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Dwivedi M, Sharma S, Vajpeyi L, Zaidi S. Level of Self-Objectification among Adolescent Girls from Co-educational Schools and All-Girls Schools: A Comparative Study. Ann Neurosci 2024; 31:166-175. [PMID: 39156621 PMCID: PMC11325692 DOI: 10.1177/09727531231185929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Indian females have been objectified since time immemorial. The ancient Indian texts and architecture have numerous instances of sexual objectification of females. In the present time, self-objectification in girls is evident from the increasing popularity of apps like Photoshop, the rise in the makeup industry, plastic and cosmetic surgeries, and so on. This is especially relevant for females across the globe and leads to huge negative effects on women's identities. Purpose The aim of the present study is to assess and compare the levels of body surveillance (self-objectification), body shaming, and control beliefs in adolescent girls from co-educational schools and all-girls schools. Methods Four hundred adolescent girls from Convent schools in different cities in Uttar Pradesh were included in the study using purposive (homogeneous) sampling based on the inclusion criteria. The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS) was used to assess body surveillance (self-objectification), body shaming, and control beliefs. Results The results of the study revealed that the level of body surveillance (self-objectification) was significantly high among Indian adolescent girls. It was found that all-girls schools had a higher level of body surveillance (self-objectification), body shaming, and control beliefs as compared to adolescent girls from co-educational schools. Conclusion It can be concluded that the phenomenon of self-objectification has numerous implications for the physical and mental well-being of girls, particularly during their formative years. Healthy behaviors and positive thoughts are the best ways to respect and honor one's body. The research suggests the need for meditation, awareness workshops, and school-level counseling for adolescent girls, especially in all-girls schools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansi Dwivedi
- Amity Institute of Behavioral and Allied Sciences (AIBAS), Amity University, Lucknow Campus, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Shivali Sharma
- Amity Institute of Behavioral and Allied Sciences (AIBAS), Amity University, Lucknow Campus, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Laxmi Vajpeyi
- Babu Banarasi Das Northern India, Institute of Technology, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - S.Z.H. Zaidi
- Amity Institute of Behavioral and Allied Sciences (AIBAS), Amity University, Lucknow Campus, Uttar Pradesh, India
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2
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Vranken I, Sumter S, Vandenbosch L. A Multi-Method Study Examining the Role of Swiping on Dating Apps: Mate Value Preferences, Sexual Satisfaction, and Need Satisfaction with Matches in Emerging Adults. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2024; 53:2547-2582. [PMID: 38839703 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-024-02891-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Intrinsic (i.e., personality traits) and extrinsic mate value (i.e., resources, physical attractiveness) preferences play a crucial role in (online) relationship formation. The role of mate values in dating applications was unclear and was addressed in a multi-method study. A first content analytical study examined the prevalence of mate values (MVs) on Tinder profiles (Study 1) and two subsequent cross-sectional studies explored the relationships between dating app use, various swiping behaviors, sexual satisfaction (Studies 2-3), need satisfaction with matches (Study 3), having a committed relationship versus casual sex motivation for using dating apps and users' gender. The content analysis of 307 Tinder profiles indicated that resources and physical attractiveness were most salient in biographies and pictures, respectively. The first cross-sectional study (nfullsample = 325, ndating app users = 133) revealed no significant relationships between dating app frequency/swiping frequency, intrinsic and extrinsic MV preferences, and sexual satisfaction. The second cross-sectional study (n = 323) showed no significant relationships between picture-based or biography-based swiping, intrinsic and extrinsic MV preferences, and need satisfaction with matches. Gender differences emerged in the presentation of MVs on Tinder (Study 1) and general MV preferences (Study 2-3), but not in the relationships between different types of dating app use/swiping and MV preferences (Study 2-3). A committed relationship and a casual sex motivation played a role in the relationships between different types of swiping behaviors and MV preferences, and between MV preferences, and sexual satisfaction/need satisfaction with matches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilse Vranken
- School for Mass Communication Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, KU Leuven, Parkstraat 45, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium.
- Research Foundation Flanders (FWO-Vlaanderen), Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Sindy Sumter
- Amsterdam School of Communication Research, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Laura Vandenbosch
- School for Mass Communication Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, KU Leuven, Parkstraat 45, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium
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3
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Gothreau CM, Schuessler J, Alvarez AM. Can exposure to sexual objectification impact policy attitudes? Evidence from two survey experiments. Politics Life Sci 2024:1-10. [PMID: 38818758 DOI: 10.1017/pls.2024.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Research in social psychology has long argued that exposure to objectifying portrayals of women can lead to increasingly misogynist attitudes and behavior. We argue that such images can also impact on gendered policy attitudes. We suggest that objectifying images prime sexist attitudes and reduce perceptions of women's agency, warmth, and competence. We argue that this may translate into decreased support for reproductive rights and other gender-salient policies. Furthermore, these effects may vary by the gender of those exposed to these images. In two survey experiments with brief exposures to objectifying images, we find mixed support for these predictions. Although we find some negative effects as predicted, we also find positive effects of objectification among women in the sample that are suggestive of a backlash effect. We discuss potential explanations for this heterogeneity. Overall, our results suggest interesting avenues to further explore the effects of objectification on political outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire M Gothreau
- Center for the Experimental-Philosophical Study of Discrimination, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Julian Schuessler
- Center for the Experimental-Philosophical Study of Discrimination, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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Zhao T, Zheng L. Relationship of Objectified Short-Form Videos Exposure to Satisfaction and Objectification in Relationships Among Chinese Women: A Pilot Study. JOURNAL OF SEX & MARITAL THERAPY 2023; 50:245-251. [PMID: 37869903 DOI: 10.1080/0092623x.2023.2271925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Studies have indicated the impact of exposure to objectifying media on objectification and relationship satisfaction from a romantic context. This study examined the association between viewing objectified short-form videos and self-and partner-objectification (i.e., objectifying one's partner), as well as relationship satisfaction among Chinese women. The study participants comprised 241 Chinese women in romantic relationships who were recruited online. Participants completed measures of viewing objectified male and female videos, self-objectification (SO), partner-objectification (PO), and relationship satisfaction. The results showed a significant association between exposure to objectified female videos and SO, but not with relationship satisfaction. Exposure to objectified male videos was associated significantly with PO. The indirect effect of objectified male videos exposure on relationship satisfaction via PO was significant. This implies that PO plays an important role in relationship satisfaction as opposed to SO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiannan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Lijun Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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5
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Gattino S, Czepczor-Bernat K, Fedi A, Brytek-Matera A, Boza M, Lemoine JE, Sahlan RN, Wilson E, De Piccoli N, Rollero C. Self-Objectification and its Biological, Psychological and Social Predictors: A Cross-Cultural Study in Four European Countries and Iran. EUROPES JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 19:27-47. [PMID: 37063692 PMCID: PMC10103054 DOI: 10.5964/ejop.6075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Abstract
Although scholars started investigating self-objectification more than twenty years ago, only a few studies focused on men and even fewer have taken into account the cross-cultural dimension. Our study focused on the antecedents of self-objectification paying attention to the role of biological and sociodemographic variables (gender, BMI), psychological characteristics (self-esteem, perfectionism) together with social and cultural factors (internalization of media standards, influence of family and friends). Self-objectification was operationalized as Body Shame and Body Surveillance. A self-reported questionnaire was administered to 2165 adults living in four European countries (UK, Italy, Poland and Romania) and Iran. Ten regression models were performed (2 per country) to analyse the correlates of self-objectification. Overall, self-objectification emerged as a process affected by factors entrenched in psychological, biological, social and cultural domains, partially different for Body Shame and Body Surveillance. Findings showed the key role of self-esteem as a protective factor against Body Shame across countries. On the other hand, the internalization of media standards emerged as risk factor for both Body Shame and Body Surveillance in the five countries. Taken together, these results underline the complexity of self-objectification and the need to deepen research on this topic among non-Western countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Gattino
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | | | - Angela Fedi
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | | | - Mihaela Boza
- Department of Psychology, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iaşi, Iasi, Romania
| | - Jérémy E. Lemoine
- School of Psychology, University of East London, London, United Kingdom
- ESCP Business School, London, United Kingdom
| | - Reza N. Sahlan
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Emma Wilson
- ESRC Centre for Society and Mental Health, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
- Health Service and Population Research, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Chiara Rollero
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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Price AA, McCann KGY, Kunzler L, Leavitt CE, Holmes EK. Body Image and Sex: A Dyadic Examination of Body Esteem and Sexual Inhibition, Obsession, and Harmony. JOURNAL OF SEX RESEARCH 2023:1-11. [PMID: 36624975 DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2022.2164243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
How each individual within a relationship views their body may play a role in how they experience their sexual interactions. Previous research found associations between body image and sexual well-being at an individual level, but very little research has examined a dyadic association between body image and sexual and relational well-being. Using a nationally representative sample of 2,177 newlywed couples, this study used an Actor-Partner Interdependence Mediation Model (APIMeM) to estimate actor and partner associations between body esteem and relationship satisfaction, using sexual styles - inhibited, obsessed, or harmonious - as potential mediators. Findings showed both actor and partner effects. Body esteem was positively associated with own and partner's sexual harmony. Both men's and women's body esteem were negatively associated with women's sexual inhibition. A positive association between body esteem and own relationship satisfaction remained even when accounting for sexual mediators. Additional findings are discussed. These findings indicate that an individual's comfort with the body may be associated with sexual and relational well-being for both partners.
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Wang X, Chen H, Shi J, Chen Z. Threatened humanity in a tight world: Cultural tightness results in self-objectification. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/13684302221097842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Self-objectification can be considered as a specific kind of self-dehumanization that consists of a perception of oneself as more instrument-like than human-like and a decreased self-attribution of mental states. Self-objectification is commonly observed, and its contributing factors need to be better understood. In the present research, we examined whether cultural tightness, which entails strong social norms and punishments for deviant behaviors, is an antecedent to self-objectification. Our hypotheses were confirmed by four studies, involving quasi-experiments and fully controlled experiments ( N = 2,693). In particular, Chinese college students living in a region with a tight culture (compared to a loose culture, Study 1), American employees working in an industry with a tight corporate culture (compared to a loose culture, Study 2), American participants who were induced to support cultural tightness (vs. cultural looseness, Study 3), and those who were situated in a simulated tight culture (vs. a loose culture, Study 4) all showed increased levels of self-objectification. As such, they acknowledged their personhood less and focused more on their instrumentality. Implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hao Chen
- Nankai University, China
- Sun Yat-sen University, China
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8
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Chakraborty R, De S. Camouflaged Protocols of Womanhood: Inherent Paradoxes of Bengal. PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12646-022-00687-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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9
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Media pressure and the process of Westernization in the context of body self-assessment among young heterosexual and gay Polish men. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0272907. [PMID: 35994493 PMCID: PMC9394821 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0272907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mass media and social networks portray a unified image of the perfect male body. The intensity and universality of this influence is an important element of the process of Westernization, especially in traditional cultures such as that of Poland. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the differences between Polish gay and heterosexual men in terms of the role played by self-esteem and the level of internalization of sociocultural standards of body appearance as predictors of the development of their body images. The research study was conducted by reference to 19- to 29-year-old Polish heterosexual (n = 287) and gay (n = 97) men. The variables were measured using Polish versions of the Sociocultural Attitudes towards Appearance Scale-3, the Self-Esteem Scale, and the Multidimensional Body–Self Relations Questionnaire. Statistical analyses identified several variables as the main predictors of body image in both heterosexual and gay young men: self-esteem, information-seeking, perceived pressure and the internalization of sociocultural standards regarding an athletic body image drawn from mass media. The only significant difference between the two groups was the fact that self-esteem, perceived pressure and the internalization of sociocultural standards from mass media did not play a predictive role with respect to Appearance Orientation among the group of gay men.
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10
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Liberman TJ, Burke NL. The development and validation of the Conscious Objectification Questionnaire. Int J Eat Disord 2022; 55:1162-1168. [PMID: 35723870 DOI: 10.1002/eat.23759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Self-objectification is linked to disordered eating (DE) behaviors in women. However, the awareness of objectification by the self and others, not just the objectifying experiences themselves, may be differentially related to DE. The proposed study examines the development and validity of the Conscious Objectification Questionnaire (COQ), which seeks to evaluate awareness of objectification by others and intentional self-objectification. METHOD In Study 1, 24 participants who identify as women (≥18 years) will provide qualitative feedback on COQ items, and survey items will be updated based on participant feedback. In Study 2, separate participants will complete the COQ and questionnaires assessing DE, self-objectification, and mental health correlates. Exploratory factor analyses will be conducted on the COQ, and reliability and convergent and divergent validity will be assessed. RESULTS Results will clarify whether the COQ is a reliable and valid instrument that measures the distinct construct of awareness of objectification. DISCUSSION If proven psychometrically sound, the COQ may be useful for future research on the link between awareness of objectification and disordered eating. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE The novel Conscious Objectification Questionnaire (COQ) assesses the degree to which women recognize and act upon being objectified. The COQ will be reviewed by self-objectification experts and pilot participants before being psychometrically evaluated with data from a larger sample. The COQ is expected to differentially relate to disordered eating above and beyond existing self-objectification measures and accurately represent the distinct construct of conscious awareness of societal and self-objectification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamar J Liberman
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Natasha L Burke
- Department of Psychology, Fordham University, Bronx, New York, USA
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11
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Jiao J, Terán L, Aubrey JS. Buffering an Objectifying Culture: Interpersonal Sexual Objectification, Self-Objectification, and Attachment Anxiety. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/03616843221115335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we report two studies that examined the dynamics between interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, and individuals’ attachment in romantic relationships. Study 1 was based on data from 392 college students ( Mage = 21.42 years, 66.8% women). Results showed positive associations between interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, attachment anxiety, and attachment avoidance among women. For men, significant and positive associations were only observed between interpersonal sexual objectification and self-objectification and between self-objectification and attachment anxiety. Study 2 was a 6-month longitudinal study where we recruited participants through CloudResearch ( n = 638, Mage = 24.26 years, 55.8% women at Time 1; n = 283, Mage = 24.43 years, 56.9% women at Time 2; return rate = 44.36%). Results from longitudinal analyses showed that women reported stronger stability in self-objectification than men, and for both women and men, their attachment anxiety predicted increased self-objectification. Additionally, in both studies, women reported higher levels of interpersonal sexual objectification, self-objectification, and attachment anxiety than men. Overall, the findings suggest that high-quality relationships may help buffer the negative effects engendered by an objectifying culture. Based on our results, we recommend that clinicians and parents work to foster secure and healthy relationships as a means of reducing the extensive negative repercussions of objectification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Jiao
- Department of Communication, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Larissa Terán
- Department of Communication, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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12
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Pecini C, Di Bernardo GA, Crapolicchio E, Stathi S, Vezzali L, Andrighetto L. Stop looking at me! associations between men's partner‐objectification and women's self‐objectification, body shame and life satisfaction in romantic relationships. JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY & APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/casp.2627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Pecini
- Department of Educational Science University of Genova Genoa Italy
| | | | - Eleonora Crapolicchio
- Department of Psychology Catholic University of the Sacred Heart of Milan Milan Italy
| | - Sofia Stathi
- Department of Psychology & Counselling University of Greenwich London UK
| | - Loris Vezzali
- Medical and Dental Department of Morphological Sciences related to Transplant, Oncology and Regenerative Medicine University of Modena and Reggio Emilia Modena Italy
| | - Luca Andrighetto
- Department of Educational Science University of Genova Genoa Italy
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13
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Mass Media Beauty Standards, Body Surveillance, and Relationship Satisfaction within Romantic Couples. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19073833. [PMID: 35409516 PMCID: PMC8997740 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19073833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
As part of objectification processes, individuals engage in body surveillance, whereby they constantly assess the extent to which their external appearance conforms to culturally valued ideals. Mass media play a key role in fostering the objectification and internalization of media beauty standards and increases body surveillance. At the individual level, the literature has largely demonstrated that body surveillance leads to a variety of negative psychological outcomes, but little research has focused on the consequences of body surveillance in the context of romantic relationships. Using dyadic data from couples who identified as heterosexual, the present study examined relations among internalization of media standards, body surveillance, surveillance of the partner’s body, surveillance from the partner, and relationship satisfaction. There were 438 participants (219 couples) recruited using snowball sampling. They were surveyed with an anonymous online questionnaire. Results showed that internalization of media standards was related to body surveillance in both men and women, and to surveillance of the partner’s body and relationship satisfaction in men only. For both sexes, surveillance of the partner’s body was negatively associated with relationship satisfaction. For women only, surveillance from the partner was also negatively related to relationship satisfaction. Implications are discussed.
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Shi J, Wang X, Teng F, Chen Z. A little appreciation goes a long way: gratitude reduces objectification. THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2022.2053877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxin Shi
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, HK SAR, China
| | - Xijing Wang
- Department of Social and Behavioural Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, HK SAR, China
| | - Fei Teng
- Department of Psychology, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhansheng Chen
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, HK SAR, China
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15
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Linking Sexting Expectancies with Motivations to Sext. Eur J Investig Health Psychol Educ 2022; 12:209-217. [PMID: 35200238 PMCID: PMC8870843 DOI: 10.3390/ejihpe12020016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 01/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
While many researchers have explored the impact sexting may have on relationships and mental health, few have explored the motivations and expectancies as to why individuals engage in sexting. By understanding why individuals sext their partners, we can learn more about what drives the behavior. Therefore, the current study sought to determine if sexting for sexual purposes (SP) or body image reinforcement (BIR) would predict positive sext expectancies. There was no prediction for instrumental/aggravated reasons (IAR). The online questionnaire had 348 participants, and based on regression analysis, positive sext expectancies while sending a sext message predicted sexting for sexual purposes. Somewhat surprisingly, sexting for instrumental/aggravated reasons was predicted by negative sext expectancies (both sending and receiving). These findings demonstrate individuals who sext for sexual purposes, and have positive sext expectancies, appear to enjoy the consequences of that behavior. Individuals who sext for instrumental/aggravated reasons may be uncomfortable with the outcome of their sexting behavior. This result highlights an area where clinicians could help clients explore the true reinforcements behind IAR.
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16
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Sáez G, Riemer AR, Brock RL, Gervais SJ. The Role of Interpersonal Sexual Objectification in Heterosexual Intimate Partner Violence From Perspectives of Perceivers and Targets. JOURNAL OF INTERPERSONAL VIOLENCE 2022; 37:1430-1455. [PMID: 32468928 DOI: 10.1177/0886260520922348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Sexual objectification is a subtle manifestation of sexist discrimination and violence against women that involves seeing and treating women as sex objects of male sexual desire. The primary aim of this research was to connect sexual objectification experiences with heterosexual intimate partner violence. This set of studies examined the impact of sexual objectification on intimate partner violence for both the female victim (Study 1) and the male perpetrator (Study 2). Female (Study 1) and male (Study 2) participants were asked to rate the extent they are victims or perpetrators of sexual objectification experiences and intimate partner violence. Moreover, women's self-silencing and men's ascriptions of humanity and empathy (through empathic concern and perspective taking) toward their partner was assessed. The results of the first study (including 154 heterosexual women) showed that general sexual objectification victimization indirectly leads to higher psychological and physical violence through the internalization of self-silence schemas. The second study (including 165 heterosexual men) demonstrated a link between general sexual objectification perpetration and psychological and physical intimate partner violence. Moreover, the relation between men's perpetration of objectification and intimate partner violence was mediated by ascriptions of humanity and empathic concern toward their female partner (but not through perspective taking toward her). Results of both studies demonstrate the effect of sexual objectification (as target or perpetrator) on global intimate partner violence and explain the different psychological mechanisms through which it takes place depending on the gendered perspective. Theoretical implications and practical considerations for interventions on intimate partner violence are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Sáez
- Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Sevilla, Spain
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17
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Grower P, Ward LM. Differentiating contributions of self-objectification and self-sexualization to young women's sexual agency. Body Image 2021; 38:63-71. [PMID: 33831653 DOI: 10.1016/j.bodyim.2021.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Findings consistently illustrate the negative association between women's sexual objectification and their sexual functioning. At the same time, some scholars argue that sexualized self-presentation may be a way to embrace one's sexuality and may signify empowerment. To date, no studies have explicitly explored the potential differential contributions of self-objectification and self-sexualization to multiple aspects of women's sexual agency. Towards this end, we surveyed 556 undergraduate women to examine how body surveillance, self-objectification, and self-sexualization differentially predict women's sexual assertiveness, sexual satisfaction, feelings of entitlement to sexual pleasure, condom use self-efficacy, and sexual esteem. Path analysis demonstrated consistent negative links between body surveillance, one behavioral manifestation of self-objectification, and sexual agency outcomes, but revealed both negative and positive links between measures of sexualization and sexual agency. This complex set of associations highlights the value of studying self-objectification and self-sexualization both in tandem and separately, so that researchers can develop a better understanding of the implications of each for women's sexual agency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petal Grower
- University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48103, United States.
| | - L Monique Ward
- University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48103, United States
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18
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Hockey A, Donovan CL, Christine Overall N, Kate Barlow F. Body Image Projection Bias in Heterosexual Romantic Relationships: A Dyadic Investigation. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2021; 48:987-1004. [PMID: 34189994 DOI: 10.1177/01461672211025202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Guided by projection bias perspectives, this article sought to advance understanding of the associations between body image and relationship and sexual satisfaction within heterosexual romantic relationships. Across two studies, both members of heterosexual dating and/or married couples reported on their body image, perceptions of partner's attraction to the self, own attraction toward the partner, and relationship satisfaction. Study 2 also incorporated measures of participants' body mass index (BMI) and sexual satisfaction. Across both studies, women with poorer body image perceived their partner to be less attracted to them (irrespective of their partner's actual attraction to them, or how attracted they were to their partner), which in turn was associated with lower relationship and sexual satisfaction. For men, attraction to their partner was consistently associated with their own relationship satisfaction. Results demonstrate that projection biases are a possible mechanism through which body image is associated with romantic relationship and sexual satisfaction, and hint at the particular relevance of appearance-related projection biases for women's relationship and sexual satisfaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allanah Hockey
- Griffith University, Mount Gravatt, Queensland, Australia
| | | | | | - Fiona Kate Barlow
- The School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia
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Rodrigues DL, Lopes D, Huic A. What Drives the Dehumanization of Consensual Non-Monogamous Partners? ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 50:1587-1597. [PMID: 33948766 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01895-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
We built upon a recent study by Rodrigues, Fasoli, Huic, and Lopes (2018) by investigating potential mechanisms driving the dehumanization of consensual non-monogamous (CNM) partners. Using a between-subjects experimental design, we asked 202 Portuguese individuals (158 women; Mage = 29.17, SD = 9.97) to read the description of two partners in a monogamous, open, or polyamorous relationship, and to make a series of judgments about both partners. Results showed the expected dehumanization effect, such that both groups of CNM partners (open and polyamorous) were attributed more primary (vs. secondary) emotions, whereas the reverse was true for monogamous partners. Moreover, results showed that the dehumanization effect was driven by the perception of CNM partners as less moral and less committed to their relationship. However, these findings were observed only for individuals with unfavorable (vs. favorable) attitudes toward CNM relationship. Overall, this study replicated the original findings and extended our understanding of why people in CNM relationships are stigmatized.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Rodrigues
- Iscte-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, CIS_iscte. Av. das Forças Armadas, 1649-026, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Diniz Lopes
- Iscte-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa, CIS_iscte. Av. das Forças Armadas, 1649-026, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Aleksandra Huic
- Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
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20
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Guo Q, Wu M. The relationship between self-objectification and social avoidance among Chinese middle adolescent girls: The mediating role of appearance comparison and self-esteem. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-01705-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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21
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Sexy, Thin, and White: The Intersection of Sexualization, Body Type, and Race on Stereotypes about Women. SEX ROLES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01221-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M. Currin
- Department of Behavioral Sciences and Leadership, United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
| | - Amelia E. Evans
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Sheila Garos
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, USA
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23
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Wang X, Chen H, Chen Z, Yang Y. Women’s Intrasexual Competition Results in Beautification. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSONALITY SCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/1948550620933403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Psychology research focuses primarily on male competition. This research, however, investigates women’s competition for love and the ideal partner in the mating market and reveals one psychological consequence for women, that is, beautification. This is demonstrated with ecologically valid, real-world archive and online search query data, a quasi-experiment, and a series of controlled experiments with random assignments. Intrasexual competition, indexed by the operational sex ratio (OSR) and income inequality (GINI), predicts women’s beautification reflected by Google search queries for cosmetic surgery terms (Study 1) and the density of certificated plastic surgeons (Study 2). Female college students from faculties with female-biased OSRs exhibit greater appearance focus than women from male-biased faculties (Study 3). A causal relationship, between women’s intrasexual competition and beautification (and even self-objectification), is subsequently demonstrated in experiments (Studies 4–6). Additionally, self-objectification due to intrasexual competition leads to women’s preference for appearance-oriented products (Study 6). Implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xijing Wang
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
| | - Hao Chen
- Department of Social Psychology, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhansheng Chen
- Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
| | - Ying Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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24
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Harsey SJ, Zurbriggen EL. Men and women’s self-objectification, objectification of women, and sexist beliefs. SELF AND IDENTITY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2020.1784263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J. Harsey
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
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25
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Riemer AR, Sáez G, Brock R, Gervais SJ. Self-fulfilling objectification in relationships: The effects of men’s objectifying expectations on women’s self-objectification during conflict in romantic relationships. SELF AND IDENTITY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15298868.2020.1778518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gemma Sáez
- Department of Life Sciences, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Seville, Spain
| | - Rebecca Brock
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, USA
| | - Sarah J. Gervais
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, USA
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26
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Perceived Humanization by Intimate Partners during Pregnancy Is Associated with fewer Depressive Symptoms, Less Body Dissatisfaction, and Greater Sexual Satisfaction through Reduced Self-Objectification. SEX ROLES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01166-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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27
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Vangeel L, Eggermont S, Vandenbosch L. Does Adolescent Media Use Predict Sexual Stereotypes in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood? Associations with Music Television and Online Pornography Exposure. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2020; 49:1147-1161. [PMID: 32180100 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01677-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Entertainment media consumed by adolescents have been criticized for their stereotyped depictions of sexual relationships. This longitudinal study among 182 boys and 218 girls from Belgium tests reciprocal relationships between adolescents' acceptance of gendered sexual roles and their exposure to music television and online pornography over three waves. The study innovates by including a fourth wave, approximately 5 years after Wave 3, when the participants had reached emerging adulthood, allowing to study long-term associations across the two developmental stages. Results first showed that adolescents who watched more music television than their same-aged peers reported a stronger acceptance of rape myths in emerging adulthood. Second, the link between adolescents' music television viewing and acceptance of rape myths in emerging adulthood was an indirect relationship through adolescents' acceptance of gendered sexual roles during adolescence. Third, adolescents' exposure to online pornography relative to their same-aged peers did not predict their acceptance of gendered sexual roles or rape myths in emerging adulthood. Fourth, gender and age differences could not be investigated due to model fit problems and are suggested to be examined in future research. Implications of the long-term consequences of adolescents' media use are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurens Vangeel
- Leuven School for Mass Communication Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, KU Leuven, Parkstraat 45, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Steven Eggermont
- Leuven School for Mass Communication Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, KU Leuven, Parkstraat 45, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Laura Vandenbosch
- Leuven School for Mass Communication Research, Faculty of Social Sciences, KU Leuven, Parkstraat 45, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
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28
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Sáez G, Alonso-Ferres M, Garrido-Macías M, Valor-Segura I, Expósito F. The Detrimental Effect of Sexual Objectification on Targets' and Perpetrators' Sexual Satisfaction: The Mediating Role of Sexual Coercion. Front Psychol 2020; 10:2748. [PMID: 31920805 PMCID: PMC6917605 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual objectification is a variable to consider for understanding the sexual violence that takes place into intimate context. The set of studies presented here aims to connect sexual objectification phenomena with sexual coercion and explore the consequences that both have on sexual satisfaction. Two studies examined the association between sexual objectification and sexual satisfaction for both views: female target (Study 1) and male perpetrator (Study 2) perspectives. The results of the first study (n = 138 heterosexual women) demonstrated that perceiving partner objectification (but not reporting general sexual objectification victimization) is indirectly linked to a lower sexual satisfaction because of lower rejection and higher sexual coercion rates. The second study (n = 136 heterosexual men) showed the indirect effect of partner objectification and general sexual objectification perpetration on sexual satisfaction after sexual coercion perpetration. Results of both studies demonstrated the negative consequences that sexual objectification has on sexual satisfaction for both male perpetrators and female targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Sáez
- Departamento de Psicología, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Seville, Spain
| | - María Alonso-Ferres
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavioral Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Marta Garrido-Macías
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavioral Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Valor-Segura
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavioral Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Francisca Expósito
- Department of Social Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavioral Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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29
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Leonhardt ND, Spencer TJ, Butler MH, Theobald AC. An Organizational Framework for Sexual Media's Influence on Short-Term Versus Long-Term Sexual Quality. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2019; 48:2233-2249. [PMID: 30014336 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-018-1209-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Although research has suggested a net negative influence of sexual media on sexual quality, enough researchers have found results suggesting that sexual media has no effect or a positive influence that the matter warrants further investigation. We present an organizational framework utilizing primarily the acquisition, activation, application model (3AM), and the Antecedents-Context-Effects model (ACE) to reconcile these apparently contradictory claims. By synthesizing these theories, we suggest that to truly understand the impact of sexual media on sexual quality, four factors must be taken into account: (1) the content of the sexual media being viewed, (2) the difference between short-term and long-term sexual quality, (3) the influence of exclusivity, formativeness, resonance, and reinforcement in moderating the extent to which the portrayed sexual script is applied (influences attitudes and behavior), and (4) the couple context for congruency of use, script application, and moral paradigms. While acknowledging the many nuances that should be considered, we ultimately argue that when considering these factors simultaneously, the overall scripts presented in sexual media are congruent with pursuing factors for short-term sexual quality and incongruent with pursuing factors for long-term sexual quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan D Leonhardt
- School of Family Life, Brigham Young University, 2081 JFSB, Provo, UT, 84602, USA.
| | - Travis J Spencer
- Marriage and Family Therapy, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | - Mark H Butler
- School of Family Life, Brigham Young University, 2081 JFSB, Provo, UT, 84602, USA
| | - Alex C Theobald
- Marriage and Family Therapy, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
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30
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Bareket O, Shnabel N. Domination and Objectification: Men’s Motivation for Dominance Over Women Affects Their Tendency to Sexually Objectify Women. PSYCHOLOGY OF WOMEN QUARTERLY 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/0361684319871913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In the present research, we examined the association between heterosexual men’s motivation for dominance over women and their sexual objectification of women. We found that men’s social dominance orientation (SDO) correlated with their tendency to sexually objectify women (Study 1). Inducing threat to men’s dominance over women by assigning men to work under the supervision of women bosses—versus jointly with women partners (Study 2a) or under men bosses (Study 3)—led to increased sexual objectification of women among high-SDO participants. These results persisted when controlling for mood. Examining the corresponding effects among heterosexual women revealed that the correlation between SDO and the sexual objectification of men was non-significant (Study 1) and that working under men bosses did not affect women’s sexual objectification of men (Study 2b). These findings support feminist theorizing that men (re)assert their dominance over women by sexually objectifying them. Increased awareness of the motivations underlying women’s sexual objectification can help professionals plan useful interventions to reduce this phenomenon, hopefully limiting its negative effects on women’s well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orly Bareket
- The School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Nurit Shnabel
- The School of Psychological Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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31
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Rainville G. Extra-dyadic sexual fantasies involving idealized figures and regard for current partners. SEXUAL AND RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/14681994.2019.1659950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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32
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Gervais SJ, Sáez G, Riemer AR, Klein O. The Social Interaction Model of Objectification: A process model of goal-based objectifying exchanges between men and women. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 59:248-283. [PMID: 31448823 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
People perceive and treat women as sex objects in social exchanges. The interaction processes through which women are objectified, however, have rarely been considered. To address this gap in the literature, we propose the Social Interaction Model of Objectification (SIMO). Rooted in social exchange and objectification theories, the SIMO predicts objectifying behaviours stemming from sexual goals between men and women. We propose that the behavioural dynamics of objectification can be understood through a series of goal-based exchange processes that are shaped by patriarchy. Articulating the SIMO and its predictions for behaviour in social interactions, we describe the scant social psychological studies in this area. Not only is the SIMO useful for understanding objectifying interaction processes, but it can be used to understand why women sometimes evaluate objectification positively as well as instances of sexual violence. Finally, we discuss critical directions for future research and provide promising methodological approaches for testing the SIMO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Gervais
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Gemma Sáez
- Departamento de Psicología, Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Seville, Spain
| | - Abigail R Riemer
- Department of Life Sciences, Carroll University, Waukesha, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Olivier Klein
- Center for Social and Cultural Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium
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33
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Calogero RM, Siegel JA. Widening Understandings of Women's Sexual Desire: A Social-Ecological Lens. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2019; 48:1693-1698. [PMID: 30539357 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-018-1351-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M Calogero
- Department of Psychology, Western University, London, ON, N6A 5C2, Canada.
| | - Jaclyn A Siegel
- Department of Psychology, Western University, London, ON, N6A 5C2, Canada
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34
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Sáez G, Riemer AR, Brock RL, Gervais SJ. Objectification in Heterosexual Romantic Relationships: Examining Relationship Satisfaction of Female Objectification Recipients and Male Objectifying Perpetrators. SEX ROLES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0990-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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35
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36
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Lameiras-Fernández M, Fiske ST, González Fernández A, Lopez JF. Objectifying Women's Bodies Is Acceptable from an Intimate Perpetrator, at Least for Female Sexists. SEX ROLES 2018; 79:190-205. [PMID: 30555204 PMCID: PMC6292689 DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0862-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Objectification of the female body is generating much research. Nevertheless, this has revealed little about whether women's evaluations depend on the level of psychological intimacy with the perpetrator of that objectification. Intimacy theory predicts that objectifying comments would seem more acceptable coming from a close partner, especially for sexist women. The present study begins to fill these gaps by analyzing responses from 301 heterosexual/bisexual adult women in the United States (M age = 37.02, range = 18-72) to appearance and sexual body comments made by four different male perpetrators: strangers, colleagues, friends, or partners. Measures assessed women's perceptions of objectification, as well as reported enjoyment of these comments. As long as they were not negative, comments from heterosexual partners were perceived as the least objectifying and enjoyed the most; comments from colleagues, strangers, and friends were linked with greater objectification and less enjoyment. Additionally, sexist attitudes toward men and women-but more clearly toward men-linked with objectification and enjoyment. Future research directions and practical implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Lameiras-Fernández
- Faculty of Education, Universidad de Vigo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University
- Faculty of Education, Universidad de Vigo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University
| | - Susan T Fiske
- Faculty of Education, Universidad de Vigo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University
- Faculty of Education, Universidad de Vigo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University
| | - Antonio González Fernández
- Faculty of Education, Universidad de Vigo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University
- Faculty of Education, Universidad de Vigo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University
| | - José F Lopez
- Faculty of Education, Universidad de Vigo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University
- Faculty of Education, Universidad de Vigo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University
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37
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Rousseau A, Rodgers RF, Eggermont S. A Short-Term Longitudinal Exploration of the Impact of TV Exposure on Objectifying Attitudes Toward Women in Early Adolescent Boys. SEX ROLES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-018-0925-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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38
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Kashubeck-West S, Zeilman M, Deitz C. Objectification, relationship satisfaction, and self-consciousness during physical intimacy in bisexual women. SEXUAL AND RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/14681994.2017.1419569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Susan Kashubeck-West
- Department of Education Science and Professional Programs, University of Missouri, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Michelle Zeilman
- Department of Education Science and Professional Programs, University of Missouri, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Cori Deitz
- Department of Education Science and Professional Programs, University of Missouri, St. Louis, MO, USA
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39
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Abstract
Objectification theorists suggest that exposure to sexualizing media increases self-objectification among individuals. Correlational and experimental research examining this relation has received growing attention. The aim of this meta-analysis was to investigate the influence of sexualizing media use on self-objectification among women and men. For this purpose, we analyzed 54 papers yielding 50 independent studies and 261 effect sizes. The data revealed a positive, moderate effect of sexualizing media on self-objectification (r = .19). The effect was significant and robust, 95% CI [.15, .23], p < .0001. We identified a conditional effect of media type, suggesting that the use of video games and/or online media led to stronger self-objectification effects when compared to television use. Other sample characteristics or study characteristics did not moderate the overall effect. Thus, our findings highlight the importance of sexualizing media exposure on women’s and men’s objectified self-concept. We discuss future research directions and implications for practice. We hope that the article will stimulate researchers in their future work to address the research gaps outlined here. Moreover, we hope that the findings will encourage practitioners and parents to reflect on the role of the use of sexualizing media in the development of individuals’ self-objectification. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl10.1177/0361684317743019
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Karsay
- Department of Communication, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Knoll
- Department of Communication, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jörg Matthes
- Department of Communication, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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40
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Strelan P, Pagoudis S. Birds of a Feather Flock Together: The Interpersonal Process of Objectification within Intimate Heterosexual Relationships. SEX ROLES 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0851-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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41
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Leickly E, Nelson K, Simoni J. Sexually Explicit Online Media, Body Satisfaction, and Partner Expectations Among Men who have Sex with Men: a Qualitative Study. SEXUALITY RESEARCH & SOCIAL POLICY : JOURNAL OF NSRC : SR & SP 2017; 14:270-274. [PMID: 28979572 PMCID: PMC5624736 DOI: 10.1007/s13178-016-0248-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Limited research has investigated the perceived influence of sexually explicit online media (SEOM) on body satisfaction and partner expectations of men who have sex with men (MSM). Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 MSM, covering the perceived influence of MSM-specific SEOM. All nine men who broached the topics of body satisfaction and partner expectations reported that MSM-specific SEOM set unreasonably high physical appearance expectations for themselves and/or their potential partners. Although MSM-specific SEOM might be negatively affecting body satisfaction and partner expectations among MSM, its ubiquity may make it a useful tool to support body positivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Leickly
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA
| | - Kimberly Nelson
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA
| | - Jane Simoni
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Box 351525, Seattle, WA 98195-1525, USA
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42
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Meltzer AL, McNulty JK, Maner JK. Women Like Being Valued for Sex, as Long as it is by a Committed Partner. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2017; 46:475-488. [PMID: 26626185 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-015-0622-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2014] [Revised: 09/05/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
How do women respond to being valued for sex by their partners? Although research supporting objectification theory suggests that women's reactions to sexual valuation are primarily negative, a separate body of research indicates that women expend significant effort to enhance their sexual appeal. Evolutionary perspectives suggest that whether women are more or less satisfied with partners who value them for sex may depend on how committed those partners are. Being sexually valued by a relatively uncommitted partner may violate women's desire to avoid short-term sexual relationships and thus may be negatively associated with relationship satisfaction. In contrast, being sexually valued by a highly committed partner may positively influence women's relationship satisfaction because it signals to them that they have successfully attracted a long-term relationship partner. Two studies of newly married couples supported these predictions. In Study 1 (N = 109), husbands' sexual valuation was positively associated with marital satisfaction among wives who perceived that those husbands were highly committed, but negatively associated with marital satisfaction among wives who perceived that those husbands were relatively less committed. Study 2 (N = 99) revealed the same pattern for wives (but not husbands) using a likely manifestation of sexual valuation-engaging in frequent sex. These findings join others to demonstrate that interpersonal processes do not have universally positive or negative implications for relationships; rather, their implications depend on the context in which they occur, including contexts that were reproductively beneficial or costly throughout evolutionary history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea L Meltzer
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call Street, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA.
| | - James K McNulty
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call Street, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Jon K Maner
- Kellogg School of Management, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
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43
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Veit M, Štulhofer A, Hald GM. Sexually explicit media use and relationship satisfaction: a moderating role of emotional intimacy? SEXUAL AND RELATIONSHIP THERAPY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/14681994.2016.1193134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Veit
- Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Aleksandar Štulhofer
- Sexology Unit, Department of Sociology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Gert Martin Hald
- Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Sexological Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
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44
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Bastian B, Loughnan S. Resolving the Meat-Paradox: A Motivational Account of Morally Troublesome Behavior and Its Maintenance. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2016; 21:278-299. [DOI: 10.1177/1088868316647562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
A majority of people the world over eat meat, yet many of these same people experience discomfort when the meat on their plate is linked to the death of animals. We draw on this common form of moral conflict—the meat-paradox—to develop insights into the ways in which morally troublesome behaviors vanish into the commonplace and every day. Drawing on a motivational analysis, we show how societies may be shaped by attempts to resolve dissonance, in turn protecting their citizens from discomfort associated with their own moral conflicts. To achieve this, we build links between dissonance reduction, habit formation, social influence, and the emergence of social norms and detail how our analysis has implications for understanding immoral behavior and motivations underpinning dehumanization and objectification. Finally, we draw from our motivational analysis to advance new insights into the origins of prejudice and pathways through which prejudice can be maintained and resolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brock Bastian
- The University of Melbourne, Australia
- University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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45
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Abstract
Sexually objectifying portrayals of women are a frequent occurrence in mainstream media, raising questions about the potential impact of exposure to this content on others' impressions of women and on women's views of themselves. The goal of this review was to synthesize empirical investigations testing effects of media sexualization. The focus was on research published in peer-reviewed, English-language journals between 1995 and 2015. A total of 109 publications that contained 135 studies were reviewed. The findings provided consistent evidence that both laboratory exposure and regular, everyday exposure to this content are directly associated with a range of consequences, including higher levels of body dissatisfaction, greater self-objectification, greater support of sexist beliefs and of adversarial sexual beliefs, and greater tolerance of sexual violence toward women. Moreover, experimental exposure to this content leads both women and men to have a diminished view of women's competence, morality, and humanity. Limitations with the existing research approaches and measures are discussed, and suggestions for future research directions are provided.
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Abstract
Although the process of sexual objectification is theorized to occur within interpersonal interactions, we believe this is the first study to examine sexual objectification and self-objectification in actual (nonconfederate) interpersonal encounters. Men and women were brought into the laboratory and interacted in mixed-sex dyads. We used dyadic analysis to detect whether partners’ objectification of each other affected state self-objectification, and the resulting feelings of comfort and authenticity during the interaction. After the interaction, participants completed a cognitive performance task, a measure of career aspirations, and a measure of relationship agency. Results showed that for women only, being objectified by their male interaction partner was associated with an increase in state self-objectification, and state self-objectification led to perceptions that the interaction was less comfortable and less authentic. Furthermore, for women but not for men, having authentic interactions was found to relate positively to relationship agency, career aspirations, and cognitive performance. This research shows that self-objectification is not only a self-process but an interpersonal process heightened by the real-time sexual objectification of a male interaction partner. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available to PWQ subscribers on PWQ's website at http://pwq.sagepub.com/supplemental
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Affiliation(s)
- Randi L. Garcia
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Department of Psychology, Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Valerie A. Earnshaw
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
- Boston Children’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Diane M. Quinn
- Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
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47
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Ward LM, Seabrook RC, Manago A, Reed L. Contributions of Diverse Media to Self-Sexualization among Undergraduate Women and Men. SEX ROLES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-015-0548-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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48
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Overstreet NM, Quinn DM, Marsh KL. Objectification in Virtual Romantic Contexts: Perceived Discrepancies between Self and Partner Ideals Differentially affect Body Consciousness in Women and Men. SEX ROLES 2015; 73:442-452. [PMID: 26594085 DOI: 10.1007/s11199-015-0533-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The current study examined whether exposure to sexually objectifying images in a potential romantic partner's virtual apartment affects discrepancies between people's perception of their own appearance (i.e., self-perceptions) and their perception of the body ideal that is considered desirable to a romantic partner (i.e., partner-ideals). Participants were 114 heterosexual undergraduate students (57 women and 57 men) from a northeastern U.S. university. The study used a 2 (Participant Gender) x 2 (Virtual Environment: Sexualized vs. Non-Sexualized) between-subjects design. We predicted that women exposed to sexually objectifying images in a virtual environment would report greater discrepancies between their self-perceptions and partner-ideals than men, which in turn would contribute to women's body consciousness. Findings support this hypothesis and show that perceived discrepancies account for the relationship between exposure to sexually objectifying images and body consciousness for women but not men. We also found gender asymmetries in objectification responses when each component of perceived discrepancies, i.e., self-perceptions versus perceptions of a romantic partner's body ideal, were examined separately. For men, exposure to muscular sexualized images was significantly associated with their self-perceptions but not their perceptions of the body size that is considered desirable to a romantic partner. For women, exposure to thin sexualized images was significantly associated with their perceptions that a romantic partner preferred a woman with a smaller body size. However, exposure to these images did not affect women's self-perceptions. Implications for gender asymmetries in objectification responses and perceived discrepancies that include a romantic partner's perceptions are discussed.
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49
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Lilienfeld SO, Sauvigné KC, Lynn SJ, Cautin RL, Latzman RD, Waldman ID. Fifty psychological and psychiatric terms to avoid: a list of inaccurate, misleading, misused, ambiguous, and logically confused words and phrases. Front Psychol 2015; 6:1100. [PMID: 26284019 PMCID: PMC4522609 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The goal of this article is to promote clear thinking and clear writing among students and teachers of psychological science by curbing terminological misinformation and confusion. To this end, we present a provisional list of 50 commonly used terms in psychology, psychiatry, and allied fields that should be avoided, or at most used sparingly and with explicit caveats. We provide corrective information for students, instructors, and researchers regarding these terms, which we organize for expository purposes into five categories: inaccurate or misleading terms, frequently misused terms, ambiguous terms, oxymorons, and pleonasms. For each term, we (a) explain why it is problematic, (b) delineate one or more examples of its misuse, and (c) when pertinent, offer recommendations for preferable terms. By being more judicious in their use of terminology, psychologists and psychiatrists can foster clearer thinking in their students and the field at large regarding mental phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Steven Jay Lynn
- Binghamton University – State University of New York, Binghamton, NYUSA
| | - Robin L. Cautin
- Department of Psychology, Sacred Heart College, Fairfield, CTUSA
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50
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Milhausen RR, Buchholz AC, Opperman EA, Benson LE. Relationships Between Body Image, Body Composition, Sexual Functioning, and Sexual Satisfaction Among Heterosexual Young Adults. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2015; 44:1621-33. [PMID: 25063473 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-014-0328-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Revised: 06/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/12/2013] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the association between body image and body-image self-consciousness on sexual satisfaction, accounting for relationships between body fat and body image, and between sexual functioning and sexual satisfaction, while controlling for relationship satisfaction. Participants were 143, 18-25 year-old Caucasian men and women in heterosexual monogamous relationships, recruited from the University of Guelph and surrounding community in Ontario, Canada. Various domains of body image, body-image self-consciousness, sexual satisfaction and functioning, and relationship satisfaction data were collected by questionnaires. Body fat was measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Among men, body image was positively associated with sexual satisfaction, after controlling for relationship satisfaction. Men with greater body fat were more likely to have poorer behavioral and affective body image. Only body image specific to the sexual encounter influenced sexual functioning. Among women, no domain of body image was associated with sexual satisfaction, after controlling for relationship satisfaction. Women with greater body fat were more likely to have poorer affective and sexual-encounter-specific body image. As percent total fat increased, sexual functioning decreased. Our results suggest a complex pattern of relationships exists among body image and body composition constructs and sexual and relationship variable; and that these relationships are not the same for men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin R Milhausen
- Department of Family Relations and Applied Nutrition, MacDonald Institute, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON , N1G 2W1, Canada
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