Mycoprotein: environmental impact and health aspects

Sensory characterisation of meatless and nitrite-free cooked ham alternatives in comparison to conventional counterparts: Temporal dominance of sensations and partial napping with ultra-flash profiling

The cooked ham market is expanding with nitrite-free and meatless alternatives gaining traction as leading trends. An understanding of the attributes that influence the sensory quality of cooked ham is crucial for developing healthier and environmentally sustainable products. The primary aim of this study was to investigate how the removal of nitrites and the use of meatless ingredients affect the sensory characteristics of cooked ham currently available in the Irish market. Sensory evaluation of selected cooked hams (n = 8), including alternatives without nitrites or based on mycoprotein (meatless), was conducted using Temporal Dominance of Sensations (TDS) for in mouth processing and Partial Napping (PN) with Ultra-Flash Profiling (UFP) for the appearance, by a trained sensory panel (n = 9). The nitrite-free cooked ham displayed a similar temporal sensory profile and appearance to the products of the same category, highlighting the opportunity for more nitrite-free products to enter the market. The meatless product was dominated by a "smoky" flavour, which was perceived as "artificial". Meatless ham had a more distinct appearance than the meat-based products and was associated with attributes such as "fake", "artificial colour" and "unappealing". In general, results revealed distinct differences between whole-muscle and sectioned and formed cooked ham products in terms of texture, flavour, and appearance. PN and UFP grouped whole-muscle cooked hams together, which were associated with terms "natural-looking", "better quality" and "healthier", while sectioned and formed cooked hams were perceived as "cheap" and "artificial". The results of this study contribute to a better understanding of the sensory attributes of cooked ham products emphasising the challenges related to novel formulations, and offers valuable insights for the development of healthier and more sustainable meat products within the food industry.

Protein transition: focus on protein quality in sustainable alternative sources

The current consumption trends, combined with the expected demographic growth in the coming years, call for a protein transition, i.e., the partial substitution of animal protein-rich foods with foods rich in proteins produced in a more sustainable way. Here, we have discussed some of the most common and promising protein sources alternative to animal proteins, namely: legumes, insects, and microorganisms (including microalgae and fungi). The primary objective was to assess their nutritional quality through the collection of digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) values available in the scientific literature. Protein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) values have been used where DIAAS values were not available. The ecological impact of each protein source, its nutritional quality and the potential applications in traditional foods or novel food concepts like meat analogues are also discussed. The data collected show that DIAAS values for animal proteins are higher than all the other protein sources. Soybean proteins, mycoproteins and proteins of some insects present relatively high DIAAS (or PDCAAS) values and must be considered proteins of good quality. This review also highlights the lack of DIAAS values for many potentially promising protein sources and the variability induced by the way the proteins are processed.

Agrochemical-free genetically modified and genome-edited crops: Towards achieving the United Nations sustainable development goals and a 'greener' green revolution

Sustainable farming on ever-shrinking agricultural land and declining water resources for the growing human population is one of the greatest environmental and food security challenges of the 21st century. Conventional, age-old organic farming practices alone, and foods based on costly cellular agriculture, do not have the potential to be upscaled to meet the food supply challenges for feeding large populations. Additionally, agricultural practices relying on chemical inputs have a well-documented detrimental impact on human health and the environment. As the available farming methods have reached their productivity limits, new approaches to agriculture, combining friendly, age-old farming practices with modern technologies that exclude chemical interventions, are necessary to address the food production challenges. Growing genetically modified (GM) crops without chemical inputs can allow agricultural intensification with reduced adverse health and environmental impacts. Additionally, integrating high-value pleiotropic genes in their genetic improvement coupled with the use of modern agricultural technologies, like robotics and artificial intelligence (AI), will further improve productivity. Such 'organic-GM' crops will offer consumers healthy, agrochemical-free GM produce. We believe these agricultural practices will lead to the beginning of a potentially new chemical-free GM agricultural revolution in the era of Agriculture 4.0 and help meet the targets of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Furthermore, given the advancement in the genome editing (GE) toolbox, we ought to develop a new category of 'trait-reversible GM crops' to avert the fears of those who believe in ecological damage by GM crops. Thus, in this article, we advocate farming with no or minimal chemical use by combining chemical-free organic farming with the existing biofortified and multiple stress tolerant GM crops, while focusing on the development of novel 'biofertilizer-responsive GE crops' and 'trait-reversible GE crops' for the future.

Mapping the evidence of novel plant-based foods: a systematic review of nutritional, health, and environmental impacts in high-income countries

CONTEXT

Shifting from current dietary patterns to diets rich in plant-based (PB) foods and lower in animal-based foods (ABFs) is generally regarded as a suitable strategy to improve nutritional health and reduce environmental impacts. Despite the recent growth in supply of and demand for novel plant-based foods (NPBFs), a comprehensive overview is lacking.

OBJECTIVES

This review provides a synthesis of available evidence, highlights challenges, and informs public health and environmental strategies for purposeful political decision-making by systematically searching, analyzing, and summarizing the available literature.

DATA SOURCES

Five peer-reviewed databases and grey literature sources were rigorously searched for publications.

DATA EXTRACTION

Study characteristics meeting the inclusion criteria regarding NPBF nutrient composition and health and environmental outcomes in high-income countries were extracted.

DATA ANALYSIS

Fifty-seven peer-reviewed and 36 grey literature sources were identified; these were published in 2016-2022. NPBFs typically have substantially lower environmental impacts than ABFs, but the nutritional contents are complex and vary considerably across brands, product type, and main primary ingredient. In the limited evidence on the health impacts, shifts from ABFs to PB meats were associated with positive health outcomes. However, results were mixed for PB drinks, with links to micronutrient deficiencies.

CONCLUSION

If carefully selected, certain NPBFs have the potential to be healthier and nutrient-rich alternatives to ABFs and typically have smaller environmental footprints. More disaggregated categorization of various types of NPBFs would be a helpful step in guiding consumers and key stakeholders to make informed decisions. To enable informed policymaking on the inclusion of NPBFs in dietary transitions as part of a wider net-zero and health strategy, future priorities should include nutritional food standards, labelling, and subdivisions or categorizations of NPBFs, as well as short- and long-term health studies evaluating dietary shifts from ABFs to NPBFs and standardized environmental impact assessments, ideally from independent funders.

Animal vs Plant-Based Meat: A Hearty Debate

Plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) are highly processed food products that typically replace meat in the diet. In Canada, the growing demand for PBMAs coincides with public health recommendations to reduce ultra-processed food consumption, which prompts the need to investigate the long-term health implications of PBMAs. This review assesses the available literature on PBMAs and cardiovascular disease (CVD), including an evaluation of their nutritional profile and impact on CVD risk factors. Overall, the nutritional profiles of PBMAs vary considerably but generally align with recommendations for improving cardiovascular health; compared with meat, PBMAs are usually lower in saturated fat and higher in polyunsaturated fat and dietary fibre. Some dietary trials that have replaced meat with PBMAs have reported improvements in CVD risk factors, including total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein B-100, and body weight. No currently available evidence suggests that the concerning aspects of PMBAs (eg, food processing and high sodium content) negate the potential cardiovascular benefits. We conclude that replacing meat with PBMAs may be cardioprotective; however, long-term randomised controlled trials and prospective cohort studies that evaluate CVD events (eg, myocardial infarction, stroke) are essential to draw more definitive conclusions.

Dairy, Plant, and Novel Proteins: Scientific and Technological Aspects

Alternative proteins have gained popularity as consumers look for foods that are healthy, nutritious, and sustainable. Plant proteins, precision fermentation-derived proteins, cell-cultured proteins, algal proteins, and mycoproteins are the major types of alternative proteins that have emerged in recent years. This review addresses the major alternative-protein categories and reviews their definitions, current market statuses, production methods, and regulations in different countries, safety assessments, nutrition statuses, functionalities and applications, and, finally, sensory properties and consumer perception. Knowledge relative to traditional dairy proteins is also addressed. Opportunities and challenges associated with these proteins are also discussed. Future research directions are proposed to better understand these technologies and to develop consumer-acceptable final products.

Filamentous fungal pellets as a novel and sustainable encapsulation matrix for exogenous bioactive compounds

Edible filamentous fungi (FF) are considered sustainable food materials given their rich nutrient profile and low carbon and water footprints during production. The current study evaluated FF biomass as a natural encapsulation system for exogenous bioactive compounds and as a model system to investigate the complex food matrix-micronutrient interactions during in vitro digestion. Our objective was to compare the fungal pellet, as a multicellular encapsulation system, with single yeast cell-based carriers in terms of loading and release of curcumin, a model compound. The results suggest that the curcumin encapsulation efficiency was similar in single yeast cells and fungal hyphal cells. A vacuum treatment used to facilitate the infusion of curcumin into yeast or fungal cells also enabled rapid internalization of yeast cells into the fungal pellet matrix. Compared to the single-cell encapsulation system, the multicellular systems modified the release kinetics of curcumin during in vitro digestion by eliminating the initial rapid release and reducing the overall release rate of curcumin in the small intestinal phase. These results provide a deeper understanding of the effect of natural edible structures on the bioaccessibility of micronutrients, and demonstrate the potential of using FF biomass as functional food materials.

Mycelium: A Nutrient-Dense Food To Help Address World Hunger, Promote Health, and Support a Regenerative Food System

There is a need for transformational innovation within the existing food system to achieve United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 2 of ending hunger within a sustainable agricultural system by 2030. Mycelium, the vegetative growth form of filamentous fungi, may represent a convergence of several features crucial for the development of food products that are nutritious, desirable, scalable, affordable, and environmentally sustainable. Mycelium has gained interest as technology advances demonstrate its ability to provide scalable biomass for food production delivering good flavor and quality protein, fiber, and essential micronutrients urgently needed to improve public health. We review the potential of mycelium as an environmentally sustainable food to address malnutrition and undernutrition, driven by food insecurity and caloric dense diets with less than optimal macro- and micronutrient density.

What Technological and Economic Elements Must be Addressed to Support the Affordability, Accessibility, and Desirability of Alternative Proteins in LMIC?

Populations in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) typically consume less than the recommended daily amount of protein. Alternative protein (AP) sources could help combat malnutrition, but this requires careful consideration of elements needed to further establish AP products in LMIC. Key considerations include technological, nutritional, safety, social, and economic challenges. This perspective analyzes these considerations in achieving dietary diversity in LMIC, using a combination of traditional and novel protein sources with high nutritional value, namely, soy, mycoprotein, and cultivated meat. Technological approaches to modulate the technofunctionality and bitter off-tastes of plant-sourced proteins facilitate processing and ensure consumer acceptance. Economic considerations for inputs, infrastructure for production, and transportation represent key elements to scale up AP. Dietary diversification is indispensable and LMIC cannot rely on plant proteins alone to provide adequate protein intake sustainably. Investments in infrastructure and innovation are urgently needed to offer diverse sources of protein in LMIC.

Nutritional Values and Bio-Functional Properties of Fungal Proteins: Applications in Foods as a Sustainable Source

From the preparation of bread, cheese, beer, and condiments to vegetarian meat products, fungi play a leading role in the food fermentation industry. With the shortage of global protein resources and the decrease in cultivated land, fungal protein has received much attention for its sustainability. Fungi are high in protein, rich in amino acids, low in fat, and almost cholesterol-free. These properties mean they could be used as a promising supplement for animal and plant proteins. The selection of strains and the fermentation process dominate the flavor and quality of fungal-protein-based products. In terms of function, fungal proteins exhibit better digestive properties, can regulate blood lipid and cholesterol levels, improve immunity, and promote gut health. However, consumer acceptance of fungal proteins is low due to their flavor and safety. Thus, this review puts forward prospects in terms of these issues.

The effects of substituting red and processed meat for mycoprotein on biomarkers of cardiovascular risk in healthy volunteers: an analysis of secondary endpoints from Mycomeat

PURPOSE

Mycoprotein is a relatively novel food source produced from the biomass of Fusarium venenatum. It has previously been shown to improve CVD risk markers in intervention trials when it is compared against total meat. It has not hitherto been assessed specifically for benefits relative to red and processed meat.

METHODS

We leveraged samples from Mycomeat, an investigator-blind randomised crossover controlled trial in metabolically healthy male adults (n = 20), randomised to consume 240 g/day of red and processed meat for 14 days followed by mycoprotein, or vice versa. Blood biochemical indices were a priori defined secondary endpoints.

RESULTS

Mycoprotein consumption led to a 6.74% reduction in total cholesterol (P = 0.02) and 12.3% reduction in LDL cholesterol (P = 0.02) from baseline values. Change in fasted triglycerides was not significantly different between diets (+ 0.19 ± 0.11 mmol/l with mycoprotein, P = 0.09). There was a small but significant reduction in waist circumference for mycoprotein relative to meat (- 0.95 ± 0.42 cm, P = 0.04). Following the mycoprotein diet, mean systolic (- 2.41 ± 1.89 mmHg, P = 0.23) and diastolic blood pressure (- 0.80 ± 1.23 mmHg, P = 0.43) were reduced from baseline. There were no statistically significant effects of the intervention on urinary sodium, nitrite or TMAO; while urinary potassium (+ 126.12 ± 50.30 mmol/l, P = 0.02) and nitrate (+ 2.12 ± 0.90 mmol/l, P = 0.04) were both significantly higher with mycoprotein relative to meat. The study population comprised metabolically healthy adults, therefore, changes in plasma lipids had little effect on cardiovascular risk scores (- 0.34% FRS for mycoprotein P = 0.24).

CONCLUSIONS

These results confirm potential cardiovascular benefits when displacing red and processed meat with mycoprotein in the diet. Longer trials in higher risk study populations are needed to fully elucidate suggested benefits for blood pressure and body composition.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov Identifier: NCT03944421.

A glimpse into plant-based fermented products alternative to animal based products: Formulation, processing, health benefits

Fermented foods and beverages are increasingly being included in the diets of people around the world, as they significantly contribute to flavor and interest in nutrition and food consumption. Plant sources, like cereals and pulses, are employed to produce vegan fermented foods that are either commercially available or the subject of ongoing scientific investigation. In addition, the inclination towards nutritionally healthy, natural, and clean-label products amongst consumers has encouraged the development of vegan fermented products alternative to animal-based products for industrial-scale production. However, as the vegan diet is more restrictive than the vegetarian diet, manufacturing food products for vegans presents a significant problem due to the limited availability of many raw materials. So further research is required on this topic. This paper aims to review the formulation, quality, microbial resources, health benefits, and safety of foods that can be categorised as vegan fermented foods and beverages.

Micro-foaming of plant protein based meat analogues for tailored textural properties

Meat-like foods based on plant protein sources are supposed to be a solution for a more sustainable sustenance of the world population while also having a great potential to reduce the impact on climate change. However, the transition from animal-based products to more climate-friendly alternatives can only be accomplished when consumers' acceptance of plant-based alternatives is high. This article introduces a novel micro-foaming process for texturized High-Moisture Meat Analogues (HMMA) conferring enhanced structural properties and a new way to tailor the mechanical, appearance and textural characteristics of such products. First, the impact of nitrogen injection and subsequent foaming on processing pressures, temperatures and mechanical energy were assessed using soy protein concentrate and injecting nitrogen fractions in a controlled manner in the range of 0 wt% to 0.3 wt% into the hot protein melt. Direct relationships between related extrusion parameters and properties of extruded HMMAs were established. Furthermore, optimized processing parameters for stable manufacturing conditions were identified. Secondly, so produced HMMA foams were systematically analyzed using colourimetry, texture analysis, X-ray micro-tomography (XRT) and by performing water and Preprint submitted to Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies June 17, 2023 oil absorption tests. These measurements revealed that perceived lightness, textural hardness, cohesiveness and overrun can be tailored by adapting the injected N2 concentrations provided that the gas holding capacity of the protein matrix is high enough. Moreover, the liquid absorption properties of the foamed HMMA were greatly optimized. XRT measurements showed that the porosity at the center of the extrudate strands was the highest. The largest porosity of 53% was achieved with 0.2 wt% N2 injection, whilst 0.3 wt% N2 lead to destructuration of the HMMA foam structure through limited gas dispersion and wall slip layer formation. The latter can, nonetheless, be improved by adapting the processing parameters. All in all, this novel extrusion microfoaming process opens new possibilities to enhance the structural properties of plant-based HMMA and ultimately, consumers' acceptance.

Trends and prospects in dairy protein replacement in yogurt and cheese

There is a growing demand for nutritional, functional, and eco-friendly dairy products, which has increased the need for research regarding alternative and sustainable protein sources. Plant-based, single-cell (SCP), and recombinant proteins are being explored as alternatives to dairy proteins. Plant-Based Proteins (PBPs) are commonly used to replace total dairy protein. However, PBPs are generally mixed with dairy proteins to improve their functional properties, which makes them dependent on animal protein sources. In contrast, single-Cell Proteins (SCPs) and recombinant dairy proteins are promising alternatives for dairy protein replacement since they provide nutritional components, essential amino acids, and high protein yield and can use industrial and agricultural waste as carbon sources. Although alternative protein sources offer numerous advantages over conventional dairy proteins, several technical and sensory challenges must be addressed to fully incorporate them into cheese and yogurt products. Future research can focus on improving the functional and sensory properties of alternative protein sources and developing new processing technologies to optimize their use in dairy products. This review highlights the current status of alternative dairy proteins in cheese and yogurt, their functional properties, and the challenges of their use in these products.

Focus and Insights into the Synthetic Biology-Mediated Chassis of Economically Important Fungi for the Production of High-Value Metabolites

Substantial progress has been achieved and knowledge gaps addressed in synthetic biology-mediated engineering of biological organisms to produce high-value metabolites. Bio-based products from fungi are extensively explored in the present era, attributed to their emerging importance in the industrial sector, healthcare, and food applications. The edible group of fungi and multiple fungal strains defines attractive biological resources for high-value metabolites comprising food additives, pigments, dyes, industrial chemicals, and antibiotics, including other compounds. In this direction, synthetic biology-mediated genetic chassis of fungal strains to enhance/add value to novel chemical entities of biological origin is opening new avenues in fungal biotechnology. While substantial success has been achieved in the genetic manipulation of economically viable fungi (including Saccharomyces cerevisiae) in the production of metabolites of socio-economic relevance, knowledge gaps/obstacles in fungal biology and engineering need to be remedied for complete exploitation of valuable fungal strains. Herein, the thematic article discusses the novel attributes of bio-based products from fungi and the creation of high-value engineered fungal strains to promote yield, bio-functionality, and value-addition of the metabolites of socio-economic value. Efforts have been made to discuss the existing limitations in fungal chassis and how the advances in synthetic biology provide a plausible solution.

A systematic review on drivers influencing consumption of edible mushrooms and innovative mushroom-containing products

Edible mushrooms are attractive for their low calorie content, high-quality protein, low lipid levels, and therapeutic properties; furthermore, mushroom-containing products are gaining interest in light of the world's increasing need for protein source diversification to meet the global protein demand. At present, there is a strong heterogeneity worldwide in terms of mushroom consumption and, to date, few surveys exist on the factors influencing this. This review, through the PICo and PRISMA statements, identified and analysed 31 papers to answer the question: What are the determinants that drive consumers towards the consumption and purchase of edible mushrooms and novel products containing mushrooms? The expected outcome is to provide an overview of key research issues used thus far, identify current research gaps, and discuss implications for industries and policy-makers. Consumer attitude - including fear of poisoning - towards innovative mushroom-containing products has been poorly analysed in Europe and USA; what we do know is that processed mushrooms appeared more attractive to European and American mainlanders. Few studies have considered the ethnicity of participants, which is an important factor since mushrooms and their culinary applications appear to be known mainly thanks to family tradition. New strategies are needed to increase people's familiarity with these products and to contrast neophobic phenomena. If mushroom price is an obstacle for both companies and purchasers, intrinsic characteristics such as umami taste and positive health and sustainability benefits are strengths to consider in the development of the supply chain, public education, and information initiatives. This should be useful in directing consumer preferences towards meat alternatives containing mushrooms.

Scope, nutritional aspects, technology, and consumer preferences toward seafood alternatives

Sustainability, human health, and animal welfare are three broad areas that pose a greater impact on mankind. The increased consumption of animal-based foods such as fish or seafood has threatened the ecosystem due to rising greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, diseases, and consumption of toxic metals contained in fish by cause of water pollution. This has led to increased awareness among consumers to adopt seafood alternatives for a sustainable future. It is also not well known whether consumers are ready to switch from traditional seafood towards a safer and sustainable seafood alternative. This encourages the in-depth study of the scope of seafood alternatives in consumers' food choices. This study also highlights the nutritional perspectives and technologies involved in the development of seafood alternatives along with the future outlook for a greener planet.

Effects of fungal based bioactive compounds on human health: Review paper

Since the first years of history, microbial fermentation products such as bread, wine, yogurt and vinegar have always been noteworthy regarding their nutritional and health effects. Similarly, mushrooms have been a valuable food product in point of both nutrition and medicine due to their rich chemical components. Alternatively, filamentous fungi, which can be easier to produce, play an active role in the synthesis of some bioactive compounds, which are also important for health, as well as being rich in protein content. Therefore, this review presents some important bioactive compounds (bioactive peptides, chitin/chitosan, β-glucan, gamma-aminobutyric acid, L-carnitine, ergosterol and fructooligosaccharides) synthesized by fungal strains and their health benefits. In addition, potential probiotic- and prebiotic fungi were researched to determine their effects on gut microbiota. The current uses of fungal based bioactive compounds for cancer treatment were also discussed. The use of fungal strains in the food industry, especially to develop innovative food production, has been seen as promising microorganisms in obtaining healthy and nutritious food.

Filamentous fungi for sustainable vegan food production systems within a circular economy: Present status and future prospects

Filamentous fungi serve as potential candidates in the production of different value-added products. In the context of food, there are several advantages of using filamentous fungi for food. Among the main advantages is that the fungal biomass used food not only meets basic nutritional requirements but that it is also rich in protein, low in fat, and free of cholesterol. This speaks to the potential of filamentous fungi in the production of food that can substitute animal-derived protein sources such as meat. Moreover, life-cycle analyses and techno-economic analyses reveal that fungal proteins perform better than animal-derived proteins in terms of land use efficiency as well as global warming. The present article provides an overview of the potential of filamentous fungi as a source of food and food supplements. The commercialization potential as well as social, legal and safety issues of fungi-based food products are discussed.

Friend or Foe? The Role of Animal-Source Foods in Healthy and Environmentally Sustainable Diets

Scientific and political discussions around the role of animal-source foods (ASFs) in healthy and environmentally sustainable diets are often polarizing. To bring clarity to this important topic, we critically reviewed the evidence on the health and environmental benefits and risks of ASFs, focusing on primary trade-offs and tensions, and summarized the evidence on alternative proteins and protein-rich foods. ASFs are rich in bioavailable nutrients commonly lacking globally and can make important contributions to food and nutrition security. Many populations in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia could benefit from increased consumption of ASFs through improved nutrient intakes and reduced undernutrition. Where consumption is high, processed meat should be limited, and red meat and saturated fat should be moderated to lower noncommunicable disease risk-this could also have cobenefits for environmental sustainability. ASF production generally has a large environmental impact; yet, when produced at the appropriate scale and in accordance with local ecosystems and contexts, ASFs can play an important role in circular and diverse agroecosystems that, in certain circumstances, can help restore biodiversity and degraded land and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from food production. The amount and type of ASF that is healthy and environmentally sustainable will depend on the local context and health priorities and will change over time as populations develop, nutritional concerns evolve, and alternative foods from new technologies become more available and acceptable. Efforts by governments and civil society organizations to increase or decrease ASF consumption should be considered in light of the nutritional and environmental needs and risks in the local context and, importantly, integrally involve the local stakeholders impacted by any changes. Policies, programs, and incentives are needed to ensure best practices in production, curb excess consumption where high, and sustainably increase consumption where low.

Impact of dietary inclusion of Chenopodium quinoa on growth performance and survival of Hubbard chicken

The poultry sector is the most vibrant segment of the agriculture system plays a vital role in the supply of healthy meat products. Broiler production effectiveness is greatly associated with feed formulation. Although, broiler exhibits a relatively fast growth rate, the nutritional profile of its meat has been criticized under conventional human dietary regimes. In the current study, the dietary inclusion of quinoa was assessed to improve broiler growth performance, carcass quality, and health by analyzing different growth, hematological and biochemical, immunological parameters. In the present study, the chicken was fed with 50 g/kg, 100 g/kg, and 200 g/kg quinoa enriched diets in two different experimental groups during the growth phase or finisher phase while chicken fed with diet without quinoa were as control. The 50 g/kg quinoa supplemented chicken group revealed a substantial difference in growth performance in comparison with the control group. In addition, the examination of quinoa dietary supplementation on carcass quality exhibited variable behavior. Further, all the study groups fed with quinoa during the growth phase revealed no remarkable difference in the hematological profile in contrast to the control group except for the chicken group fed (50 g/Kg) during the finisher phase for hemoglobin levels. Likewise, all the quinoa enriched diet given chicken groups showed no significant difference in serum biochemical profile in contrast to the control group except for the 50 g/Kg quinoa fed chicken group during the finisher phase for total globulin levels. In addition, the examination of quinoa dietary supplementation on the broiler serum lipid profile was also assessed and birds exhibited variable behavior as the result of quinoa dietary supplementation. Evaluation of short-term immune response after quinoa supplementation assessed and birds exhibited no marked significance on expression outcomes of interleukin/cytokines (IL 1 beta, IL-6, IL-10) assessed by qRT-PCR analysis. In conclusion, the dietary supplementation of broiler fed with quinoa seeds can enhance the growth performance and the carcass quality of broiler.

Recent Advances in the Allergic Cross-Reactivity between Fungi and Foods

Airborne fungi are one of the most ubiquitous kinds of inhalant allergens which can result in allergic diseases. Fungi tend to grow in warm and humid environments with regional and seasonal variations. Their nomenclature and taxonomy are related to the sensitization of immunoglobulin E (IgE). Allergic cross-reactivity among different fungal species appears to be widely existing. Fungus-related foods, such as edible mushrooms, mycoprotein, and fermented foods by fungi, can often induce to fungus food allergy syndrome (FFAS) by allergic cross-reactivity with airborne fungi. FFAS may involve one or more target organs, including the oral mucosa, the skin, the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, and the cardiovascular system, with various allergic symptoms ranging from oral allergy syndrome (OAS) to severe anaphylaxis. This article reviews the current knowledge on the field of allergic cross-reactivity between fungal allergens and related foods, as well as the diagnosis and treatment on FFAS.

Meat Substitute Development from Fungal Protein (Aspergillus oryzae)

The aim of this research is to develop burger patties from fungal protein. For this purpose, to maximize fungal biomass production, an optimization of the growth medium was initially carried out by testing different carbon sources and its proportion with nitrogen. Subsequently, for the design of the fungal patties, the effect of different flours, binders, and colorants on the properties of texture, water retention capacity, and color were tested, with a traditional animal-based burger patty as a control. Based on the first results, two optimal formulations were chosen and analyzed using an electronic tongue with the same control as reference. The conditions that maximized biomass production were 6 days of incubation and maltodextrin as a carbon source at a concentration of 90 g/L. In terms of product design, the formulation containing quinoa flour, carboxymethylcellulose, and beet extract was the most similar to the control. Finally, through shelf-life analysis, it was determined that the physical characteristics of the fungal meat substitute did not change significantly in an interval of 14 days. However, the product should be observed for a longer period. In addition, by the proximate analysis, it was concluded that fungal patties could have nutritional claims such as rich content in protein and fiber.

Protein Sources Alternative to Meat: State of the Art and Involvement of Fermentation

Meat represents an important protein source, even in developing countries, but its production is scarcely sustainable, and its excessive consumption poses health issues. An increasing number of Western consumers would replace, at least partially, meat with alternative protein sources. This review aims at: (i) depicting nutritional, functional, sensory traits, and critical issues of single-cell proteins (SCP), filamentous fungi, microalgae, vegetables (alone or mixed with milk), and insects and (ii) displaying how fermentation could improve their quality, to facilitate their use as food items/ingredients/supplements. Production of SCP (yeasts, filamentous fungi, microalgae) does not need arable land and potable water and can run continuously, also using wastes and byproducts. Some filamentous fungi are also consumed as edible mushrooms, and others are involved in the fermentation of traditional vegetable-based foods. Cereals, pseudocereals, and legumes may be combined to offer an almost complete amino acid profile. Fermentation of such vegetables, even in combination with milk-based products (e.g., tarhana), could increase nutrient concentrations, including essential amino acids, and improve sensory traits. Different insects could be used, as such or, to increase their acceptability, as ingredient of foods (e.g., pasta). However, insects as a protein source face with safety concerns, cultural constraints, and a lack of international regulatory framework.

A Narrative Review of Alternative Protein Sources: Highlights on Meat, Fish, Egg and Dairy Analogues

The research and development of alternatives to meat (including fish) and dairy products for human consumption have been increasing in recent years. In the context of these alternatives, there is a diversity of products such as tofu, tempeh, seitan, pulses, algae, seeds, nuts and insects. Apart from these, some products require new technical processes such as needed by milk drink alternatives, mycoprotein and meat, cheese and fish analogues. The aim of these analogues is to mimic the physical and organoleptic properties of animal origin products through fibrous composition and mix of ingredients from vegetable sources using adequate technology, which allow providing similar texture and flavor. Using a narrative approach to review literature, the objectives of this paper are to systematize the arguments supporting the adoption of meat, eggs and dairy alternatives, to identify the diversity of alternatives to these products on the market, including the related technological processes, and to project the challenges that the food industry may face soon. From a total of 302 scientific papers identified in databases, 186 papers were considered. More research papers on products associated with alternatives to milk were found. Nevertheless, there are products that need more research as analogues to meat and dairy products. A general scheme that brings together the main reasons, resources and challenges that the food industry faces in this promising area of alternatives to meat and dairy products is presented.

Fungal protein

This chapter reviews the uses of processed fungal cells as protein-rich foods in substitution to meat. Yeasts, mushrooms, and filamentous fungi have long been part of the human diet, improving the nutritional quality and taste of different foods. Recently, because of the populational growth and environmental impact caused by animal farming, the use of animal-derived protein has been raising concerns in public and scientific debates. Fungal biomass represents a nutritious, safe meat alternative that can help society in the reduction of greenhouse gases emissions and improve public health. Additionally, it provides all essential amino acids and has an interesting fatty acid profile. Current research is involved in finding new strains with improved efficiency, the investigation of new substrates (especially agro-industrial wastes) to reduce the environmental impact, and the development of new formulations to use mycoprotein in different dishes.

Fungal-Derived Mycoprotein and Health across the Lifespan: A Narrative Review

Mycoprotein is a filamentous fungal protein that was first identified in the 1960s. A growing number of publications have investigated inter-relationships between mycoprotein intakes and aspects of human health. A narrative review was undertaken focusing on evidence from randomized controlled trials, clinical trials, intervention, and observational studies. Fifteen key publications were identified and undertaken in early/young adulthood, adulthood (mid-life) or older/advanced age. Main findings showed that fungal mycoprotein could contribute to an array of health benefits across the lifespan including improved lipid profiles, glycaemic markers, dietary fibre intakes, satiety effects and muscle/myofibrillar protein synthesis. Continued research is needed which would be worthwhile at both ends of the lifespan spectrum and specific population sub-groups.

Safety evaluation of Fy Protein™ (Nutritional Fungi Protein), a macroingredient for human consumption

Fy Protein™ (Nutritional Fungi Protein) is a macro-ingredient produced from the fermentation of the fungal microorganism Fusarium strain flavolapis, isolated from springs in Yellowstone National Park. Fy Protein contains all of the essential amino acids plus fiber, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals and is developed as an alternative to animal-based protein foods such as meat and dairy. Fy Protein's nutritional, digestibility, genotoxicity, allergenicity, toxicity, secondary metabolites, and pathogenicity were evaluated. Fy Protein did not show mutagenic or genotoxic potential in in vitro tests. In an allergenicity review, Fy Protein was found to be of low allergenic potential. In a 90-day sub chronic dietary study in rats, administration of Fy Protein did not produce any significant toxicologic manifestations, and the no observed effect level (NOAEL) was the highest-level fed of 150,000 ppm (15% in the diet). Regulated secondary metabolites from fungi (termed mycotoxins) were non-detectable and below regulated levels using quantitative analytical techniques. A literature review was completed to identify the potential human pathogenicity of Fusarium sp., showing that Fusarium rarely infects humans, with infections seldom developing even in immunocompromised individuals. The results of these studies confirm that Fy Protein from fermented F. str. flavolapis has low toxicological, genotoxic, pathogenic, and allergenic potential under the conditions tested and anticipated use.

Projected environmental benefits of replacing beef with microbial protein

Ruminant meat provides valuable protein to humans, but livestock production has many negative environmental impacts, especially in terms of deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, water use and eutrophication¹. In addition to a dietary shift towards plant-based diets², imitation products, including plant-based meat, cultured meat and fermentation-derived microbial protein (MP), have been proposed as means to reduce the externalities of livestock production^3-7. Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have estimated substantial environmental benefits of MP, produced in bioreactors using sugar as feedstock, especially compared to ruminant meat^3,7. Here we present an analysis of MP as substitute for ruminant meat in forward-looking global land-use scenarios towards 2050. Our study complements LCA studies by estimating the environmental benefits of MP within a future socio-economic pathway. Our model projections show that substituting 20% of per-capita ruminant meat consumption with MP globally by 2050 (on a protein basis) offsets future increases in global pasture area, cutting annual deforestation and related CO₂ emissions roughly in half, while also lowering methane emissions. However, further upscaling of MP, under the assumption of given consumer acceptance, results in a non-linear saturation effect on reduced deforestation and related CO₂ emissions-an effect that cannot be captured with the method of static LCA.

Meat alternatives: A proofed commodity?

The demand for meat alternatives has been growing in the recent years and it is expected to keep expanding. Motives driving this growth are diverse and are mostly related to the health and ethical concerns over animal welfare and the possible impact of meat production on the environment. Meat alternatives are not anymore a niche market (i.e., vegetarians and vegans) but going mainstream (also consumed by meat eaters and flexitarians). This can be attributed to advances in formulations and ingredients and innovative technologies resulting in improved quality of products. This chapter summarizes the current knowledge about meat alternatives (from plant, fungi or/and algae). Plant-based alternatives are already a proofed commodity with a wide range of products available in the market. The search for more sustainable sources had put the spotlight on other sources such as fungi and algae due to their limited need to land, energy and water for biomass production. Fungi-based alternatives are steps ahead of those algae-based owing to fungi neutral flavor, comparable nutritional profile to meat and no need to masking agents. Consumer acceptance is still a key challenge boosting research and development efforts to ensure a better quality, affordability, and sustainability.

Potential utilization of dairy industries by-products and wastes through microbial processes: A critical review

The dairy industry generates excessive amounts of waste and by-products while it gives a wide range of dairy products. Alternative biotechnological uses of these wastes need to be determined to aerobic and anaerobic treatment systems due to their high chemical oxygen demand (COD) levels and rich nutrient (lactose, protein and fat) contents. This work presents a critical review on the fermentation-engineering aspects based on defining the effective use of dairy effluents in the production of various microbial products such as biofuel, enzyme, organic acid, polymer, biomass production, etc. In addition to microbial processes, techno-economic analyses to the integration of some microbial products into the biorefinery and feasibility of the related processes have been presented. Overall, the inclusion of dairy wastes into the designed microbial processes seems also promising for commercial approaches. Especially the digestion of dairy wastes with cow manure and/or different substrates will provide a positive net present value (NPV) and a payback period (PBP) less than 10 years to the plant in terms of biogas production.

Production of L-carnitine-enriched edible filamentous fungal biomass through submerged cultivation

The edible filamentous fungi are hot candidate for future supply of functional food and feed with e.g. protein, essential amino acids, and compounds with immunostimulant activity. L-carnitine that plays a crucial role in energy metabolism represents a functional compound normally produced by Zygomycetes filamentous fungus Rhizopus oligosporus in solid-state fermentation. The present study provides the first insights on production of L-carnitine-enriched edible fungal biomass through submerged cultivation of several Ascomycetes and Zygomycetes including Aspergillus oryzae, Neurospora intermedia, Rhizopus oryzae, and Rhizopus oligosporus. A. oryzae with 3 mg L-carnitine yield per gram of fungal biomass, indicates great potential on production of this bioactive compound which is remarkably higher than the other tested fungi in this work and also previous studies. In addition to fungal strain, other factors such as cultivation time and presence of yeast extract were found to play a role. Further studies on submerged growth optimization of A. oryzae in both high-quality recipes and in medium based on low-value substrates are proposed in order to clarify its potential for production of L-carnitine-enriched fungal biomass.

Filamentous Fungus Aspergillus oryzae for Food: From Submerged Cultivation to Fungal Burgers and Their Sensory Evaluation-A Pilot Study

New food sources are explored to provide food security in sustainable ways. The submerged fermentation of edible filamentous fungi is a promising strategy to provide nutritious and affordable food that is expected to have a low environmental impact. The aim of the current study was to assess the novel use of Aspergillus oryzae cultivated in submerged fermentation on oat flour as a source for food products that do not undergo secondary fermentation or significant downstream processing. The fungus was cultivated in a pilot-scale airlift bioreactor, and the biomass concentration and protein content of the biomass were assessed. A tasting with an untrained panel assessed consumer preferences regarding the taste and texture of minimally processed vegetarian and vegan burger patties made from the biomass, and how the patties fared against established meat-alternative-based patties. The cultivation of Aspergillus oryzae resulted in a yield of 6 g/L dry biomass with a protein content of 37% on a dry weight basis. The taste and texture of the minimally processed fungal burger patties were to the liking of some participants. This was also reflected in diverse feedback provided by the participants. The cultivation of the fungus on oat flour and its utilization in developing burger patties shows its promising potential for the production of nutritious food. The applications of the fungus can be further developed by exploring other favorable ways to texture and season this relatively new functional food source to the preferences of consumers.

Microbial food: microorganisms repurposed for our food

Sustainable food production is a key to solve complicated and intertwined issues of overpopulation, climate change, environment and sustainability. Microorganisms, which have been routinely consumed as a part of fermented foods and more recently as probiotic dietary supplements, can be repurposed for our food to present a sustainable solution to current food production system. This paper begins with three snapshots of our future life with microbial foods. Next, the importance, possible forms, and raw materials (i.e. microorganisms and their carbon and energy sources) of microbial foods are discussed. In addition, the production strategies, further applications and current limitations of microbial foods are discussed.

Mycopharmaceuticals and Nutraceuticals: Promising Agents to Improve Human Well-Being and Life Quality

Fungi, especially edible mushrooms, are considered as high-quality food with nutritive and functional values. They are of considerable interest and have been used in the synthesis of nutraceutical supplements due to their medicinal properties and economic significance. Specific fungal groups, including predominantly filamentous endophytic fungi from Ascomycete phylum and several Basidiomycetes, produce secondary metabolites (SMs) with bioactive properties that are involved in the antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. These beneficial fungi, while high in protein and important fat contents, are also a great source of several minerals and vitamins, in particular B vitamins that play important roles in carbohydrate and fat metabolism and the maintenance of the nervous system. This review article will summarize and discuss the abilities of fungi to produce antioxidant, anticancer, antiobesity, and antidiabetic molecules while also reviewing the evidence from the last decade on the importance of research in fungi related products with direct and indirect impact on human health.

Fermentation for future food systems: Precision fermentation can complement the scope and applications of traditional fermentation

Modern biotechnology holds great potential for expanding the scope of fermentation to create novel foods and improve the sustainability of food production.

Non-animal proteins as cutting-edge ingredients to reformulate animal-free foodstuffs: Present status and future perspectives

Consumer interest in protein rich diets is increasing, with more attention being paid to the protein source. Despite the occurrence of animal proteins in the human diet, non-animal proteins are gaining popularity around the world due to their health benefits, environmental sustainability, and ethical merit. These sources of protein qualify for vegan, vegetarian, and flexitarian diets. Non-animal proteins are versatile, derived mainly from cereals, vegetables, pulses, algae (seaweed and microalgae), fungi, and bacteria. This review's intent is to analyze the current and future direction of research and innovation in non-animal proteins, and to elucidate the extent (limitations and opportunities) of their applications in food and beverage industries. Prior knowledge provided relevant information on protein features (processing, structure, and techno-functionality) with particular focus on those derived from soy and wheat. In the current food landscape, beyond conventionally used plant sources, other plant proteins are gaining traction as alternative ingredients to formulate animal-free foodstuffs (e.g., meat alternatives, beverages, baked products, snack foods, and others). Microbial proteins derived from fungi and algae are also food ingredients of interest due to their high protein quantity and quality, however there is no commercial food application for bacterial protein yet. In the future, key points to consider are the importance of strain/variety selection, advances in extraction technologies, toxicity assessment, and how this source can be used to create food products for personalized nutrition.

Fungal Protein – What Is It and What Is the Health Evidence? A Systematic Review Focusing on Mycoprotein

Mycoprotein is a protein-rich fungal-derived sustainable food source that was first discovered in the early 1960's. Since then, a sizeable body of research has investigated the health benefits of mycelium protein. Given this, the present publication aims to systematically review the effects of mycoprotein on human health. A literature search of human studies was conducted using PubMed Central, ClinicalTrials.Gov, Google Scholar and a manual search. Sixteen controlled trials, totaling 432 participants were included – of these 5 studies reported total cholesterol, 5 reported on energy intake, 7 on insulin levels, 8 on glucose levels and 4 studied protein response. Risk of bias showed that 7 studies were good quality although heterogeneity was apparent between studies. Results showed that acute mycoprotein ingestion was associated with reduced total cholesterol levels, particularly amongst those with hyperlipidemia. Evidence was less conclusive for effects on blood glucose and insulin levels. Mycoprotein also appears to be a promising bioavailable source of essential amino acids that could induce muscle protein synthesis. Overall, given growing interest in sustainable proteins and accruing health evidence for mycoprotein, firmer embedment with food-based dietary guidelines is now worthy of consideration.