. Controlling for other factors, vignettes portraying a woman raping a man led to a lower likelihood of disclosing or reporting the assault, compared with a male-on-female rape. We also found that the effects of female-on-male rape and traditional masculine ideologies tied to rape disclosure partially by decreasing blame to the perpetrator, which itself carried a unique influence on decisions to report. Our findings overall indicate that factors related to gender, sexuality, and blame have myriad influences and may contribute to low rates of disclosing rape to important outlets.

Situational and Dispositional Determinants of College Men's Perception of Women's Sexual Desire and Consent to Sex: A Factorial Vignette Analysis

Sexual victimization of women by men on college campuses is a growing societal concern, with research identifying a host of situational and characterological factors that may predict men's likelihood to engage in sexual misconduct. In the present study, we examined the relative contribution and potential interplay of these various determinants on college men's perceptions of women's sexual desire and consent in hypothetical dating scenarios depicting a sexual interaction. We found that the men (N = 145) in this sample (a) conflated sexual desire with consent, (b) varied their appraisals of consent and desire depending on whether and how the woman in the vignette communicated consent or refusal, (c) perceived higher levels of consent if the man in the vignette had intercourse with the woman previously and as a function of escalating sexual intimacy in the ongoing interaction, (d) endorsed higher levels of perceived desire and consent across situations if they more strongly held rape-supportive attitudes, and (e) moderated their association between situational factors and perceptions of a woman's sexual intentions based on their endorsement of rape myths and a hypermasculine ideology. We conclude that efforts to prevent sexual violence among college students may benefit from being modeled on our findings that some men are likelier to infer consent regardless of the situation, that specific situational factors can foster misperceptions of consent across men in general, and that certain individuals in particular situations may pose the greatest risk for sexual misconduct.

Scripted Reality: How Observers Make Sense of a Non-consensual Sexual Encounter

Research on third party reactions to (transgressive) sexual encounters has frequently bypassed the question of how observers categorize such encounters as normal sexual experience, sexual violence, or potentially as something else. In the present study, we investigated the ways in which participants made sense of a nonconsensual sexual encounter between a man (i.e., the initiating party) and either a male or a female student (i.e., the targeted party). We specifically focused on how participants utilized sexual scripts and gender stereotypes to describe what happened and as a means of attributing responsibility to the actors. Using the Articulated Thoughts in Simulated Situations (ATSS) technique, 52 Dutch participants (26 men and 26 women) responded aloud to a vignette. Data were analyzed using discourse analysis as employed in discursive psychology. The findings demonstrated that participants constructed the event described in the vignette as normal while depicting the targeted party as abnormal and accountable. Participants strategically employed sexual scripts and gender stereotypes to describe the event as predictable and not serious and the initiating party’s actions as in little need of explanation. The targeted party was positioned as detached from this “objective reality” and was held accountable for neither following nor sufficiently breaking with the script. In consequence, the event was rendered nonthreatening. Our results illustrated the ways in which predominant discourses influence interpretations of encounters as transgressive or “just” sex, having important implications for those who seek to share their experiences of sexual violation.

"As I Was Walking Down the Street, Four Strange Guys Came and Took Me Under the Bridge, Where They All Raped Me": An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of the Types of Rape Experienced by Men in South Africa

Globally, rape is regarded as the most demoralizing type of trauma, and it has negative implications for victims and their families. Although rape affects the community in general, there is a paucity of literature on rape victimization of men. As a result, the types of rape experienced by them are not understood, and thus it is often difficult to develop contextually relevant interventions to prevent male rape and to support male rape victims. The objective of this study was to first determine and then describe, the types of rape experienced by men. An interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) qualitative approach was used to collect and analyze data from a purposive sample of 11 participants, using semistructured individual interviews. The findings of the study reveal six themes and related subthemes as six types and related subtypes of rape experienced by men as follows: acquaintance rape, including familial rape; stranger rape; gang rape, including corrective-gang rape, drug-facilitated gang rape, pack-hunting rape, women retributive rape (or women vengeance) for violence experienced from men; homophobic rape; prison rape, including transactional rape and gang initiation rape; and armed rape. The findings reveal the different contexts or settings where men are vulnerable to rape. This highlights the possibilities for the development of context-specific sexual violence prevention interventions for men, which include self-defense training and awareness campaigns specific to rape victimization of men. Furthermore, future studies are recommended to expose this pandemic. Activism is advocated to stop the silence around this public and social health issue.

One Direction real person fiction on Wattpad.com: A textual analysis of sexual consent

This study focuses on the dominant scripts for sexual consent represented in popular fictional stories of celebrities written by their female fans. A textual analysis was performed on a subset of the most read real person fiction (RPF) stories—a type of fanfiction— about the popular boy band One Direction. Stories were publicly available from an online fiction-writing platform with an extensive user base of teenage girls and young women. Verbal negotiations of sexual consent were frequently featured in these stories. However, several themes emerged to blur clear distinctions between the presence and lack of consent: hesitance or unease for sexual interactions, assumption of a partner’s sexual consent, unclear identification of sexual assault, language of attack or aggression to describe sexual interactions, and normalization of sexual actions that surprise a partner. A number of rape myths were also prevalent throughout the stories. The implications of these scripts for One Direction fans and for sexual scripting theory are discussed.

The Effect of Passively Viewing a Consent Campaign Video on Attitudes Toward Rape

Around 90% of rape victims know their perpetrator, making acquaintance rape the most common form of rape, contradicting societal beliefs. There is ambiguity about the meaning and use of consent in sexual scenarios (Beres, 2007). This study used a mixed methods approach to test the effectiveness of a campaign video aimed at increasing understanding of consent. We assessed whether the video affected rape judgments in vignettes depicting consensual or non-consensual sexual scenarios. We also manipulated whether making consent the primary or secondary question influenced attitudes. Text responses were also obtained to gain an insight into participant reasoning. The campaign showed no increase in rape judgments. Making consent primary in question order did lead to greater accuracy in rape judgment. A content analysis of the free-text responses indicated that the presence of the campaign actually reduced people's use of consent in explaining why a scenario may represent rape: Instead they focused on the attractiveness of the attacker. These results are discussed in relation to the effectiveness of passively viewing campaign material.

“It’s just one step in the right direction”: A qualitative exploration of undergraduate student perceptions of #MeToo

As a social movement, #MeToo offers a chance for individuals to share their stories and connect with others who have been sexually assaulted or harassed. The movement may also facilitate understanding of the scope of sexual assault and harassment worldwide. Preliminary research on #MeToo has provided some insight on potential societal effects of the movement, but many research questions remain unanswered. The current study aims to contribute to the scarcity of research on the #MeToo movement. Through a series of focus groups, a sample of Canadian undergraduates (N = 56) were given the opportunity to discuss their views of why #MeToo is important, the role they think it plays, and their concerns. Students also explored both perceived positive and negative effects of #MeToo, as well as its potential sustainability. The social, structural, and gendered complexities involved in the emergence of the #MeToo movement were highlighted. Positive aspects of the movement that were emphasized included awareness raising, support for assault disclosure, and use of the media as an important tool. However, some individuals were concerned with media being used as a dangerous tool and that some groups have been harmed or excluded from #MeToo. While many participants felt that there is some evidence of #MeToo’s “success,” they believed that with respect to sexual assault and harassment more time may be required before sustained social and structural changes emerge.

Sexual assault and harassment of doctors, by doctors: a qualitative study

CONTEXT

Although sexual harassment frequently occurs in medical education and medical workplaces, doctors who have been sexually harassed or assaulted by other doctors remain a largely invisible population. This study aimed to identify, using personal accounts, the impact on doctors of sexual harassment and assault by doctors in the workplace.

METHODS

This narrative study used in-depth interviews, legal reports and victim impact statements, tracing trajectories from the event's pre-history to its aftermath and impact on professional practice. Participants were six Australian women doctors who had been subjected to one or more non-consensual sexual acts through coercion or intimidation by another doctor in their working environments, within hospital training programmes.

RESULTS

All women identified long-term personal and professional impacts of their experience. Three women had never reported the abuse. The meaning and impact of sexual abuse for the doctors followed a trajectory with discrete phases: prelude, assault, limbo, exposure and aftermath. Discounting the event and its impacts, and returning to the workplace were characterised as 'being professional'. Those who sought legal restitution said it damaged their personal well-being and their standing among fellow doctors.

DISCUSSION

Understanding the phases of experience of abuse enables the development of effective interventions for different phases. Interventions to minimise the risk of occurrence of sexual abuse must be distinguished from interventions to increase reporting rates, and interventions to mitigate harm and impact on victims' futures. Idealised notions of professionalism can act as obstacles to doctors responding to sexual abuse.

"I Know It When I See It": Recent Victimization and Perceptions of Rape

This study examined various individual differences that influence perceptions of sexual assault (SA), specifically focusing on participants' self-reported recent experiences of rape or sexual coercion. Female college students (N = 214) read 16 short SA encounter vignettes, indicated whether what they read constituted rape, and completed individual difference measures. Results indicated that participants who confirmed a recent history of SA endorsed rape myths to a greater degree, held more adversarial sexual beliefs, reported higher levels of sociosexuality, and were less likely to construct the SA encounters as rape when compared with women who do not report recent SA or coercion. Further analyses showed that these variables interacted to predict rape perception in ambiguous SA vignettes, as identified by the participants. These findings illuminate some of the impacts of SA and coercion on women and provide suggestions for future research to further examine the relationship between recent assault history and perceptions of rape.

Differential perceptions of a hypothetical sexual assault survivor based on race and ethnicity: Exploring victim responsibility, trauma, and need for social support

Objective: Explore the ways in which a sample of college women interpret racially/ethnically coded vignettes to understand their perceptions of responsibility and trauma experienced by a hypothetical female sexual assault survivor and her need for social support. Participants: Convenience sample of college women (N = 51) attending a large, predominately white university in the Southeastern United States recruited between January and March 2013. Methods: Participants were randomly assigned one of three vignettes describing a hypothetical date rape scenario. Vignette scenarios were identical except for discrete statements coded to signify either an African American, Latina, or white female student. Participants responded to open-ended questions that gauged their interpretations of responsibility, trauma, and social support. Results: Qualitative analysis of open-ended responses revealed six overarching themes, including overt victim blaming/shaming, justification of the sexual assault, and perceived need for social support. Conclusions: Findings point to the significance of including race in discussions about and programs that address sexual assault on college campuses to ensure that all women who experience sexual violence receive the support that they need.

Evidence for Multiple Classes of Sexually-Violent College Men

OBJECTIVE

Research on college sexual violence perpetration suggests there are multiple groups of male perpetrators. It is important to understand the distinctions between perpetrator subgroups to determine appropriate prevention strategies, as multiple strategies may be necessary to address multiple types of perpetrators. However, previous studies on subgroups of sexually-violent college men have relied on theoretically based distinctions, and there is currently no consensus on how to best classify perpetrators based on their sexually violent behaviors. The purpose of the current study was to take a data-driven approach to identifying subgroups of sexually-violent college men to help clarify: 1) the number and size of cohesive subgroups of sexually-violent college men, and 2) the types of behaviors that characterize each group.

METHODS

1,982 college men across five universities in the U.S. self-reported their past sexually-violent behaviors, using the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES; Koss et al., 2007).

RESULTS

Latent class analysis uncovered evidence for three groups: (1) a group unlikely to perpetrate any SV (88.6%); (2) a group likely to perpetrate SV using coercive tactics (verbal coercion or victim intoxication), but unlikely to use physical force (9.8%); and (3) a group likely to perpetrate the full range of SV (1.5%). Although the coercive tactics group was composed of men unlikely to use forceful tactics, it included the majority who attempted or completed rape based on legal definitions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that there are multiple, distinct perpetrator subgroups and signal the need for multiple prevention approaches, including approaches that address campus social norms.

Affirmative sexual consent? Direct and unambiguous consent is rarely included in discussions of recent sexual interactions

Sexual activity typically follows an implicit sexual script or a normative sequence of behaviours that are involved in a sexual interaction. It is unclear whether or how affirmative sexual consent is incorporated in individual sexual scripts and interactions. The current research explores how sexual consent may be expressed and verified as part of individuals’ sexual interactions. Undergraduate participants from an Ontario university ( N = 92; 58 males, 34 females) completed a series of open-ended questions that asked them to describe their sexual experiences with a new and long-term partner from beginning to end. Analysis of presence of consent-related behaviours in participants’ accounts were assessed on the basis of a priori themes and extensions of these themes. Thematic analyses identified the following themes: 1) Sex proceeding with escalating intensity of nonverbal sexual behaviour, 2) Passive behaviours that do not indicate unwillingness to have sex, 3) Indirect verbal communication of interest in sex, 4) Indications that sex “just happened,” 5) Descriptions of the context in which sex occurred, and 6) Direct discussions relevant to sexual consent. Results indicated that direct discussion of sexual consent was exceedingly rare and that most sexual interactions included indirect, veiled, and coded behaviours that require inference of sexual consent or non-consent. Consent-related themes varied as a function of both participant gender (male versus female) and nature of relationship (new versus long-term). The findings of this study have implications for sexual health education, sexual assault prevention interventions, and public policy development.

Exploring Definitions and Prevalence of Verbal Sexual Coercion and Its Relationship to Consent to Unwanted Sex: Implications for Affirmative Consent Standards on College Campuses

Campus sexual assault is a pervasive issue impacting the well-being, quality of life, and education of all students. There have been many recent efforts to prevent and address campus sexual assault, most notably the adoption of affirmative consent standards. (1) Efforts to address sexual assault on college campuses through an affirmative consent standard could be undermined by traditional gender norms, sexual scripts, and the power dynamics inherent in heterosexual relations, which lead to situations in which many women provide consent to unwanted sex. (2) Studies indicate that college women are likely to experience verbal sexual coercion, yet research has failed to come to a consensus on how to define, operationalize, and study verbal sexual coercion. (3) Research on sexual consent is also lacking, in particular as it relates to consent to unwanted sex as a result of the presence of verbal sexual coercion. (4) This article discusses how multiple forms of unwanted sex can be conceptually examined. (5) Policy implications and areas for future research are discussed.

The effects of alcohol intoxication and sexual interest on men's sexual persistence and hostility in a dating simulation

Perpetrators of sexual assault are often intoxicated; however, few experimental studies evaluate alcohol's "in the moment" effects on sexual aggression. This study extends past theory and research by examining the acute effects of alcohol on men's decisions about how to respond to sexual refusals in a dating simulation. Men (N = 62) ages 21-29 were randomly assigned to consume alcohol (target breath alcohol level 0.080%) or no alcohol. Participants were encouraged to talk to a simulated woman and act as they would on an actual date. They made choices from a list which included nonsexual and sexual options. The female agent was programmed to engage in some sexual activities but refuse others. Refusals became more intense if participants persisted. Negative binomial regression analysis was used to test a path analytic model. As predicted, participants' self-reported desire to have sex was positively associated with choosing more consensual sexual activities during the simulation (i.e., activities in which the woman willingly engaged). Consensual sexual activities were positively associated with the number of times participants persisted after the woman refused. Alcohol moderated this relationship such that it was stronger for intoxicated men than sober men. The more sexual refusals participants received, the more hostile verbal comments they made to the woman. Contrary to our predictions, this relationship was not moderated by alcohol condition. Because participants had multiple opportunities to escalate their aggression or desist, this paradigm provides new insights into the mechanisms through which intoxication enhances the likelihood of sexual aggression in dating situations.

Engaging the Community: Building Effective Partnerships in Sexual Violence Prevention

Sexual violence is a multifaceted problem with individual, interpersonal, institutional, and cultural dimensions. Researchers have increasingly turned to social institutions, such as nonprofit agencies, in their efforts to understand and ultimately prevent aggression and victimization. Drawing on interviews with 30 scientists and other scholars, this study explored sexual violence researchers’ experiences with and approaches to collaborating with local communities and institutions. Participants shared diverse experiences working with institutionalized and noninstitutionalized local communities, antiviolence advocates and social workers, medical providers, police, attorneys, employees of bars and restaurants, educators, and university administrators. Many noted that the commitments that motivate researchers may be insufficient for engaging community partners. The aim of ending violence, in itself, may not be enough. Narratives of trauma, of risk and safety, may not be enough. Concerns about limited resources and potential backlash or liability may dissuade community members and institutions from partnering with researchers in prevention. Distrust may also pose a barrier. Fortunately, researchers have developed promising strategies for engaging institutional partners despite these concerns. These include cultivating mutual partnerships, in which researchers prioritize institutional input and commit to giving back to their partners and surrounding communities; combining awareness and prevention, in which efforts to raise awareness through institutions are coupled with the development of concrete action plans; and reframing the problem, in which sexual violence or its outcomes are connected with established institutional priorities.

The effects of state anxiety on analogue peritraumatic encoding and event memory: introducing the stressful event segmentation paradigm

Cognitive theories of PTSD argue that poor recall of trauma memories results from a stress-induced shift toward perceptual processing during encoding. The present study assessed the extent to which self-reported state anxiety affects event segmentation and its subsequent impact on memory performance (recall and recognition). Event segmentation is the cognitive process of condensing continuous streams of spatiotemporal information into discrete elements. In this study, undergraduates without PTSD used a computer programme to segment a stressful film and a non-stressful film and then they completed memory tasks for each film. For the stressful film, low memory performance was associated with high segmentation performance. A meditational analysis revealed high segmentation performance mediated a negative relationship between state anxiety and memory performance. Additionally, ad-hoc analyses suggest perceptual processing primarily drives segmentation of the stressful film and conceptual processing primarily drives segmentation of the non-stressful film.

Shameful "Victims" and Angry "Survivors": Emotion, Mental Health, and Labeling Sexual Assault

Decades of research demonstrate that women frequently avoid the label "rape" when reflecting on nonconsensual sexual experiences. The current study focuses on self-labels to further understand the relationship between assault characteristics, emotion, mental health, and women's labeling of sexual assault. We argue that emotions produced by various assault characteristics are important mechanisms for understanding self-labeling after a sexual assault. We draw from research on rape scripts and cultural discourses of victimhood, survivorhood, and emotion to examine labeling "rape" and self-labeling as a "victim" or "survivor" in an online survey of 138 undergraduate women at a southeastern university. Using a series of ordinal logistic regressions in which labels are regressed on emotions and measures of mental health, we find that the "victim" label is associated with shame and post-traumatic stress, while the "survivor" label is associated with anger and less depression.

A Schema of Denial: The Influence of Rape Myth Acceptance on Beliefs, Attitudes, and Processing of Affirmative Consent Campaign Messages

This study aims to examine the influence of rape myth acceptance (RMA) and the perceived salience of sexual violence on the cognitive processing of an affirmative consent campaign active on the campus where research was conducted. As part of a midcourse evaluation of the Consent is Sexy (CIS) campaign (N = 285), a subsample of participants who reported prior exposure to campaign posters (N = 182) was asked to review four campaign posters and indicate the extent to which they processed the message in the posters systematically. Robust gender differences in perceived salience of sexual violence, supportive attitudes, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) toward establishing consent were mediated by RMA. Moreover, robust gender differences in the systematic processing of the campaign were mediated by RMA and perceived salience in serial. Implications of the influence of rape myths and perceived salience on the cognitive processing of affirmed consent campaigns are discussed with respect to both campaign message design and implementation.

Tweeting rape culture: Examining portrayals of victim blaming in discussions of sexual assault cases on Twitter

Social media has become an important aspect of contemporary culture and cultural change; it has accordingly become a valuable resource for informing feminist theory. Social media is a digitized social reality that lends itself to analysis and research. This study examines rape culture in the widely used social media platform, Twitter. We collected tweets from four days surrounding the Torrington and Steubenville Rape Trials and the Rehtaeh Parson’s story of rape, victimization, and suicide. Using qualitative content analysis, we identified three themes related to rape culture: (1) the virgin–whore binary and the just world, (2) sharing information on the sexual assault cases as subnews, and (3) rape myth debunking to support victims. Additional analysis indicated that Twitter users who engaged in victim blaming were more likely to be retweeted and have more followers than Twitter users who engaged in tweeting victim support content. The research demonstrates that rape culture is an aspect of social media and that data about rape culture can be readily accessed and studied. It also suggests that in future research, social media can be used to study how individuals and groups who are exhibiting rape culture interact with others who are engaged in victim support.

Unacknowledged Rape and Re-Victimization Risk

The majority of college women who experience rape do not conceptualize their experience as a victimization, that is, they are unacknowledged victims. There is some initial evidence that unacknowledged victims are at elevated re-victimization risk relative to acknowledged victims. In the current study, we sought to identify mediators of the association between acknowledgment of rape and re-victimization in a sample of 319 college rape victims; 187 (58.6%) participants completed a 2-month follow-up study. We examined regular drinking, number of sexual partners, and continuing a relationship with the assailant as potential mediators of the relation between acknowledgment and re-victimization. At follow-up, unacknowledged victims reported higher rates of new attempted (16.2%) and completed rape (11.9%), relative to acknowledged victims (attempted: 7.9%; completed: 3.0%). Number of sexual partners mediated the relation between acknowledgment and attempted rape. Both number of partners and regular drinking mediated the relation between acknowledgment and completed rape. Thus, not acknowledging rape may be associated with re-victimization in part because unacknowledged victims may be more likely to engage in behaviors that increase vulnerability. We believe there is a need for longitudinal, theoretically grounded research examining risky behaviors, victimization, and acknowledgment status over time to delineate the relations among these variables. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ' s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/page/pwq/suppl/index